CITY AND GUILDS 9210

UNIT 103
HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY Level 6
Tutorial 1 - Pipe Flow
Outcome 1
Identify and process solutions for problems in fluid mechanics, pipe
flow, rotodynamic machines and open channel flow
The learner can:
1. Determine fluid continuity and solve
problems using Bernoullis equation.
2. Apply energy and momentum
principles in an engineering context.
3. Assess free and forced vortex flow.
4. Assess steady flow in pipes in respect
of:
a pipe friction
b velocity distributions.
c laminar and turbulent flows in
smooth and rough pipes
d Poiseuilles law
e Darcys law
5. Examine the relationship between
friction factor, Reynolds number and
relative roughness.
6. Examine local losses in pipe systems
due to friction.
7. Analyse pipe networks using Hardy
Cross method and Garnish method.
8. Determine the reasons for unsteady
pipe flow in respect of:
a frictionless incompressible
behaviour
b frictionless compressible
behaviour
c surge tanks
9. Describe the one-dimensional theory
of:
a pumps
b turbines
10. Classify pumps and turbines.

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11. Assess pumps and turbines with

respect to:
a characteristics
b specific speed
c cavitations
12. Select a pump for a range of pipe
systems.
13. Assess steady flow in an open
channel using Chezy and Manning
equations.
14. Design non-erodible channels.
15. Recognise the effect of sediment
transportation in open channels.
16. Analyse gradual varied non-uniform
flow in channels
17. Apply energy and momentum
principles to rapidly varied flow in
open channels in respect of:
a hydraulic structures
b short channel transitions
c thin weirs
d flow gauging structures
e hydraulic jump
18. Derive formulae using dimensional
analysis.
19. Investigate the criteria, parameters
and scales for physical models of:
a hydraulic structures.
b rivers etc.
20. Ascertain the relative merits of
physical and mathematical models.

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to

derive Bernoulli's equation for liquids.

find the pressure losses in piped systems due to fluid friction.

find the minor frictional losses in piped systems.

match pumps of known characteristics to a given system.

derive the basic relationship between pressure, velocity and force..

solve problems involving flow through orifices.

solve problems involving flow through Venturi meters.

understand orifice meters.

understand nozzle meters.

understand the principles of jet pumps

solve problems from past papers.

Let's start by revising basics. The flow of a fluid in a pipe depends upon two fundamental
laws, the conservation of mass and energy.

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1.

PIPE FLOW
The solution of pipe flow problems requires the applications of two principles, the law of
conservation of mass (continuity equation) and the law of conservation of energy (Bernoullis
equation)

1.1 CONSERVATION OF MASS

When a fluid flows at a constant rate in a pipe or duct, the mass flow rate must be the same at all
points along the length. Consider a liquid being pumped into a tank as shown (fig.1).
he mass flow rate at any section is

= A um

= density (kg/m3)
um = mean velocity (m/s)
A = Cross Sectional Area (m2)

Fig.1.1
For the system shown the mass flow rate at (1), (2) and (3) must be the same so
1A1u1 = 2A2u2 = 3A3u3
In the case of liquids the density is equal and cancels so
A1u1 = A2u2 = A3u3 = Q

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1.2 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

