17

Electrostatics

Electostatics is the study of time-independent distributions of electric charges.

17.1 Potential and Field

Given a spatial distribution of electric charge /)(x,i/,z), the laws of electrostatics make it possible to calculate the electric potential V{x,y,z) and the
electric field E(x,2/, z). These physical quantities are given by
V{x,y,z)

= ^
^TTJ

[ [ [ ,
P(^^y^^O
J J 7 ( x - x^y + {y- y'Y + (z - z'Y

^dx'dy'dz',

E(x,2/,z) = -VF(x,2/,2:),
'dV{x,y,z)
dx

dV{x,y,z)
dy

dV{x,y,z)
dz

17.1.1 Useful Packages

The commands in the package G r a p h i c s ' P l o t F i e l d ' can be used to draw
arrows representing vectors, the direction of the arrow indicating the direction
of the vector field at its base point, and its magnitude being proportional to the
magnitude of the vector field. The package Calculus 'Vector A n a l y s i s ' offers
a variety of tools for doing calculus in various three-dimensional coordinate
systems.
Graphics' PlotField'
Cal cuius 'Vector Analysis'

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17 Electrostatics

As usual, we can obtain the list of all commands provided by these packages
entering
?Graphics'PlotField'*
and
?Calculus'VectorAnalysis'*
17.1.2 Point C h a r g e
The electric potential at point {x,y,z)
(^o,2/o,^o) is given by

created by a point charge located at

monopolePotential[charge., {xO_, yO_, zO_}, {x_, y_, z_}] :=

charge / (4 Pi S q r t [ ( x - x0)^2 + (y - y0)^2 + (z - z0)^2])
The potential and the field at (x, y, z) created by a point charge q located at
(^o,2/o,^o) = (0,0,0) are
monopolePotentialCq, {0, 0, 0 } , {x, y, z}]

4 Pi Sqrt[x'^ + x'^+x'^]

monopoleField = - Grad[monopolePotentialCq, {0, 0, 0},

{x, y, z}], CartesianEx, y, z]]
q X
qy
'4 Pi (x2+y2 +2^)3/2' 4 Pi (x2 + y 2 ^ 22)3/2'
q z

>!

4 Pi (x^+y^+z^)^/^^
The potential and the field in the plane z = 0 are represented below. We
take zo 7^ 0 to avoid having an infinite expression at the origin (see below:
electricField).
imitMonopoleV[x_, y_] := monopolePotential[l, {O, 0, 0 } ,
{x, y, 0.01}]

17.1 Potential and Field

329

unitMonopoleVEx, y]

2 +
_^ y^]
2i
4 Pi Sqrt [0.0001 -f x^

equiPotentials = ContourPlot[unitMonopoleVEx, y ] ,
{x, - 2, 2}, {y, - 2, 2}, PlotPoints -^ 60,
ColorFunction -^ Hue, ContourSmoothing True];

Fig. 17.1. Equipotentials, in the plane z = 0.01, of a unit electric charge located
at the origin.
The option Contour Smoothing specifies what smoothing to use for contour
lines.
imitCharge = {{RGBColor [1, 1, 0 ] , AbsolutePointSize [ 2 0 ] ,
Point [ {0, 0 } ] } , { T e x t [ ^ ' + 1 ' \ {0, 0}]}};
In the following command, using the option ScaleFunction -^ (1&), all arrows have the same unit length.
e l e c t r i c F i e l d = PlotGradientField[- imitMonopoleV[x, y] ,
{x, - 1, 1}, {y, - 1, 1}, ScaleFunction -^ (1&),
Epilog -^ unitCharge];

330

17 Electrostatics
V

>

>

^
'
'
'
^

> > > > ^

^ > > > ^

/
'
/
^
^

/
/
^
<
^

/ ^
/ <
^^ <
< <
^ ^

+1

- ^ > > ^
^ ^ ^ ^ ^

\ ^
A

*^

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Fig. 17.2. Electric field created by a unit electric charge located at the origin.

