Philippines

Is prone to earthquakes
In the Pacific Ring of Fire
Home to many volcanoes

Mayon Volcano
-

erupted last May 7, 2013

one crater

Pinatubo Volcano
-

Erupted:1992 after 600 years of

inactivity

Taal Volcano
-

47 craters

Lahars
-

Destroyed homes of 100 000 people

Covered 120 000 hectares
Effect: lowered the countries
temperature

PHILVOLCS
-

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and

Seismology

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
1. Active
- eruption within the last 600 years or 10,
000 years ago
2. Inactive
- not erupted for the last 10, 000 years
- Physical form: changed by agents of
weathering and erosion through
formation of deep and long gullies.
3. Shield
- accumulation of lava that oozes out
from the volcano
- non-viscous lava can flow freely
- warriors shield
- Ex. Mauna Loa in Hawaii
4. Cinder cones
ejected lava fragments
- steep slope and wide crater
- most abundant of the three major
volcano types
- Ex. Paricutin in Mexico
5. Composite cones
- Stratovolcanoes
- nearly perfect sloped structure
- formed from alternate solidification of
both lava and pyroclastic deposits
- Ex. Mayon Volcano

Magma- high temperature- continuously

heated- goes up- gas bubbles- developedtrapped and expand- molten material- swellgradual increase in pressure- pressure
exceeds the strength of the overlying rockfracturing- lead to- drop in confining pressuremore gas bubbles to form-eject- lava, broken
rocks, lava bombs, fine ash and dust
Parts of a Volcano
1. Slope
2. Summit
- Opening
Crater- funnel-shaped opening
Caldera- a part of the wall
collapses
3. Base
FACTORS (affecting the eruption style)- affects
viscosity
1. Magmas temperature
- Higher temperature = lower viscosity
- As lava flows, it cools and begins to
harden, its ability to flow decreases and
eventually it stops.
2. chemical composition
- high silica content= more viscous
- less silica= fluid and travels far before
solidifying
3. Gases
- loss of gases= magma more viscous
- can form into a dome or columnar
Viscosity
-

resistance to flow
liquids thickness and stickiness
More viscous and thicker the material is
= greater is its resistance to flow

TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

A.
B.
-

Phreatic or hydrothermal
stream-driven eruption
hot rocks come in contact with water
shortlived
Characterized: ash columns
Ex. Taal Volcano in Batangas.
Phreatomagmatic
violent eruption
due to the contact between water(sea)
and magma.
Result: large column of very fine ash
and high-speed and sideway emission
of pyroclastics called base surges are
observed.

C.
D.
-

Strombolian
Periodic weak to violent eruption
Characterized: fountain lava
Ex. Irazu Volcano in Costa Rica
Vulcanian
Characterized: tall eruption columns (20
km high)
- with pyroclastic flow and ashfall tephra
- Ex. Paricutin Volcano in Mexico
E. Plinian
- excessively explosive
- Ex. Pinatubo Volcano in Zambales.
Energy from the volcano
Since our country is a home to more
than a hundred volcanoes, energy has been
tapped from them. Actually, the Philippines
ranks second in the worlds production of
geothermal energy. According to the
Department of Energy, 14.4% of the countrys
total power generation is produced from
geothermal energy. The production of
electricity from geothermal energy is cheaper
than the electricity production using natural
gas, coal, and hydropower.
What is geothermal energy?
The Earth is believed to be extremely
hot from within. This heat from the Earths
interior is a source of energy called
geothermal energy. The heat of the Earth
warms up water which is trapped in rock
formations beneath its surface.
How is geothermal energy generated?
Geothermal energy is generated in two
ways: geothermal power plants and
geothermal heat pumps.They differ in the
depth of heat source to produce energy.
In geothermal power plants, the heat
from deep inside the Earth is used to produce
steam to generate electricity compared with
geothermal heat pumps that use the heat
coming from close to the Earths surface to
heat water orprovide heat for buildings.
In the Philippines, geothermal power
plants are used to generate electricity in Tiwi
(Albay), Kidapawan (North Cotabato), Calaca
(Laguna), Tongonan (Leyte), Bago City (Negros
Occidental), Valencia (Negros Oriental), and
Bacon (Sorsogon). The figure 14 below shows
the Mak-Ban Geothermal Power Plant in
Laguna.

