Unit II Construction Practices

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UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL
UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Specifications, details and sequence of activities and construction co-ordination – Site Clearance –
Marking – Earthwork - masonry – stone masonry – Bond in masonry - concrete hollow block masonry
– flooring – damp proof courses – construction joints – movement and expansion joints – pre cast
pavements – Building foundations – basements – temporary shed – centering and shuttering – slip
forms – scaffoldings – de-shuttering forms – Fabrication and erection of steel trusses – frames –
braced domes – laying brick –– weather and water proof – roof finishes – acoustic and fire protection.
Sequence of activities and construction

Preparing the priority of execution of individual works of a project may be treated as the sequence of
activities. The construction engineer should plan properly before starting the execution or construction.
The list of activities form staring to the end of the project, called the sequence of activities, may leads
to monitor the project execution.
The following lists are example of sequence of activities of ordinary residential building
Site clearance
Marking based on the selected plan
Foundation execution up to the regarding depth
Laying foundation concrete
Construction of foundation based on the specification
Filling the sides of foundation wall using soil
Basement construction
Earth filling upto basement and consideration
Providing DPC layer
Placing the flooring concrete
Construction of superstructure using brick
Providing lintel/lintel cum sunshades lofts etc.
Construction of brick work over lintel beams up to the roof level
Providing the entering for concrete
Laying reinforcement as per design
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Placing the concrete and applying water for cussing after one day
Preparing doors , windows and ventilations
Plastering work the ceiling
Providing the electrical fitting like PVC pipes, switch boxes etc.
Plastering over the wall both inner and outer after fixing the doors and windows
Providing water supply and sanitary arrangements
Laying floor and wall tiles
White washing and colour working
Earth Work
In connection with excavation, transport of soil and backfilling the properties of soil must be
considered. Excavation being generally paid for as measured net in the solid, it is necessary to
know by what proportion it bulks, when dug out one meter measured in the ground may occupy
up to 1.5 cu.m. When excavated and thrown out or thrown into containers.
Earth and clays may bulk up to 50 percent sands and gravels bulk less say up to 20 percent.
A given quantity of excavated material will occupy less volume when refilled than when loose
the amount of ramming, the type of soil and time affecting the amount of settlement.
Filling should be as uniform as possible, especially when it is required to present a constant
bearing resistance to foundation loads. For this reason the soil should be spread in this layers
say 6 to 12 inches deep, each of which should be rammed or rolled before the next is laid.
Hand ramming is suitable for these thicknesses but a mechanical rammer is required to
consolidate effectively layers upto 2 ft. thick.
Methods of Excavating
The method of excavating primarily depends upon the extent of the work, the nature of soil , the depth
of excavation and whether timbering and pumping are required.
Manual Excavation
Mechanical Excavation
Removal of water
To maintain an excavation dry it is usual to one or more sumps below the general level of bottom.
The water collecting in these sumps is pumped out.
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Stone Masonry
Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.
Types of Stone Masonry:
Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable mortar is
called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness.
Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types:
 Random rubble masonry
 Squared rubble masonry
 Dry rubble masonry
1. Random rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed
stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further random rubble masonry is also divided into
the following three types:
a. Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid without
forming courses is known as un coursed random rubble masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest
type of masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry are of different sizes
and shapes. before lying, all projecting corners of stones are slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are
not plumbed, joints are filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to increase
their strength. Once "through stone" is used for every square meter of the face area for joining faces
and backing.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings.
b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid in layers
of equal height is called random rubble masonry. In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level
courses. Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The stones are hammer dressed.
Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs, boundary walls etc.
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Squared rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all joints and
beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called squared rubble
masonry.
2. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is
called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary masonry and is
recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case the height is more, three
adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
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This type of masonry is used in the construction of retaining walls pitching earthen dams and canal
slopes in the form of random rubble masonry without any mortar.
Ashlar Masonry
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as ashlar
masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and have
uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers and
abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
 Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry
 Random coarse ashlars masonry
 Rough tooled ashlar masonry
 Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry
 Chamfered ashlars masonry
 Block in coarse masonry
 Ashlar facing
Flint rubble masonry

This type of masonry is used in the areas where the flint is available in plenty.
The flint stones varying in thickness from 8 to 15cm and in length from 15 to 30cm are arranged in
the facing in the form of coursed or uncoursed masonry as shown below.
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Brick Masonry
The art of laying bricks in mortar in a proper systematic manner gives homogeneous mass
which can withstand forces without disintegration, called brick masonry.
A standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm (9''×4½" ×3“)
called nominal size and working dimensions (actual dimensions) of 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm (8.5“ * 4
*2.5) called architectural size.
Traditional bricks
 It has not been standardize in size
 Dimensions varies from place to place
 Thickness varies from varies from cm to 7.5cm,widthvaries from 10to13 cm and
length varies from 20to25 cm
Modular brick
 Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by BIS
 The nominal size of the modular brick is 20cm x10cmx10cm
 Actual size is 19x9x9 cm.
Frog
 The depression provided in the face of a brick during its manufacturing.
 Depth of frog in a brick 10 to 20mm. Frog should be upward
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Bats
 The portions mad by cutting standard bricks across their width are known as brick bats.
 These are named according their fraction of full length of a standard brick.
Closer
The portions made by cutting across their length in such a manner that their one stretcher face remains
uncut or half cut.
Quoins
The external corners of walls are called quoins. The brick which form the external corner is known as
quoin brick.
Classification of bonds
The bonds can be classified as follows
i. Stretcher Bond
ii. Header Bond
iii. English Bond
iv. Flemish Bond
v. Garden wall bond
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vi. Facing Bond

vii. Dutch Bond
viii. Raking Bond
ix. Zig zag Bond
x. English cross Bond
Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall. This pattern is used only for those wall
which have thickness of half brick. For higher thickness walls, this arrangement is not at all
practicable.
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall.
This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick. This is also suitable for
the construction of curved wall and footings for better load distributions.
English bond
 It is the most commonly used method this bond is considered to be the strongest.
 This bond consists of alternate course of stretchers and headers. It is necessary to place queen
closers after the first header in the heading course for breaking the joints vertically.
 Alternative courses will show either headers or stretchers in elevation
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 Every alternative header comes centrally over the joint between two stretchers in course in
below
 Since the number of vertical joint in the header course twice the number of vertical joints in
stretcher course, the joints in the header course are made thinner than the joints in the stretcher
course.
Flemish bond
In this type of course is comprised of alternative headers and stretchers are laid to each course. This
bond is better in appearance than the English Bond.
Facing bond
This bond is used where the bricks of different thickness are to be used in the facing and backing of the
wall
The nominal thickness of facing brick is 10 cm and that of backing bricks is 9 cm the header course tis
provided at a vertical interval of 90 cm
Dutch Bond
This type of bond is a modified form of English Bond. The corners of the wall provided with Dutch
bond are quite strong.
The alternate courses in this type of bond are headers and stretchers.
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Raking Bond.
Inthis type of bond alternate couses are placed in different directions to get maximum strength in the
wall.
The raking courses are laid at certain intervals along the height of the wall in very thick walls having
number of headers more than the numbers of stretchers in between facing and backing.
The raking bond can be classified as two types.
Herring bone bond.
Diagonal bond.
Herring Bone bond.