17.1.3 Dipole
The following function gives the electric potential of a dipole (p, 0,0) localized
at the origin and directed along the x-axis.
dipolePotential[p_, {x_, y_, 2 -}] : =
Limit[(monopolePotential[p / a, {a / 2, 0, 0}. {x. y. z}]
- monopolePotential[p / a, {- a / 2 ,0, 0}. {x. y. z}]).
a -> 0]
unitDipoleV[x_, y_] := d i p o l e P o t e n t i a l [ l , {x, y, 0.01}]
We load the package Graphics'Arrow' to be able to use the command Arrow
to draw arrows.
Graphics' Arrow'
unitDipole = Arrow[{0. 1, 0}, {- 0.1, 0},
HeadScaling -> Absolute];
PlotGradientField[unitDipoleV[x,y], {x, - 1, 1}, {y,
ScaleFunction -> (1&), Epilog -> unitDipole];

1, 1},

17.1 Potential and Field

i

^
V
>

>^

*" ^

*" ^

^ 1

^T

. w

'

'

'
^

331

'

'

'

'

^ > > > ^

^

< ^
^

>* ^ ^
1
^

>

^ ^ i

Fig. 17.3. Electric field created by a unit dipole, represented by a bigger arrow,
located at the origin.

The option HeadScaling -^ Absolute makes the head of the arrow, representing the dipole, slightly bigger (see Figure 17.3).

17.1.4 Quadrupoles
We consider different functions that give the electric potential of three or four
electric charges whose sum is equal to zero. In the next section we define a
function to plot the corresponding equipotentials and field lines.
We first define the command q u a d r u p o l e P o t e n t i a l l generating the electric
potential created by three charges 2q,q,q localized, respectively, at
(0,0,0), ( | , 0 , 0 ) , and

(-f,0,o).

quadrupolePotentiall =
monopolePotential[2 q, {0, 0, 0}. {x. y. z}] monopolePotentialCq, {aL / 2 . 0, 0 } . {K. y , z}] monopolePotentialEq, {- a / 2 . 0. 0}. {x, y .z}]

2 Pi Sqrt[x2 + y^ + z^]

4 Pi Sqrt[( + x)^ + y^ + z^]

332

17 Electrostatics
q

4 Pi S q r t [ ( | + x ) 2 + y ^ + z^]

Here is another command giving the electric potential created by four charges
Q^ -Q^ Q^ -Q localized, respectively, at (a/2, a/2,0), (a/2, - a / 2 , 0 ) , (-a/2, - a / 2 , 0 ) ,
and (a/2,a/2,0).
quadrupolePotential2 =
monopolePotential[q, {a / 2, a
monopolePotential[q, {a / 2, monopolePotential[q, {- a / 2,
monopolePotential[q, {- a / 2,

/ 2, 0}, {x, y. z}] a / 2, 0}, {x.y. z}] +

- a / 2, 0}, {j
'-, y, z}] a / 2, 0}, {x.y. z}]

4 Pi S q r t [ ( ^ + x)2 + ( ^ + y)^ + z^]

q
4 Pi Sqrt[(| + x)2 + ( ^ + y)^ + z^]

""

4 Pi S q r t [ ( ^ + x)2 + ( | + y)2 + ^2]

q
4 P i S q r t [ ( ^ + x ) 2 + ( ^ + y ) 2 + z2]

We again consider the electric potential created by three charges 2g, q, q

but localized, respectively, at

(0,0.0), (2,40) and (-1,40).