Power plants are built in an area where

it is particularly hot just below the surface
such as near a group of geysers,hot springs,
or volcanic activity.
The following steps are followed to
generate electricity in a geothermal power
plant:
1. Wells are drilled deep into the Earth
to pump steam or hot water to the surface.
2. When the water reaches the surface,
the drop in pressure causes the water to turn
into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is
connected to a generator that produces
electricity.
4. Cooling tower cools the steam which
it condenses back to water.
5. The cooled water is pumped back
into the Earth to begin the process again.
How do volcanic eruptions affect society?
Volcanic eruption is often associated
with negative effects. It can cause loss of lives
and properties. As the lava flows or pyroclastic
materials are ejected in the air, they can
destroy anything in their way. Actually, it has
a good and a bad side. For example, the
eruption of Pinatubo in 1991, one ofthe
longest volcanic eruptions, has caused the
decrease in the Earths surface temperature
foralmost two years. The strong winds during
its eruption spread the aerosol particles from
the plume around the globe. The result was a
measurable cooling of the Earths surface for
a period of almost two years.
Volcanoes also affect people positively.
For example, the eruption of Pinatubo Volcano
has created spectacular scenery in its wake.
Likewise, the eruption of Musuan Volcano in
Bukidnon has produced very rich soils for
farmingyears after its eruption in 1867. People
became creative also by making earthenware
out of the ashfall from the Pinatubo Volcano
eruption.
Despite the advantages that people get
from volcanic eruption, the major concern now
is how to reduce the negative effects of
disasters to reduce loss and save lives.
Signs of an impending volcanic eruption

According to the Philippine Institute of

Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the
government agency tasked with monitoring
earthquakes and volcanoes in the country, the
following are commonly observed signs that a
volcano is about to erupt. These may vary
from one volcano to another.
1.

Increase in the frequency of volcanic

quakes with rumbling sounds;
occurrence of volcanic tremors
2. Increased steaming activity; change in
color of steam emission from white to
gray due to entrained ash;
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma
at or near the crater;
4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt
and ground fissuring due to magma
intrusion;
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls and
landslides from the summit area which
not attributable to heavy rains;
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of
drying up of vegetation around the
volcano's upper slopes;
7. Increase in the temperature of hot
springs, wells (e.g., Bulusan and
Canlaon) and crater lake (e.g., Taal)
near the volcano;
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical
content of springs, crater lakes within
the vicinity of the volcano;
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the
volcano; and,
10. Development of new thermal areas
and/or reactivation of old ones;
appearance of solfataras.
GLOSSARY
active volcano a volcano that has erupted
within the last 600 years and are
documented by man or those that erupted
10,000 years ago based on analyses of
datable materials.
ash fragments of rocks; fine-grained lava
caldera a volcanic crater that formed
when a part of the wall of the crater
collapses following an explosive eruption
cinder loose fragments of solidified lava
cinder cone characterized by narrow base
and steep slope

crater- a funnel-shaped depression at the

top of a volcano formed as a result of
explosive eruptions
composite cone formed from alternate
solidification of lava and cinders
characterized by large and symmetrical
slope.
geothermal heat coming from inside the
Earth
inactive volcano a volcano that has no
record of eruption
lava magma that has been ejected out of
a volcano
magma molten rock inside the Earth
shield cone - formed by accumulation of
lava resulting in a broad, slightly domed
structure that resembles a warriors shield
silica a compound of silicon (SiO2)
slope degree of slant; inclination
summit peak or highest point
viscosity the resistance to flow
volcano an opening in the Earths surface
where molten rocks, smoke, gases, and
ashes are erupted
Overview
What are the things you usually consider
whenever you plan to have a picnic? Most
probably, you will consider the time, place,
and most of all, the weather. Weather affects
your day-to-day activities. In your previous
year level, you had encountered different
factors that affect weather. These factors help
to determine the weather for today each day.
Some of you may mistake climate with
weather. But in fact, they are not the same.
Climate is the general pattern of weather
in a certain area over a long period of time.
On the other hand, weather is the condition of
the atmosphere at a specific place and time.
In this module, you will learn to distinguish
climate from weather. You will find out the
factors that affect climate. You will understand
why the climate of one country differs from
that of others. This module will also help you