In this bond, the bricks are places at an angle of 450 from the central line in both the directions. This
type of bond is used in case of walls having thickness more than four bricks or for paving, etc.
Diagonal Bond
In this type of bond bricks are laid at every fifth or seventh course along the height of the wall.
Internal placing of the bricks is made in one direction only at certain angle , after the face bricks are
laid.
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Zigzag Bond
This type of bond is very much similar to herring bone bond. The only difference in this type of bond
is that the bricks are laid in zigzag way. This method is generally useful for paving the brick floor.
Comparison between Brick Masonry and Stone masonry

 Stone masonry is cheaper at places where stone are abundantly available.
 Stone masonry construction can be developed aesthetically more sound than brickwork.
 Stone masonry is stronger than the brick masonry.
 For public buildings and monumental structures, the stone masonry provides a solid appearance
and is found to be more useful than brick masonry.
 Stone masonry is more watertight than brick masonry. It is because of fact that bricks absorb
moisture from the atmosphere and dampness can enter the building.
The brick masonry is superior to stone masonry under the following circumstances.
 At places where there is a plenty of clay but stones are not easily available, brick
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masonry becomes cheaper than stone masonry.

 Brick masonry construction requires less skilled labor and hence cheaper than stone
masonry.
 Bricks can be lifted easily and do not require lifting devices.
 Bricks offer better resistance to fire than the stones.
 The action of atmospheric agents on bricks is lesser than the stones.
 The construction of connections and openings in brick masonry is easier than in stone
masonry.
Hollow Concrete Masonry
It is used in residential buildings, schools, churches and other public buildings. It is especially suited
for low cost houses construction. These blocks can be built into various shapes and sizes depending
upon their use. The face thickness of these blocks as recommended by the concrete Association of
India should be less than 5 cm and neat area should be at least 55 to 60 % of the gross area. The
common sizes generally adopted for building blocks are
39 cm X 19 cm X 30 cm
39 cm X 19 cm X 20 cm
39 cm X 19 cm X 10 cm
Advantages
 Highly Durable: The good concrete compacted by high pressure and vibration gives substantial
strength to the block.
 Proper curing increase compressive strength of the blocks.
 Low Maintenance, Color and brilliance of masonry withstands outdoor elements.
 Load Bearing, strength can be specified as per the requirement.
 Fire Resistant
 Provide thermal and sound insulation: The air in hollow of the block, does not allow outside
heat or cold in the house. So it keeps house cool in summer and warm in winter.
 Economical
 Environment Friendly, fly ash used as one of the raw materials.
 Low insurance rates.
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Structural Advantages
 In this construction system, structurally, each wall and slab behaves as a shear wall and a
diaphragm respectively, reducing the vulnerability of disastrous damage to the
structure/building, during the natural hazards.
 Due to the uniform distribution of reinforcement in both vertical and horizontal directions,
through each masonry element, increased tensile resistance and ductile behavior of elements
could be achieved. Hence, this construction system can safely resist lateral or cyclic loading,
when compared to other conventional masonry construction systems. This construction system
has also been proved to offer better resistance under dynamic loading, when compared to other
conventional systems of construction.
Constructional Advantages
 No additional formwork or any special construction machinery is required for reinforcing
the hollow block masonry.
 Only semi-skilled labour is required for this type of construction.
 It is a faster and easier construction system, when compared to the other conventional
construction systems.
FLOORS
The purpose of floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of the building,
furniture, equipment and some time interior wall
The floor must satisfy the following requirements
 Adequate strength and stability
 Adequate fire resistance
 Sound proof
 Damp resistance
 Thermal insulations
Components of a floor
Sub floor, base course or floor base
Selection of flooring materials
Factor that affect the choice of flooring
 Initial cost
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 Appearance
 Cleanliness
 Durability
 Damp resistance
 Sound insulation
 Thermal insulation
 Smoothness
 Hardness
 Maintenance
Types of flooring
1. Mud or Muram flooring
2. Brick Flooring
3. Flag stone flooring cement concrete flooring
4. Terrazzo flooring
5. Mosaic flooring
6. Tiled flooring
7. Marble flooring timber flooring
8. Asphalt flooring
9. Rubber flooring
10. Linoleum flooring
11. Cork flooring
Muram or Mud Floors
The ground floor having its topping consisting of muram or mud is called Muram or Mud Floors
These floors are easily and cheaply repairable.
Method of construction
 The surface of earth filling is properly consolidated
 20cm thick layer of rubble or broken bats is laid, hand packed, wet and rammed
 15cm thick layer of muram or good earth is laid
 2.5cm thick layer of powdery variety of muram earth is uniformly spread
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 The whole surface is well watered and rammed until the cream of muram earth rises to the
earth surface
 After 12 hours the surface is again rammed for three days.
 The surface is smeared with a thick paste of cow-dung and rammed for two days
 Thin coat of mixture of 4 parts of cow-dung and 1 part of Portland cement is evenly applied
 The surface is wiped clean by hand.
 For maintaining this type of floor properly, gobri leaping is done once a week
 Suitability:
These floors are generally used for unimportant building in rural areas
Cement Concrete Floor:
The floor having its topping consisting of cement concrete is called Cement Concrete Floor or
Conglomerate Floor
Types of Cement Concrete Floor:
According to the method of finishing the topping, Cement Concrete Floor can be classified into the
following two types
1- Non-monolithic or bonded floor finish concrete floor 2- Monolithic floor

finish concrete floor
1- Non-monolithic or bonded floor finish concrete floor:
The type of Cement Concrete Floor in which the topping is not laid monolithically with the
base concrete is known as Non-monolithic or bonded floor finish concrete floor
.
Method of Construction:
 The earth is consolidated.