Their electric potential is given by
quadrupolePotentialS =
monopolePotential[2 q, {0, 0, 0}, {x. y. z}] monopolePotential[q, {aL / 2 , - a / 2, 0}, {x. y z}] monopolePotential[q, {- a / 2> "*a / 2, 0}, {x.y. z}]

2 Pi Sqrt[x2 + y2 + z2]

4 pi S q r t [ ( ^ + x)2 + ( | + y)2 + z2]

17.1 Potential and Field

333

4 Pi S q r t [ ( - + x ) ^ + ( - + y ) 2 + z2]

17.1.5 Plots
W e define the function equipotentialFieldPlot that plots (in the xOyplane) the equipotentials and thefield,and we use it to plot the equipotentials
and the electricfieldlines of the quadrupoles defined above. optionList
stands for zero or more options.
equipotentialFieldPlot[potential-, xRange_, yRange_,
optionList

] :=

Module[{equiPotentials, fieldLines},
equiPotentials = CentourPlot[potential, xRange, yRange,
ContourShading -^ False, ContourSmoothing True,
PlotPoints -^ 60, DisplayFunction -^ Identity];
fieldLines = PlotGradientField[- potential, xRange, yRange,
ScaleFunction -^ (1 & ) , DisplayFimction -> Identity];
Show[{equiPotentials, fieldLines}, optionList,
DisplayFunction -^ $DisplayFunction]];

equipotentialFieldPlot[quadrupolePotentiall /.
{q ^

l,a -> 1, z ^

0.001}, {x, - 2, 2}, {y, - 2, 2},

Epilog -^ {{RGBColor[l, 1, 0 ] , AbsolutePointSize[20],

Point[{0, 0}]}, {RGBColor[l, 1, 0 ] , AbsolutePointSize[20],
Point[{0.5, 0}]}, {RGBColor[l, 1, 0 ] ,
AbsolutePointSize[20], Point[{-0.5, 0}]},
{Text[''+ 2'', {0, 0}], Text[''-1'', {0.5, 0}],
Text[''-1'', {-0.5, 0}]}}];

334

17 Electrostatics

Fig. 17.4. Equipotentials and electric field lines created by three charges respectively
equal to +2 localized at the origin and 1 localized on the Ox-axis at a distance 1/2
and 1/2 from the origin.

equipotentialFieldPlot[quadrupolePotential2
{q ^

l,a -^ 1, z ^

/.

0.001}, {x, - 2, 2}, {y, - 2, 2},

Epilog -^ {{RGBColor[l,l,0], AbsolutePointSize[20],

Point[{0.5, 0.5}]}, {RGBColor[l, 1, 0 ] ,
AbsolutePointSize[20], Point[{0.5, - 0.5}]},
{RGBColor[l, 1, 0 ] , AbsolutePointSize[20],
Point[{- 0.5, - 0.5}]}, {RGBColor[1,1,0],
AbsolutePointSize[20], Point[{- 0.5, 0.5}]},
{Text[''+1'\ {0.5, 0.5}], Text[''-1'\ {0.5, - 0.5}],
Text[''+1'', {- 0.5, - 0.5}], Text[''-1'', {- 0.5, 0.5}]}}];

17.1 Potential and Field

-2

335

-1

Fig. 17.5. Equipotentials and electric field lines created by four charges respectively
equal to 1, + 1 , 1 and + 1 localized at the vertices of a unit square centered at the
origin.

equipotentialFieldPlot[quadrupolePotentialS /.
{q -> l,a -> 1, z ^ 0.001}, {x, - 2, 2}, {y, - 2, 2},
Epilog -^ {{RGBColorEl, 1, 0 ] , AbsolutePointSize[20],
Point[{0, 0}]}, {RGBColorEl,1,0], AbsolutePointSize[20],
Point[{0.5, - 0.5}]}, {RGBColor[l, 1, 0 ] ,
AbsolutePointSize[20], Point[{- 0.5, - 0.5}]},
{Text[''+2'', {0, 0}], Text[''-1", {0.5, - 0.5}],
Text[''-r', {- 0.5, - 0.5}]}}];
Output represented in Figure 17.6.

17.1.6 Uniformly Charged Sphere

Let R be t h e radius of a uniformly charged sphere whose center coincides with
the origin , and let p be the charge density. Spherical symmetry implies t h a t
the electric field is radial and depends only upon t h e distance r to the origin.
This field is easily determined using Gauss law.