understand the causes of global warming and

other phenomena such as El Nio and La Nia.
You have noticed that most of the suns
rays strike vertically in places near the
equator. This makes the temperature higher in
these areas, resulting in warm climate. Places
that are not always vertically hit by the suns
rays experience cold climate. As the latitude
increases, the smaller the angle of the suns
rays strike the surface. Therefore, when the
area is farther from the equator, the air
temperature is lower. When the place is closer
to the equator, the air temperature is higher.
The altitude of a place will affect the air
temperature. Look at Figure 2. Mt. Kilimanjaro
is located in Africa and found near the
equator. It stands 5895m above sea level. The
peak of this mountain is covered by ice. How
is this possible? Thats because the air
temperature decreases as the altitude
increases.
Refer to Figure 2.2. Why is it that during
summer many people visit Baguio City?
Obviously, the reason is the cold climate
there. It has an annual average temperature
of 16oC. It has an elevation of 1435m above
sea level.
See Figure 2.3. Why do mountain climbers
wear jackets and thick clothes when they go
up the mountain? The air temperature
decreases as the altitude increases. For every
1000 m, there is a drop of 6.50C. At higher
elevations, there is less air. The air molecules
are farther apart, thus making the air less
dense. Lighter air cannot absorb much heat,
making air temperature lower. Ultimately, the
decrease in air temperature is due to the
decrease in air pressure.
The climate of the place is influenced by
the surrounding bodies of water. Soil absorbs
heat faster than water. At the same time, soil
releases heat faster compared to water. These
slow absorption and release of heat by the
body of water greatly affect the climate.
Places that are near the oceans have
moderate climate as the body of water
regulates the temperature. Even as both soil
and water absorb the same amount of heat,
the temperature of water rises more slowly
than that of soil. Because soil heats up faster
than water, air temperature above the sea is
lower than above ground during day time.
Warm air thus moves out from land to sea,

slowing down the rise of air temperature

above land. Thus, places without a body of
water nearby tend to have higher air
temperature during day time.
At night, soil cools down faster than water,
so the air temperature above ground is lower
than that above the sea. Warm air then flows
from sea to land, so the drop in air
temperature above ground is moderated.
Places that are far from the bodies of water
have extreme climates, as there are no
immediate bodies of water that will help to
circulate the movement of cold and warm air.
The reason why temperature of water rises or
falls more slowly than soil is that water has
higher heat capacity. Because of this, water
also absorbs more heat in warm days and
slowly releases it in cold days. That is why
during summer, areas that are near a body of
water will have moderate temperature
because water absorbs more heat. Similarly
during winter, surrounding water slowly
releases heat causing the cooling effect to
become lesser than normal in the nearby
landmass.
Figure 3.2 shows the tip of British Isles and
the part of Russia near Moscow. Being in the
temperate region, both places have four
seasons. Even though both places are on the
same latitude, the northern tip of the British
Isles has a more moderate climate due to the
neighboring bodies of water (refer to the
picture above). The British Isles experiences
average maximum temperature of 17 oC and
an average minimum temperature of 0oC.
Moscow on the other hand, has an average
maximum temperature of 21 oC and very cold
winter with an average of -8 oC.
Mountain is an example of topographical
features of the land. As you noticed, the
picture shows the two sides of the mountain.
One side is facing the wind and has low
temperature. Clouds are forming here due to
the condensation of water vapor. This
formation of clouds develops to become rain.
On the other side of the mountain, there is no
cloud formation. The temperature is high and
precipitation does not happen. This results in
the formation of a dry and warm region.
Topography is another factor that affects
the climate of a certain place. One of the
topographic features of an area is mountain.
Mountainous areas greatly affect the amount
of precipitation in a certain region. The area in