 10cm thick layer of clean sand is spread.
 10cm thick Lime Concrete (1:4:8) or Lean Cement Concrete (1:8:16) is laid thus forming
base concrete
 The topping {4cm thick Cement Concrete (1:2:4)} is laid on the third day of laying base
cement concrete, thus forming Non-monolithic construction.
This type of construction is mostly adopted in the field
The topping is laid by two methods:
I- Topping laid in single layer:

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The topping consists of single layer of Cement Concrete (1:2:4), having its thickness 4cm
II- Topping laid two layers:
The topping consists of 1.5cm thick Cement Concrete (1:2:3), which is laid monolithically
over 2.5cm thick Cement Concrete (1:3:6)
2- Monolithic Floor Finish Concrete Floor:
The Cement Concrete Floor in which the topping consisting of 2cm thick Cement Concrete (1:2:4)
is laid monolithically with the Base Concrete is know as Monolithic Floor Finish Concrete Floor
 The surface of muram or earth filling is leveled, well watered and rammed
 10cm layer of clean and dry sand is spread over

 When the sub soil conditions are not favorable and monolithic construction is desired, then,
5cm to 10cm thick hard core of dry brick or rubble filling is laid.
 10cm thick layer of Base Concrete consisting of Cement Concrete (1:4:8) or Lean Cement
Concrete (1:8:16) is laid.
 The topping {2cm thick layer of Cement Concrete(1:2:4)} is laid after 45 minutes to 4
hours of laying Base Concrete
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Brick Floors:
The floors having its topping consisting of bricks are known as brick floor
Features:
These floors can easily be constructed and repaired.
 But this type of floor provides a rough surface.
 These can easily absorb moisture from the surrounding areas and may cause dampness
in the building.
 The muram or earth filling is properly consolidated.
 10cm thick layer of dry clean sand is evenly laid
 10cm thick layer of Lime Concrete (1:4:8) or Lean Cement Concrete (1:8:16) is laid,
compacted and cured to form a base concrete.
 Well soaked bricks are laid in Cement Mortar (1:4) in any desired bond pattern e.g.
Herring Bond, Diagonal Bond or any other suitable bond
 In case the pointing is not to be done, the thickness of joints should not exceed 2mm
and the mortar in joints is struck off flush with a trowel
 In case the pointing is to be done, the minimum thickness of joints is kept 6mm and the
pointing may be done as specified.
Suitability:
This type of floor is suitable for stores, god owns etc.
Tile Floor:
The floor having its topping consisting of tiles is called tile floor.
 The muram or earth filling is properly consolidated.
 10cm thick layer of dry clean sand is evenly laid
 10cm thick layer of Lime Concrete (1:4:8) or Lean Cement Concrete (1:8:16) is
laid, compacted and cured to form a base concrete.
 A thin layer of lime or cement mortar is spread with the help of screed battens.
 Then the screed battens are properly leveled and fixed at the correct height.
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 When the surface mortar is harden sufficiently, 6mm thick bed of wet cement (1:5) is
laid and then over this the specified tiles are laid.
 The surplus mortar which comes out of the joints is cleaned off.
 After 3 days, the joints are well rubbed with a corborundum stone to chip off all the
projecting edges.
 Rubbing should not be done in case of glazed tiles
 The surface is polished by rubbing with a softer variety of a corborundum or a pumice
stone.
 The surface is finally washed with soap.
Suitability:
This type of floor is suitable for courtyard of buildings.
Glazed tiles are used in modern buildings where a high class finish is desired.
Mosaic Floors:
The floors having its topping consisting of mosaic tiles or small regular cubes, square or
hexagons, embedded into a cementing mixture is known as Mosaic Floors
 The earth is consolidated.

 10cm thick layer of clean sand is spread.
 10cm thick Lime Concrete (1:4:8) or Lean Cement Concrete (1:8:16) is laid thus
forming base concrete
 Over this base course 5cm thick Lime Mortar or Cement Mortar or Lime and Surkhi
mortar (1:2) is laid.
 The mortar is laid in small area so that the mortar may not get dried before finishing the
wearing course.
 3mm thick cementing mixture is spread.
 The cementing mixture consists of one part of pozzolana, one part of marble chips
and two parts of slacked lime.
 After nearing 4 hours, patterns are formed on the top of the cementing material.
 Now the tiles of regular shaped marble cubes are hammered in the mortar along
the outline of the pattern.
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 The inner spaces are then filled with colored pieces of marble.
 A roller 30cm in diameter and 50cm in length is passed gently over the surface.
 Water is sprinkled to work up the mortar between the marble pieces.
 The surface is then rubbed with pumice stone fixed to a wooden handle about 1.5m
long.
 The surface is then allowed to dry up for 2 weeks
Marble flooring
 It is the superior type of flooring used in bathrooms and kitchens of residential building
and hospitals, sanatorium, temples etc.
 After the preparation of base concrete 20 mm thick bed layer of 1:4 cement mix spread
under the area of each individual slabs.
 Size of the slab depend upon the pattern
 Thickness 20 mm to 40 mm.
 Prior to laying flooring , the sub grade is cleaned, wetted and mapped properly.
 Bedding mortar 1:4
 The marble layer is then laid over it and pressed with wooden mallet and leveled.
 The paved area is cured for a minimum period of seven days.
Timber flooring
 Timber flooring is used for carpentry halls, dancing halls auditorium Etc.
 These are not commonly used in India because its costlier.
 Entire area of ground below the floor isd covered with a 15 cm layer of concrete
 Sleeper walls are generally 10 cm thick
 Spacing 1.8 m apart.
 The suspended type of wooden floor is supported above the ground.
 The solid type of wooden floor is fully supported on the ground.
Asphalt flooring
 Dustless, elastic, durable, waterproof, acid proof and attractive in appearance.
 Non slippery and noiseless.
 Recommended for use in factories, loading platforms, swimming pools and terrace floors
Rubber flooring
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 This type of flooring is not common in India, but foreign countries it is used in
residential building as well as public building.
 It is noiseless, comfortable, clean and durable.‟
 This may sheet or tiles. These are fixed by glue.
 The base may be of concrete. R.C.C or wood
Linoleum Flooring
 Linoleum is a covering laid over wooden or concrete floors
 It is a material manufactured by mixing oxidized linsed oil with powdered cork, various
types of gums and suitable coloring pigments.
 Mostly sold in rolls which are 1.8 to 3.66m, thick 6 mm
Merits
 It is washable, dust proof
 It reduces noise effectively
 It has cushioning effect which gives comfort to the users
 It is economical.
 Used in Residential buildings, offices, schools, hospitals, libraries ,carrages and buses
etc..
PVC flooring
 PVC tiles are used to Residential l as well as Non-Residential buildings
 It gives decorative floor finish, smooth and can be cleaned easily
Merits
 It is a non absorbent
 It is easily repairable in patches
 It gives pleasant appearance
 It gives more durable
 It a quick laying floor
 Resistant to wear
Demerits
 This type of construction is very costly
 Easy to fire.
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Cork Flooring
 Perfectly noiseless
 Used in libraries, Theatres ,Art galleries etc.
 Cork obtained from oak tree
 Thickness 12 mm
Glass flooring
 Special type of flooring
 Transmit the light from upper to lower floor
 Basement to upper floors
 Thick varies from 12 to 30 mm
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FOUNDATIONS
Every structure consists of two parts.