336

17 Electrostatics
2

--.XN ^ '

/ ^''x

X' - j-.-_

If/

+2

"M
1

M
T^
1
^

1
k

Fig. 17.6. Equipotentials and electric field lines created by three charges respectively equal to +2 localized at the origin and two negative unit charges localized at
(-1/2,-1/2,0) anc? (1/2,-1/2,0).

eqn = {4 Pi r^2 internalElectricField == 4 Pi r^3 rho

/ 3, 4 Pi r^2 externalElectricField == 4 Pi R'^3 rho /
3}; sol = Flatten[Solve[eqn, {internalElectricField,
externalElectricField}] ]

{internalElectricField

r rho

externalElectricField

R^ rho^

Clear[electricField]
e l e c t r i c F i e l d [ r _ ] := If [r < R, r rho / 3 , R'^3 rho / (3 r'^2)]
plE = P l o t [ e l e c t r i c F i e l d [ r ] / . {R -^ l , r h o -^ 1}, {r, 0, 5 } ,
P l o t S t y l e -^ {RGBColor[0,0,l]}, DisplayFunction -> I d e n t i t y ] ;

17.1 Potential and Field

337

tl = Graphics [Text C inside'\ {0.5, 0.33}]];

t2 = Graphics[Text[''outside'', {3, 0.33}]];
rl = Graphics[{RGBColor[0.5, 0.4, 0 ] ,
Rectangle[{0, 0}, {1, 0.36}]}];
r2 = Graphics[{RGBColor[0.8, 0.8, 0 ] ,
Rectangle[{1, 0}, {5, 0.36}]}];
Show[{rl, r2, plE, tl, t2}, Axes -^ False, Frame -^ True,
TextStyle -^ {FontSlant -^ ''Italic", FontSize -^ 12},
FrameLabel -> {"r'', "E(r)''}, RotateLabel -^ False,
FrameTicks -^ {{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {0. 05, 0.15, 0.25, 0.35},
{} {}} Display-Function > $DisplayFunction] ;

0,35

0,25
E(r)

0,15

0,05

Fig. 17.7. Electric field created by a uniformly charged sphere as a function of the
distance r from the sphere center.

RotateLabel specifies whether labels on vertical frame axes should be rotated

to be vertical.
The order of the graphics objects in Show is important, The order {plE, t l ,
t 2 , r l , r2} would mask the plot and the text. The list of graphics objects
has to start with the colored rectangles.
The electric potential can be derived integrating the radial electric field component.

338

17 Electrostatics

externalElectricPotential[r_] = - Integrate[R"3 rho /(3 r"2),

r]

R^ rho
3 r

internalElectricPotential[r_] = externalElectricPotential[R]
Integrate[r rho / 3, {r, R, r}] // Simplify

- ( r 2 - 3 R^) rho

Clear[electricPotential]
electricPotential[r_] := If [r < R, - (r^2 - 3 R'^2) rho / 6,
R'^3 rho / (3 r)]

plV = Plot[electricPotential[r] /. {R -> l,rho -^ 1}, {r, 0,

5},
PlotStyle -^ {RGBColor[0,0,1]}, DisplayFunction -^ Identity]
tl = Graphics[Text[''inside'\ {0.5, 0.3}]];
t2 = Graphics[Text[''outside'^ {3, 0.3}]];
rl = Graphics[{RGBColor[0.4, 0.4, 0 ] ,
Rectangle[{0, 0}, {1, 0. 5}]}];
r2 = Graphics[{RGBColor[0.8, 0.8, 0 ] ,
Rectangle[{1, 0}, {5, 0.5}]}];
Show[{rl, r2, plV, tl, t2}. Axes -^ False, Frame -> True,
TextStyle -^ {FontSlant -^ ''Italic'', FontSize -^ 12},
FrameLabel -^ {''r", " V ( r ) " } , RotateLabel -> False,
DisplayFunction -^ $DisplayFunction];

17.1 Potential and Field

339

0.5

0.4

0.3

V{r)
0.2

0.1

3
r

F i g . 17.8. Electric potential created by a uniformly charged sphere as a function of

the distance r from the sphere center.