which the wind blows is called the windward

side. Here, the wind is blocked by the
mountain, forcing it to move upward. As it
moves up, the water vapor condenses and
forms clouds. This will result in precipitation
on the windward side. The air moves down
towards the opposite region called leeward
side. The cold air mass starts to absorb heat
and becomes warm and dry. As a result, the
area near the leeward side becomes dry and
has less precipitation. The dry region on the
leeward side is called rain shadow. Vegetation
in this region includes desert plants and
grassland.
You have now identified some factors that
affect climate. The next activity will help you
deepen your understanding about climate.
In this activity you learned about the
effects of latitude, altitude, and distance from
the ocean on the climate of a specific area. It
is clear that the amount of heat received by
the places near the equator is greater
compared to those that are far from the
equator. Hence, countries that are found near
the equator have tropical climate. In contrast,
countries that are somewhat farther from the
equator have temperate climate. Regions with
high altitude have colder temperatures than
those in low-lying areas. Areas near bodies of
water may have more moderate climate.
Places that are far from bodies of water
usually experience extremely cold or
extremely warm climate.
Figure 6.1 shows different loops or gyres of
surface currents around the world. In the
northern hemisphere, the current flows in a
clockwise direction. On the other hand, in the
southern hemisphere, the current flows in
counterclockwise direction. These clockwise
and counterclockwise of ocean currents are
caused by the Coriolis Effect. Ocean currents
that flow away from the equator carries warm
water. The air above the warm water has
higher temperature. When ocean currents that
bring cold water move towards a coastal
region, the temperature of that area
decreases as warmer air from the land flows
to the sea resulting in a cold climate. When
warm ocean currents that take along warm
water go to a land mass, the temperature of
that place increases as warmer air above the
water flows inland, resulting in a warm
climate.

In this activity, you learned that ocean

currents have also an important role in
changing the climate of a certain area. They
affect the temperature of the nearby land
mass. Warm currents that move from the
equator towards the poles carry warm water.
On the other hand, cold currents that travel
from the poles towards the equator carry cold
water. When ocean current carries cold water,
the air above it becomes colder.
When this ocean current moves toward the
coastal region, the temperature of that area
becomes lower. For example, (see Figure 6.1)
the southwestern parts of Singapore and
Indonesia have lower temperature because of
the cold air brought by West Australian
Current. On the other hand, the ocean current
that carries warm water makes the air
warmer. When this current goes toward a land
mass, the temperature of that place becomes
higher. For example, (see Figure 6.1) the warm
Kuroshio Current that comes from the
northeastern part of the Philippines brings
warm water. This raises the temperature of
places in the southeastern part of Japan.
Therefore, ocean currents that bring along
cold water inland make the climate cold. On
the other hand, ocean currents that take along
warm water to coastal areas make the climate
warm.Climate Change
Is climate change real? Is climate change
man-made or is it just a natural occurrence?
These are just few questions that can be
asked once we talk about climate change.
Climate change is one of the most current
worldwide issues. Some experts say that it is
true that the Earth does go through a period
of cooling and a period of warming. The
increase of temperature that we are
experiencing right now is caused by factors
other than human activity. Another point of
view is that the increase of Earths
temperature is brought about by human
intervention.
Whether the cause is man-made or not,
climate change is a change in the
environment. Global warming can bring about
a rising of the sea level due to the melting of
ice caps and glaciers. We may experience
severe weather disturbances such as much
stronger typhoons and heavier rainfalls. Some
parts of the world may experience the socalled El Nio or La Nia phenomena. And
most of all, it can cause extinction of some
fauna and flora.