(1) Foundation and
(2) Super structure.
The lowest artificially prepared parts of the structure which are in direct contact with the ground and
which transmit the loads of the structure to the ground are known as Foundation or Substructure. The
solid ground on which the foundation rest is called the “foundation bed” or foundation soil and it
ultimately bears the load and interacts with the foundations of buildings.
Requirements of a good foundation:
Following are the three basic requirements to be fulfilled by a foundation to be satisfactory
1) Location : The foundation should be located that it is able to resist any unexpected
future influence which may adversely affect its performance. This aspect requires careful
engineering judgment.
2) Stability: The foundation structure should be stable or safe against any possible failure
3) Settlement: The foundation structure should not settle or deflect to such an extent so as
to impair its usefulness.
Objects of foundations:
Foundations are provided for the following purposes
1) To distribute the total load coming on the structure on large area.
2) To support the structure
3) To give enough stability to the structures against various distributing forces such as wind,
rain etc.
4) To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work. The general inspection of site
of work serves as a good for determine the type of foundation, to be adopted for the proposed
work and in addition, it helps in getting the data w.r.to the following items.
i) Behavior of ground due to variations in depth of water table
ii) Disposal of storm water at site
iii) Nature of soil by visual examination
iv) Movement of ground due to any reason etc.
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Causes of failure of good foundation:
The different causes for foundation failure are given below
1. Non uniform settlement of sub soil and masonry
2. Horizontal movement of the soil adjacent to structure
3. Alternate swelling and shrinkage in wet and dry cycles of the season
4. Lateral pressure due to lateral movement of earth tending to over turn the structure
5. Action of weathering agencies like sun, wind or rain
6. Lateral escape of the soil beneath the foundation of the structure
Roots trees and shrubs which penetrate the foundation
Types of foundations:
Depending upon their nature and depth, foundations have been categorized as follows
(i) Open foundations or shallow foundations
(ii) Deep foundations
I. Open foundations or shallow foundations: This is most common type of foundation and can
be laid using open excavation by allowing natural slopes on all sides. This type of foundation
is practicable for a depth of about 5m and is normally convenient above the water table. The
base of the structure is enlarged or spread to provide individual support. Since the spread
foundations are constructed in open excavations, therefore they are termed as open
foundations. This type of foundation is provided for structure of moderate height built on
sufficiently firm dry ground. The various types of spread footings are:
1. Wall footing
2. Isolated footing
3. Combined footing
4. Inverted arch footing
5. Continuous footing
6. Cantilever footing
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7. Grillage footing
Wall Footing: These footings can be either simple or stepped. The base course of these footings can
be concrete or entirely of one material simple footing are used for light structures. They have only
one projection beyond the width of the wall. The base width of the concrete base course should be
equal to twice the width of wall.
Isolated Footings: These are used to support individed columns. They can be of stepped type or have
projections in the concrete base. In case of heavy loaded columns steel reinforcement is provided in
both directions in concrete with 15cm offsets
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3. Combined Footing: A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row A

Combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal constructed with reinforced concrete.
The location of centre of gravity of column loads and centroid of the footing should
coincide. The combined footing is as shown in fig10.5.
4. Inverted Arch Footing: This type of construction is used on soft soils to reduce the depth
of foundation loads above an opening are transmitted from supporting walls through
inverted arches to the soil. In this type the end columns must be stable enough to resist the
outward pressure caused by arch actions. The inverted arch footing is as shown in fig10.6.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 26
5. Continuous Footing: In this type of footing a single continuous R.C slab is produced as
foundation of two or three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is suitable at
locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the
structure. In order to have better stability a deeper beam is constructed in between the
columns as shown in fig10.7.
Grillage footing :
This type of footing is used to transmit heavy loads from steel columns to foundation soils
having low bearing power. This type of foundation avoids deep excavation and provides
necessary area at the base to reduce the intensity of pressure of the foundation soil is not stiff
and there is a plenty of water with spring, the sides are protected by sharing. The grillage
footing is a s shown in fig 10.9.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 27
8. Raft Foundation: A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the
structure loads are heavy the use of spread footings would cover more than one half of the
area and it may be prove more economical to use raft foundation. There are also used where
the soil mass contains compressible lenses so that the differential settlement would be
difficult to control usually when the hard soil is not available within 1.5 to 2.5m, a raft
foundation is adopted. The raft is composed of reinforced.
Deep Foundations
► Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their
base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths of 3 meter
below finished ground level. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the load to a deeper,
more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base
bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished
ground level. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated foundations using deep
UMA MAGESWARI. M 28
basements and also deep pad or strip foundations. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the
loading to a deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
► Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through soil strata of
low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity. They are
used when for economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable to
transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow foundations. In addition to
supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist
structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces.
► Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed insitu in a deep
excavation.
► Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk
to the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson.
► Compensated foundations are deep foundations in which the relief of stress due to
excavation is approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the foundation. The net
stress applied is therefore very small. A compensated foundation normally comprises a deep
basement.
END BEARING PILE :
These piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum.
Friction pile
These piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying material by means of skin
friction along the length of pile.
Compaction pile
These piles are used to compact loose soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity. The compaction
piles themselves do not carry any load. Hence they may be of weaker material (sand). The pile
tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place thus forming
a „sand pile‟.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 29
Under reamed pile
► In black cotton soils and other expansive type of soils, buildings often crack due to relative
ground movements. This is caused by alternate swelling and shrinking of the soil due to
changes in its moisture content.
► The under-reamed pile is used to safe guard this movement effectively. Generally this
foundation is used for machine foundation, factory building, transmission line towers and
other tall structures also.
Timber piles
 Timber piles are made of-tree trunks driven with small end as a point
 Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 - 20m
 Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80 - 240 kN
UMA MAGESWARI. M 30
Disadvantages of using timber piles:
Difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving, vulnerable to decay unless treated with
preservatives (If timber is below permanent Water table it will apparently last forever), if subjected to
alternate wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded piles or piles above Water
table are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other insects unless treated.
Advantages:
Comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay, easy to handle,
best suited for friction piles in granular material.
Steel piles
 Maximum length practically unlimited, optimum length: 12-50m