The thermometer reading inside the tank

went up faster than the thermometer reading
outside the tank. This was due to the
temperature that was rising in the container.
The rising of the temperature resulted from
keeping the heat from flowing. Thermal
radiation coming from the sun was absorbed
by the air inside the tank. The wall of the tank
kept the warm air from flowing out, causing its
temperature to rise as it continued to absorb
heat from sunlight. Outside the tank, air
warmed by sunlight can interact with the
surrounding cooler air. This allowed heat to
flow from warm air to cooler air through
convection, and kept the temperature from
rising as fast as that of the air inside the tank.
Solar radiation warms the Earth as its
energy is absorbed by the atmosphere. In the
atmosphere, there are greenhouse gases
present. These include water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
Greenhouse gases prevent heat from escaping
the earth thus making earths temperature
higher.
Figure 8.2 shows that greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide, methane (CH4),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrous oxide
(N2O) trap heat preventing it from escaping
the Earth. All gases absorb heat, although
some just absorb more than others. Thus,
assuming solar radiation is constant, the
average atmospheric temperature depends on
the mix of gases. More Figure 8.2 The
greenhouse effect greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere mean that the equilibrium
temperature will be higher as these gases
absorb more heat. This will result in the
increase of global temperature. Less
greenhouse gases will mean lower
temperature. Mankind evolved under
conditions of a specific mix of gases (of
course, with a certain degree of variation) in
the atmosphere and thrived under these
conditions. If the mix of gases in the
atmosphere were altered considerably, the
Earths temperature would change
significantly, and we will be faced with new
conditions that we are not used to, which we
will have to somehow adapt to, or face
extinction. Areas that are found in temperate
regions may have shorter winters. Countries
that are found in tropical regions may have
longer and drier summers. Glaciers that cover
land will melt which will result in the rise of
sea levels.

When the Industrial Revolution began,

more emissions of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases threatened all living things.
Developed countries and developing countries
became more dependent on fossil fuels.
Burning of fossil fuels is one of the main
sources of carbon dioxide emission. What
would be the outcome if there is too much
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere? There
would be an increase of global temperature.
So, when will you take action to help stop
global warming? Remember that your time is
ticking. Act now before its too late.
Impacts of Climate Change
You were reading the first page of your
favorite magazine when your eyes were
caught by the passage: Climate Change Is
Here! And it says, climate change is really
happening. Its effects are felt by animals,
plants, and people. You got very interested in
the topic because it is a worldwide issue. As
you continued reading, you found out that
there were some species of birds that laid
eggs earlier than usual. There were some
species of plants that bloomed earlier than
expected. There were some animals that
supposedly should still be hibernating, but
were already awake. There was an earlier
migration of birds and some were arriving to
their nesting ground and others appeared to
be later. Sometimes, some animals and birds
tended to stay in their local territory because
the climate is already suitable for them.
You were surprised with the things you
discovered about climate change. As you kept
on reading, you were disturbed that even the
sea level was rising. The melting of glaciers
that covered the land caused the sea level to
rise. If sea level increased by 50 cm, sea
turtles may lose their nesting areas. People
and animals that live near shorelines may be
forced to move out. Animals moving out of
their natural habitat face challenges that
could lead to the extinction of their species.
At the back of your mind, you were
thinking that, hopefully, the effects of climate
change will not be felt by people here in the
Philippines. But to your dismay, we felt them
already.
Heavy rainfalls were brought by
typhoon Ondoy and Hanging Habagat which
resulted in submerging most parts of Metro
Manila and some provinces. Typhoon Yolanda

brought the strongest wind ever encountered

by people in the Visayas, leaving great
destruction and much loss of lives. Hanging
Amihan brought very cold wind affecting the
climate of the country and destroying some
crops of farmers in the northern part of Luzon.
El Nio and La Nia
El Nio is an abnormal and lengthy
warming in the eastern part of the Pacific
Ocean. This natural phenomenon occurs at
irregular intervals of two to seven years and
lasts for nine months or two years at most.
Usually, it starts at the end of the year or
during the Christmas season that is why it is
termed as El Nio which refers to the Christ
child.
Refer to Fig. 10.1 Normally, as trade winds
move from east to west, they collects warm
air. But when trade winds are weakened, they
causes the piling up of warm surface water
and making the part of the Pacific Ocean
warmer leading to the El Nio phenomenon.
This happens when the upwelling of colder
water is blocked by the large quantities of
warm surface water. (The cause of the
weakening of the trade winds is still Figure
10.1 El Nio (please redraw) unknown and it is
still being investigated)
Since the Pacific Ocean is to the east of
the Philippines, El Nio phenomenon will
affect the country. When there is an increase
of the temperature in the eastern part of the
Pacific Ocean, it is expected that some areas
in the Philippines will experience this climatic
phenomenon. Some areas in the country will
experience near to above average rainfall and
some areas may experience drier than normal
rainfall.
El Nio will most likely bring severe
drought. It is believed that it causes stronger
thunderstorm disturbance and massive
storms. It also causes the decrease in the
population of some species.
See Figure 10.2. La Nia is the opposite
climatic disturbance to El Nio. This natural
phenomenon may, but does not always, follow
El Nio events. It may last for nine to twelve
months but in some cases, it lasts for two
years. This event is triggered by the cooling of
the eastern part Figure 10.2 La Nia (please
redraw) of the Pacific Ocean that is why it is
sometimes called cold Pacific.

Trade winds that move from east to

west are strengthened. Upwelling of colder
water intensifies. Moving air brings along too
much water vapor. When it reaches the land
mass such as the Philippines, precipitation is
experienced. There would be an increase of
rainfall in some areas in the Philippines. For
instance, areas that experienced severe
drought caused by El Nio may encounter
above normal rainfall. But in some cases,
areas that experience dry season will have
drier than normal conditions. La Nias effects
are the opposite of El Nio.
Summary
Climate is the overall atmospheric
condition of a place for a period of 30 years or
more.
Climate is influenced by latitude,
altitude, distance from bodies of water, ocean
currents,
and topography.
The closer the place is to the
equator, the warmer the climate; the farther
the place is from
the equator the colder the climate.
Air temperature decreases when
altitude increases.
Bodies of water help regulate the
climate of a certain area.
Mountain ranges affect the formation
of precipitation.
Ocean currents will either cool or
warm the air above them.
Cold currents bring cold water while
warm currents take along warm water.
Coriolis Effect deflects the ocean
currents.
Climate change brings drastic effects
to some people and animals.
Human activities may speed up the
rising of the global temperature.
El Nio happens when the
temperature in eastern Pacific rises above
normal.

 La Nia occurs when the

temperature in eastern Pacific decreases
below normal
Glossary
altitude - the height above sea level.
climate - the overall condition of an
area over a long period of time.
climate change - a long term shifting of
global weather pattern
El Nio - brought about by the current
of the ocean bringing warm air to a landmass
in the
Pacific region.
fauna all the living animals in a given
area.
flora - all the plants in a given area.
greenhouse effect - the increase of
global temperature due to some atmospheric
gases.
gyre - the circular patterns formed by
surface currents.
latitude - an imaginary line that is
parallel to the equator.
leeward - the side of the mountain that
receives less amount of precipitation.
longitude - an imaginary line that
extends from north pole to south pole.
mitigation a manner of modifying
something to become useful.
precipitation - forms when water vapor
condenses and falls to the ground as rain,
snow, hail or
sleet.
topography - the surface features of an
area.
temperature - refers to the hotness or
coldness of an object.
windward - the side of the mountain
that receives most of
CONSTELLATION

When we look at the night sky, we see

thousands of stars. In reality, there are
approximately 400 billion stars in our galaxy,
and there are about 170 billion galaxies. A
person can see only about 3,000 stars on the
average.
These stars differ in many ways. We
see stars of different sizes, brightness, and
color. Sirius Rigel
Using Figure 1, which star is biggerSirius or Rigel? Can you really tell the size of
the star by just looking at it?
Figure 2 shows the size of the Sun, the
closest star to Earth, as compared to some
other stars that we see at night. As we can
see, the Sun is so small compared to other
nearby stars. Also, Sirius, which appear bigger
than Rigel, is actually very small compared to
Rigel. It appears larger only because it is
closer to us.
Star color ranges from red to blue. The
color of the star indicates its surface
temperature. The table below shows the
surface temperature and color of different
nearby stars, including the sun.
The brightness of a star as seen from
the Earth depends on two factors-distance
and the actual brightness (or absolute
brightness) of the star. The stars brightness
as seen from Earth is its apparent brightness.
Based on the activity, apparent brightness
depends on how far away a star is from the
Earth.
Lets take Sirius and Rigel (refer to
Figure 1) to illustrate the effect of distance to
apparent brightness. Compared to the Sun,
Sirius is about 27 times as powerful as the
Sun, but Rigel has the power of many
thousands of Suns. In terms of distance from
the Earth, Rigel is almost 100 times farther
away than Sirius. In terms of apparent
brightness, Sirius is about twice as bright as
Rigel. Sirius looks very bright when viewed
from Earth because it is closer to Earth.
Astronomers consider the stars
absolute brightness when comparing stars. A
stars absolute brightness is the brightness
the star would have if all stars were the same
standard distance from Earth.
Observers in ancient times also
imagined group of stars that form pictures of