 Load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x cross-sectional area
 The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams & I beams
proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile may be subjected. In HP
pile the flange thickness = web thickness, piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes,
which may be driven either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually filled with
concrete after driving.
 Open end piles may be filled but this is not often necessary., dm
Advantages of steel piles:
Easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to penetrate through light obstructions, best
suited for end bearing on rock, reduce allowable capacity for corrosive locations or provide corrosion
protection.
Disadvantages:
 Vulnerable to corrosion.
 HP section may be damaged/deflected by major obstruction
UMA MAGESWARI. M 31
Concrete Piles
 Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite construction

 Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they may be prestressed.
 Precast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses during
picking up & transport to the site & bending moments from lateral loads and to provide
sufficient resistance to vertical loads and any tension forces developed during driving.
 Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress cables, and casting the
concrete about the cable. When the concrete hardens, the prestress cables are cut, with the
tension force in the cables now producing compressive stress in the concrete pile. It is
common to higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa) in prestressed piles because of the large
initial compressive stresses from prestressing. Prestressing the piles, tend to counteract any
tension stresses during either handling or driving.
 Max length: 10 - 15 m for precast, 20 - 30 m for prestressed
 Optimum length 10 - 12 m for precast. 18 - 25m prestressed
 Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast. 8500 kN for prestressed
 Optimum load range: 350 - 3500 kN
Advantages:
1. High load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard driving possible
2. Cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
3. Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground & filling it with
concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground.
Disadvantages:
1. Concrete piles are considered permanent, however certain soils (usually organic) contain
materials that may form acids that can damage the concrete.
2. Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken
when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used for marine structures
may undergo abrasion from wave action and floating debris in the water.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 32
3. Difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost, considerable displacement, prestressed
piles are difficult to splice.
4. Alternate freezing thawing can cause concrete damage in any exposed situation.
5.
Pier foundation
A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support transfer large super
imposed loads to the firm strata below
Generally pier foundation is shallower in depth than the pile foundation
It has two types
o Masonry
o concrete pier
Drilled caissons
Well foundation or caissons are box like structures –circular or rectangular which are sunk from the
surface of either land or water to the desired depth
Caisson foundations are used for major foundation work such as
Bridge pier and abutments in river Wharves and quay walls docks
Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and horizontal loads
Well foundations are caissons are hollow from inside, which may filled withstand and are plugged at
the bottom, the load is transferred to the perimeter wall called as steining
UMA MAGESWARI. M 33
Well foundation is a box of timber, metal, reinforced concrete or masonry which open both at the top
and bottom, and is used for building for building and bridge foundations.
Types of well shapes:
► Circular
► Rectangular
► Double – D
Twin circular etc
Pier foundation
 A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support transfer large
UMA MAGESWARI. M 34
super imposed loads to the firm strata below

 Generally pier foundation is shallower in depth than the pile foundation
 It has two types
o Masonry
o concrete pier
Drilled caissons
 Well foundation or caissons are box like structures –circular or rectangular which are sunk
from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth
 Bridge pier and abutments in river
 Wharves and quay walls docks
 Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and horizontal
loads
UMA MAGESWARI. M 35
Joints
Expansion Joints
• The joints provided to accommodate the expansion of adjacent parts in a building are
known as expansion joints.
• These joints essentially consist of a space between the adjacent parts of a structure and
may sometimes be provided with the load transmitting devices between the parts.
• They are generally filled with expansion joint filler of approved quality.
• The function of these joints is to accommodate the expansion of adjacent parts of a
building and relieve the compressive stresses that may otherwise develop.
• These joints are provided in long masonry walls, roofs and floors, roof or floor to wall
joints, framed structures etc. For spacing of these joints in different locations.
• The design and location of joints usually depend upon the type of structure, the method
of construction and the jointing materials available.
• The provisions of joints should be adequate to accommodate all the dimensional changes
caused by expansion and contraction of materials used in the structure.
• In case of masonry walls, the vertical control joints (expansion joints) should be
provided from top of the wall to the top of the concrete foundations and not through the
foundation concrete. The reinforcement should not pass through such joints.
• In case of masonry walls resting on pile foundation, the vertical control joints should be
taken up to the top of grade beam i.e. concrete cap over the piles without making use of
any reinforcement passing through the joints.
• In case of reinforced framed structures, the vertical control joint between any two
columns should extend from top of the column to the top of the pedestal provided over
the RCC footing.
S.NO Item and description spacing

1 Walls: 30 m intervals.
Load bearing walls with cross

walls at intervals. Traditional type
UMA MAGESWARI. M 36
of one-brick thick or more

Walls warehouse type construction Expansion joints in walls at 30 m
(without cross-walls) maximum intervals. (If the walls are
panel walls between columns at not
more than 9 m centers, no joints are
necessary). Control joints over centre
of openings may be provided at half
the spacing of expansion joints
2 Chajjas, balconies and parapets. 6 to 12 m intervals.
3 Roofs :
(a) Ordinary roof slabs of 20 to 30 m intervals and at changes in

RCC protected by layers of direction as in L, T, H and V shaped
mud phuska or other structures.
insulating media in framed
construction.
15 m intervals
Thin unprotected slabs
4 Frames :
Joints in structure through slabs, Corners of L, T, H and V shaped

beams, columns etc, dividing the structures at 30 m intervals in long
building into two independent uniform structures
structural units.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 37
Contraction Joints or Control Joints

Control Joints (often confused with expansion joints) are cuts or grooves made in concrete or
asphalt at regular intervals. These joints are made at locations where there are chances of cracks
or where the concentration of stresses are expected, so that when a concrete does crack, the
location will be known to you. In such a way a concrete will not crack randomly but in a
straight line (i.e. control joint). In other words Contraction or Control Joints are Pre-Planned
Cracks. The cracks may be due to temperature variations or drying shrinkage or other reasons.
Joints depth should be 25% of the depth of the slab. For instance a 4" thick slab should have 1"
deep cut. Joints Interval (taken in feet) should not be more than 2 - 3 times the slab thickness (in
inches). Let say a 6" slab should have joints 2 x 6=12 to 3 x 6 = 18 feet apart. For fresh concrete
grooving tools are used while saw is used for hardened concrete.
The joints introduced in concrete structures to localize shrinkage movements are known as
contraction joints. The contraction joints are in the form of separations or planes of weakness.
The function of these joints is to localize shrinkage movements which would otherwise lead
unsightly cracks.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 38
Construction Joints
• The joints provided at locations where construction stops for any reason and when their
location does not coincide with that of expansion or contraction joints are called
construction joints.
• These joints are constructed in a similar manner as contraction joints but these joints are
not intended to accommodate movement due to contraction.
• Every effort should be made to prevent movement occurring at such joints. However,
extra care may be taken to obtain a good bond between abutting sections of concrete
• Since, cracks frequently develop at these joints as a result of stresses arising from
variations in temperature, moisture content or loading, therefore, it is most desirable that
construction joints should coincide with expansion or contraction joints wherever
possible.
• The function of these joints is to simplify the construction of a structure.
• Construction joints in floor should be located in the middle of spans of slabs, beams or
girders unless a beam intersects the girder at this point in which case the joints in the
girders are provided at a distance equal to twice the width of beam.
• Adequate provision should be made for shear by use of inclined reinforcement.
• Joints in column should be made at the underside of the floor.
Unintentional provision may occur due to
 Unexpected shortage of material

 Equipment Failure
 Bad weather.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 39
Slip form
Slip form is similar in nature and application to jump form, but the formwork is raised vertically
in a continuous process. It is a method of vertically extruding a reinforced concrete section and
is suitable for construction of core walls in high-rise structures – lift shafts, stair shafts, towers,
etc. It is a self-contained formwork system and can require little crane time during construction.
This is a formwork system which can be used to form any regular shape or core. The formwork
rises continuously, at a rate of about 300mm per hour, supporting itself on the core and not
relying on support or access from other parts of the building or permanent works.
Commonly, the formwork has three platforms. The upper platform acts as a storage and
distribution area while the middle platform, which is the main working platform, is at the top of
the poured concrete level. The lower platform provides access for concrete finishing.
Benefits
 Careful planning of construction process can achieve high production rates
 Slip form does not require the crane to move upwards, minimising crane use.
 Since the formwork operates independently, formation of the core in advance of the
rest of the structure takes it off the critical path – enhancing main structure stability.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 40
 Availability of the different working platforms in the formwork system allows the
exposed concrete at the bottom of the rising formwork to be finished, making it an
integral part of the construction process.
 Certain formwork systems permit construction of tapered cores and towers.
 Slip form systems require a small but highly skilled workforce on site.
Safety
 Working platforms, guard rails, ladders and wind shields are normally built into the
completed system.
 Less congested construction site due to minimal scaffolding and temporary works.
 Completed formwork assembly is robust.
 Strength of concrete in the wall below must be closely controlled to achieve stability
during operation.
 Site operatives can quickly become familiar with health and safety aspects of their job
 High levels of planning and control mean that health and safety are normally addressed
from the beginning of the work.
Other considerations
 This formwork is more economical for buildings more than seven storeys high.
 Little flexibility for change once continuous concreting has begun therefore extensive
planning and special detailing are needed.
 Setting rate of the concrete had to be constantly monitored to ensure that it is matched
with the speed at which the forms are raised.
 The structure being slip formed should have significant dimensions in both major axes
to ensure stability of the system.
 Standby plant and equipment should be available though cold jointing may occasionally
be necessary.
Slipform construction is a method for building large towers or bridges from concrete. The name
refers to the moving form the concrete is poured into, which moves along the project as the
previously poured concrete hardens behind it. The technique has also been applied to road
construction. The technique was in use by the early 20th century for building silos and grain
elevators. Vertical slip form relies on the quick-setting properties of concrete requiring a
UMA MAGESWARI. M 41
balance between early strength gain and workability. Concrete needs to be workable enough to
be placed to the formwork and strong enough to develop early strength so that the form can slip
upwards without any disturbance to the freshly placed concrete.
A notable use of the method was the Skylon Tower in Niagara Falls, Ontario, which was
completed in 1965. The technique was soon utilized to build the Inco Super stack in Sudbury,
Ontario and the CN Tower in Toronto. It is the most common method for construction of tall
buildings in Australia.
From foundation to rooftop of even the very tallest projects, with the system‟s hydraulic jacks,
installing steel reinforcement and pouring concrete become much easier and faster, plus can be
more efficiently controlled to assure the highest quality finished cement structure.
SLIPFORM technology virtually eliminates unnecessary waste and hazards, making this
construction system even more efficient and economical.
 SLIPFORM saves investment

 SLIPFORM saves time
 SLIPFORM saves labor
 SLIPFORM is safety
DAMP PROOF COURSE
Damp prevention and fire protection are the chief requirements to ensure the safety of
UMA MAGESWARI. M 42
buildings against dampness and fire respectively. The sources, effects, techniques and methods
of damp prevention, materials used for damp-proofing (D.P.C) damp-proofing treatments in
buildings, treatment of dampness are discussed under damp proof chapter.
14.1 Sources of dampness(causes)
Dampness in building in generally due to one or more of the following causes
(i) Faulty design of structure
(ii) Faulty construction or poor workmanship
(iii) Use of poor materials in construction
These cause give rise to an easy access to moisture to enter the building from different
points, such as rising of moisture from ground, rain penetration through walls, roofs and
floors etc. The moisture entering the building from foundation and roofs, travels in
different directions further under the effects of capillary action and gravity respectively.
The entry of water and its movements, in different parts of the building are positively
due to the one or more of the causes listed above.
Effects of dampness:
The various effects caused due to dampness in buildings mainly results in poor
functional performance, ugly appearance and structural weakness of the buildings.
1. A damp building creates unhealthy living and working conditions for the occupants
2. Presence of damp condition causes efflorescence on building surfaces which ultimately

results in the disintegration of bricks stones, tiles etc and hence reduction of strength
3. It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster
4. It may cause bleaching and flaking of the paint which results in the formation of
coloured patches on the wall surfaces and ceilings
5. It may result in the corrosion of metals used in the construction of buildings
6. The materials used as floor coverings such as tiles are damaged because they lose
adhesion with the floor bases
UMA MAGESWARI. M 43
7. Timber when in contact with damp condition, gets deteriorated due to the effect of
warping, buckling and rolling of timber
8. All the electrical fittings gets deteriorated, causing leakage of electric current with the
potential danger of a short circuit
9. Dampness promotes the growth of termites and hence creates unhygienic conditions in
buildings
Damp Proof
10. Dampness when accompanied by the warmth and darkness, breeds the germs of
tuberculosis, neuralgia, aute and chronis neumatism etc which some times result in fatal
diseases
14.3 Techniques and methods of damp prevention:
The following are the precautions to be taken to prevent dampness in buildings,