animals, objects and people. These imaginary

groups of stars are called constellations.
Many of these constellations have
names that can be traced back to early
Babylonians and Greek civilizations, but nearly
all cultures have different names for the
constellations. For example, the Greeks called
the large constellation Orion, which means
hunter and is prominent in the night sky all
over the world during winter. Early Filipinos
visualized the same group of stars as Balatik,
a trap used in hunting wild pigs. Christian
Filipinos named the three stars (Orions belt)
Tatlong Maria or Tres Marias.
By observing Suns movement and
position in the sky, we can tell what time of
the day it is. When it seems to rise in the east,
it is morning. When it is above us, it is noon.
When it seems to move towards the west, it is
afternoon. At night, stars are used to tell the
time. Just like the Sun, stars also seem to
move from East to West.
The Polaris
Polaris, commonly known as North Star, is the
brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor
(Little Dipper). It is very close to the north
celestial pole, making it the current northern
pole star. Because it lies nearly in a direct line
with the axis of the Earth's rotation "above"
the North Pole, Polaris stands almost
motionless in the sky, and all the stars of the
Northern sky appear to rotate around it. In
Figure 3, Polaris and the star trail are seen.
Star trail is a type of photograph that utilizes
longexposure times to capture the apparent
motion of stars in the night sky due to the
rotation of the Earth
In Metro Manila, when you face North,
Polaris, which is 11.3o from the horizon, is
seen at around 15 due to atmospheric
refraction. In some parts of the country (i.e.
Southern Philippines), it would be very difficult
to locate Polaris since starlights near the
horizon are washed out by lights lit by men,
and /or obstructed by man-made or
topographical structures and/or trees.
Figure 4. Polaris as viewed from the
Philippines (Quezon City). To locate the Polaris,
face North and locate the Big Dipper. Two
stars (Merak and Dubhe) in the Big Dipper are
called pointer stars because they seem to
point to Polaris.

While the rotation of the Earth on its

axis causes the apparent nightly movement of
the stars across the sky, the revolution is
responsible for the fact that we can see
different parts of the sky at different parts of
the year.
An observer from Earth will be able to
see the stars that are on the night side. The
stars on the same side as the sun cannot be
seen because sunlight overpowers all the
starlights.
During summer in the Philippines, the
constellations of Orion and Taurus are not
visible at night. They will be visible again as
the cold season begins. During this time,
Scorpius will not be seen in the night sky.
As the Earth revolves around its orbit,
the stars that were concealed by the bright
light of the Sun in the previous months will
appear in the night sky.
How Early People Used the Constellations
While constellations were associated
with religion, they also have practical uses.
Before the calendars, people had no way of
determining when to sow or harvest except by
looking at these patterns in the sky. Ancient
people developed a way to remember the
patterns by giving these patterns names and
stories. For example, in the northern
hemisphere, the constellation Orion indicates
the coming of cold season.The constellations
made it easier for them to recognize and
interpret patterns in the sky. For example,
Gemini is seen in the Philippines during the
months of April and May. Farmers interpreted
the appearance of Gemini as the end of
planting season and it signified rich harvest.
The table below shows how the Matigsalug
Manobo of Bukidnon used the stars and
constellations in relation to their agriculture.
Another use of constellations was in
navigation. The Polaris is widely used in
navigation because it does not change its
position at any time of the night or year. Also,
one can figure out his/her latitude just by
looking at how high Polaris appears in the
night sky. This allowed sailors to find their way
as they sail across the seas.