before applying the various techniques.
1. The site should be located on high ground and well drained soil to safe guard against
foundation dampness
2. All the exposed walls should be of sufficient thickness to safeguard against rain
protection (minimum 30cm)
3. Bricks of superior quality free from defects should be used
4. Good quality cement mortar (1:3) should be used to produce definite pattern and
perfect bond in the building
5. Cornices and string courses should be provided to through rain water away from the
walls
6. All the exposed surfaces like top of walls, compound walls etc should be covered
with water proofing cement plaster
7. Cavity walls are more reliable than solid walls in preventing the dampness
UMA MAGESWARI. M 44
Techniques:
1. Use of damp proof courses
2. Water proof or damp proof treatments
3. Cavity walls or hallow walls
4. Guniting or shot concrete or shotcrete
5. Pressure grouting or cementation
1. Use of damp-proof courses (D.P.C.)
These are layers or membranes of water repellent materials such as bituminuous felts,
mastic asphalt, plastic sheets, cement concrete, mortar, metal sheets, stones etc which are
interposed in the building structure at all locations wherever water entry is anticipated or
suspected. The best location or position of D.P.C. in the case of building without
basement lies at plinth level or structures without any plinth level, it should be laid at
least 15cm above ground level. The damp proof course provided horizontally and
vertically in floors, walls etc. In the case of basements, laying of D.P.C. is known as
taking Fig 14.1 shows the D.P.C. treatment above ground level.
2. Water proof surface treatments: The surface treatment consists in filing up the pores
of the material exposed to moisture by
UMA MAGESWARI. M 45
providing a thin film of water repellent material over the surface (internal / external ) .
External treatment is effective in preventing dampness
Many surface treatments, like pointing, plastering, painting, distempering etc are
given to the exposed surfaces and also to the internal surface . The most commonly used
treatment to protect the walls against dampness is lime cement plaster (1:6) (1-cement,
6-lime) mix proportion. Generally employed as water proofing agent in surface
treatments are sodium or potassium silicate. Aluminium or zinc sulphate, Barium
Hydroxide and magnesium sulphate in alternate applications. Soft soap and alum also in
alternate applications, unie and unseed oil; coal tar, bitumen, waxes and fats; resins and
gums
Waxes and fats are not suitable in tropics as they melt with rise in temperatures
3. Integral damp-proofing treatments :
The integral treatment consists of adding certain compounds to the concrete or mortar
during the process of mixing, which when used in construction acts as barriers to
moisture penetration under different principles
i) Compounds like chalk, talc, fallers earth etc have mechanical action principle (i.e.,)
they fill the pores present in the concrete or mortar and make them dense and water proof
UMA MAGESWARI. M 46
ii) Compounds like denser and water proof sulphates, calcium chlorides etc
work on chemical action principle (i.e.) they react chemically and fill the pores
to act as water-resistant
iii) The compounds like soaps, petroleum, oils fatty acids compounds such as
sterates of calcium, sodium ammonium etc work on the repulsion principle i.e.,
they are used as admixture in concrete to react with it and become water
repellent
4. Cavity walls or hallow walls: A cavity wall consists of two parallel walls or leaves or
skins of masonary separated by a continuous air space or cavity. The provision of
continuous cavity in the wall per effectively prevent the transmission or percolation of
dampness from outer walls or leaf to inner wall or leaf. The following are the advantages
of cavity wall.
(i) As there is no contact between outer and inner walls of cavity wall, possibility of
moisture penetration is reduced to a minimum.
(ii) A cavity wall prevents the transmission of heat through wall.
(iii) A cavity wall offer good insulation against sound.
(iv) The cavity wall tends to reduce the nuisance of efflorescence.
(v) The cavity wall also provides benefits such as economy, better comfort and
hygienic conditions in buildings
UMA MAGESWARI. M 47
The cavity wall construction and D.P.C. details for flat roofs is as shown
in fig no 14.2
Fig 14.2 Cavity wall construction and D.P.C. details for flat roofs
UMA MAGESWARI. M 48
UMA MAGESWARI. M 49
UMA MAGESWARI. M 50
5. Guniting: (or shot concrete) : The technique of guniting consists in forming an

imperious layer of rich cement mortar (1:3) or fine aggregate mix for water proofing over the
exposed concrete surface or over the pipes, cisterns etc for resisting the water pressure. By this
technique, an impervious layer of high
2
compressive strength (600 to 700 kg/cm ) is obtained and hence this is also very useful for
reconditioning or repairing old concrete works
6.Pressure grouting or (cementation). The mixture of cement, sand and water under pressure
into the cracks, voids or fissures present in the structural component or the ground. In general,
the foundations are given this treatment to avoid the moisture penetration. This technique also
used for repairing structures, consolidating ground to improve bearing capacity, forming water
cut-offs to prevent seepage etc.
Fire protection:
It is defined as the protection of the occupants of the building, contents and structure of
the building and adjacent buildings from the risks of fire and spread of fire. The objective is
achieved by using fire-resistive materials in the construction. By suitable planning of the
building internally and in relation to adjacent building internally and in relation to adjacent
building and by providing suitable means of quick escape for the occupants. These measures are
essential to minimize the spread of fire and limit the total damage to a minimum
UMA MAGESWARI. M 51
Important considerations in fire protection:
1. It should be the objective of every engineer and architect while planning and designing the
building that the structure offer sufficient resistance against fire so as to afford protection
to the occupants, use of fire-resisting materials and construction techniques and providing
quick and safe means of escape in the building.
2. All the structural elements such as floors, walls, columns, beams etc should be made of fire
resisting materials
3. The construction of structural elements such as walls, floors, columns, lintels, arches etc
should be made in such a way that they should continue to function atleast for the time,
which may be sufficient for occupants to escape safely in times of fire.
4. The building should be so planned or oriented that the elements of construction or building
components can with stand fire for a given time depending upon the size and use of
building, to isolate various compartments so as to minimize the spread of fire suitable
separation is necessary to prevent fire, gases, and smoke from spreading rapidly through
corridors, staircases left shafts etc.
5. Adequate means of escape are provided for occupants to leave the building quickly and
safely in terms of outbreak of fire.
6. In multi-storeyed office buildings suitable equipment for detecting, extinguishing and

warning of fire should be installed in the niches.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 52
Fire-resistant construction:
National building code classifies the construction into four classes, namely type 1, type 2,
type 3 and type 4 on the basis of fire-resistance offered by building components for 4-
hours, 3-hours, 2-hours and 1-hour respectively. To achieve the objective of fire-
resistance, due considerations should be made in design and construction of the structural
members and use of combustible material should be avoided as far as possible in the
construction
a) Walls and columns
b) Floor and roofs
c) Wall openings
d) Building fire escape elements (i.e.,) stair, staircase, corridors, entrances etc.
a) Walls and columns: The load-bearing non-load bearing walls should be plastered
with fire resistive mortar to improve fire resistance. Normally 20cm thick common
wall is sufficient from fire resistance point of view. Bricks should be preferred to
stones if the construction is solid bearing wall. If it happens to be a framed structure
then R.C.C. frames are preferred to those of steel frame. Partition walls, should also be
fire resistant materials. In case of wooden partitions are employed, they should be
covered with metal lath and plaster. Sufficient cover to R.C.C. members like beams or
columns should be to enable them to function satisfactorily, under the fire maximum
time. It has been recommended that a cover of atleast 5cm inside the main
reinforcement of structural members, like columns, girders, trusses etc, 38mm for
ordinary beam, long span slabs, arches etc, 25mm for
UMA MAGESWARI. M 53
partition walls, short spans should be provided. The fire proofing treatments, which can possibly
to concrete and steel column construction are as shown in the fig 14.3.
Fig 14.3 Fire proofing treatments to concrete and steel columns
UMA MAGESWARI. M 54
b) Floors and roofs: The floors and roofs should be made of fire-resisting material as they
act as horizontal barriers to spread of heat and fire in vertical direction. For fire-resistant
construction, the floor such as concrete jack arch floor with steel joists embedded in concrete or
hallow tiled ribbed floor, R.C.C. floor etc should be used as shown in fig. 14.4.
Fig 14.4 Fire-resisting in floors
UMA MAGESWARI. M 55
c) Wall openings: From fire resistance point of view, firstly the openings in the walls
should be restricted to a minimum and secondly they should be protected by suitable
arrangements in case of fire. These days, wire-glass panels are preferred for windows, where as
steel rolling shutters are becoming popular for door ways and window openings in garages,
godowns, shops etc due to their ability in preventing the spread of fire
d) Building fire escape element: Staircases, corridors, Lobbies, entrances etc are the fire escape
elements should be constructed out of fire-resistant materials and be well separated from the
rest of the building. Doors to the staircase, corridors and lefts should be made of fire-proofing
materials. Staircase should be created next to the outerwalls and should be accessible from any
floor in the direction of flow towards the exits from the building.
14.5 General measures of fire safety in building:
In important buildings, in addition to the fire-resisting materials and adopting fire

resistant construction, the following general measures of fire-safety have been
recommended
(i) Alaram system
(ii) Fire extinguishing arrangements
(iii) Escape routes for public buildings
Scaffolding
 These are temporary erections constructed (when working height exceeds 1.5 m) to
support a number of platform at different heights raised for the convenience of workers
 This temporary framework or scaffold is useful in building construction,
demolition, maintenance and repair works
 The scaffolding may be done on one side or both sides of the wall.
Component parts of a scaffolding
Standards-These are central members of scaffolding.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 56
Ledgers- These are horizontal members at right angles to the standards.

Braces- These members are fixed diagonally on the standards
Planks or Boarding: They form the horizontal platforms for supporting men, materials and
appliances.
Putlogs : these members are placed on horizontal members at right angles to the walls, one end
of which is held in wall.
Guard boards: These members are provided at working level to guard against materials.
Toe Boards: These members are placed parallel to the ledgers and used for protection at the level
of working platform.
Types of scaffolding
Single scaffolding or brick layer scaffolding
Double scaffoldings or masons scaffoldings
Cantilever or needle scaffoldings
Suspended scaffoldings
Trestle scaffolding
Steel scaffolding
Patented scaffoldings
Single Scaffolding
This being cheap, is most commonly used in the construction of brickwork.
In this type of scaffolding, most of the members except platforms are usually made of bamboos and
poles.
It consists of a single row of standards which are driven into the ground at a distance of about 1.5 to 2.0
m apart and about 1.2 m away from the wall to be constructed where it is found difficult to fix the
standards into the ground.
The standards are then connected to each other by ledgers placed at right angles and spaced at a
vertical distance of about 1.20 to 1.50 m such that one end is supported on the ledgers and the other
end is held in the holes provided in the wall.
As the work proceeds, the platform is raised to higher levels by extending the standards by adding extra
pieces, if necessary. After removing the putlogs the holes must be filled solid immediately.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 57
Double scaffolding
This type of scaffolding is stronger than the single scaffolding and is sued in the construction of stone
work. The formwork is similar to the single scaffolding except two rows of standards are used, one row
close to the wall within 15 cm of the wall face and the other at 1.2 to 1.5 m away from the face of the
wall.
This type of scaffolding is completely independent of the wall and no holes are made in the wall to
support putlogs.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 58
Ladder scaffolding or patented scaffolding
This is a modification over a double scaffolding and can be easily assembled. Now a days ,several patent
ladder scaffolding are available in the market. In this type , the working platforms are supported on
brackets which can be adjusted to any desired height.
Such patented scaffoldings are very suitable for light works such as exterior walls ,paintings and
decorations.
Cantilever scaffolding or Needle Scaffolding
The use of this type of scaffolding becomes necessary under the following circumstances
Where it is not possible to fix the standards into the ground in the usual manner.
Where the scaffolding is to be provided on the side of a busy street without obstructing the traffic on
road.
Where the scaffolding is required for construction operations of upper storeys of a tall building.
UMA MAGESWARI. M 59
UMA MAGESWARI. M 60
Unit II construction Practices CTEP
III civil Prepared by UMA MAGESWARI.M AP/Civil

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What are the different types of stone masonry?

What are the different types of stone masonry?

What are the different types of scaffolding discussed?

What are the different types of scaffolding discussed?

www.Vidyarthiplus.

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Sequence of activities and construction

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

Flint rubble masonry

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

vi. Facing Bond

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UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

Herring Bone bond.

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Comparison between Brick Masonry and Stone masonry

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

masonry becomes cheaper than stone masonry.

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UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

These floors are easily and cheaply repairable.

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

Types of Cement Concrete Floor:

1- Non-monolithic or bonded floor finish concrete floor 2- Monolithic floor

1- Non-monolithic or bonded floor finish concrete floor:

 The earth is consolidated.

This type of construction is mostly adopted in the field

The topping is laid by two methods:

I- Topping laid in single layer:

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

II- Topping laid two layers:

2- Monolithic Floor Finish Concrete Floor:

 10cm layer of clean and dry sand is spread over

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

 The earth is consolidated.

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

Every structure consists of two parts.

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

Causes of failure of good foundation:

The different causes for foundation failure are given below

1. Non uniform settlement of sub soil and masonry

2. Horizontal movement of the soil adjacent to structure

5. Action of weathering agencies like sun, wind or rain

6. Lateral escape of the soil beneath the foundation of the structure

Roots trees and shrubs which penetrate the foundation

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES III CIVIL