ENERGY FORMS
FLOW ENERGY
This is the energy a fluid possesses by virtue of its pressure.
The formula is F.E. = pQ Joules
p is the pressure (Pascals)
Q is volume rate (m3)
POTENTIAL OR GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY
This is the energy a fluid possesses by virtue of its altitude relative to a datum level.
The formula is P.E. = mgz Joules
is mass (kg)
z is altitude (m)
KINETIC ENERGY
This is the energy a fluid possesses by virtue of its velocity.
The formula is K.E. = mum2 Joules
um is mean velocity (m/s)
INTERNAL ENERGY
This is the energy a fluid possesses by virtue of its temperature. It is usually expressed relative to
0oC.The formula is U = mc
c is the specific heat capacity (J/kg oC)
is the temperature in oC
In the following work, internal energy is not considered in the energy balance.
SPECIFIC ENERGY
Specific energy is the energy per kg so the three energy forms as specific energy are as follows.
F.E./m = pQ/m = p/ Joules/kg
P.E/m. = gz Joules/kg
K.E./m = u2 Joules/kg
ENERGY HEAD
If the energy terms are divided by the weight mg, the result is energy per Newton. Examining the
units closely we have J/N = N m/N = metres.
It is normal to refer to the energy in this form as the energy head. The three energy terms expressed
this way are as follows.
F.E./mg = p/g = h
P.E./mg = z
K.E./mg = u2 /2g
The flow energy term is called the pressure head and this follows since earlier it was shown that:
p/g = h. This is the height that the liquid would rise to in a vertical pipe connected to the system.
The potential energy term is the actual altitude relative to a datum.
The term u2/2g is called the kinetic head and this is the pressure head that would result if the velocity
is converted into pressure.

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1.3 BERNOULLIS EQUATION

Bernoullis equation is based on the conservation of energy. If no energy is added to the system as
work or heat then the total energy of the fluid is conserved. Remember that internal (thermal energy)
has not been included.
The total energy ET at (1) and (2) on the diagram (fig.3.1) must be equal so :

E T p1Q1 mgz 1 m

u 12
u2
p 2 Q 2 mgz 2 m 2
2
2

Dividing by mass gives the specific energy form

E T p1
u2 p
u2

gz 1 1 2 gz 2 2
m 1
2 2
2
Dividing by g gives the energy terms per unit weight

ET
p1
u 12
p2
u 22

z1

z2
mg g1
2g g 2
2g
Since p/g = pressure head h then the total head is given by the following.

h T h 1 z1

u 12
u2
h2 z2 2
2g
2g

This is the head form of the equation in which each term is an energy head in metres. z is the
potential or gravitational head and u2/2g is the kinetic or velocity head.
For liquids the density is the same at both points so multiplying by g gives the pressure form. The
total pressure is as follows.

p T p1 gz 1

u 12
u 2
p 2 gz 2 2
2
2

In real systems there is friction in the pipe and elsewhere. This produces heat that is absorbed by the
liquid causing a rise in the internal energy and hence the temperature. In fact the temperature rise
will be very small except in extreme cases because it takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature. If
the pipe is long, the energy might be lost as heat transfer to the surroundings. Since the equations did
not include internal energy, the balance is lost and we need to add an extra term to the right side of
the equation to maintain the balance. This term is either the head lost to friction h L or the pressure
loss pL.

h 1 z1

u 12
u2
h2 z2 2 hL
2g
2g

The pressure form of the equation is as follows.

u 12
u 22
p1 gz 1
p 2 gz 2
pL
2
2
The total energy of the fluid (excluding internal energy) is no longer constant.
Note that if a point is a free surface the pressure is normally atmospheric but if gauge pressures are
used, the pressure and pressure head becomes zero. Also, if the surface area is large (say a large
tank), the velocity of the surface is small and when squared becomes negligible so the kinetic energy
term is neglected (made zero).

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WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

The diagram shows a pump delivering water through as pipe 30 mm bore to a tank. Find the pressure
at point (1) when the flow rate is 1.4 dm3/s. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The loss of pressure
due to friction is 50 kPa.

Fig.1.2
SOLUTION
Area of bore A = x 0.032/4 = 706.8 x 10-6 m2.
Flow rate Q = 1.4 dm3/s = 0.0014 m3/s
Mean velocity in pipe = Q/A = 1.98 m/s
Apply Bernoulli between point (1) and the surface of the tank.

p1 gz1

u12
2

p 2 gz 2

u 22
2

pL

Make the low level the datum level and z1 = 0 and z2 = 25.
The pressure on the surface is zero gauge pressure.
PL = 50 000 Pa
The velocity at (1) is 1.98 m/s and at the surface it is zero.

1000 x1.98 2
p1 0
0 1000 x9.9125 0 50000
2
p1 293.29kPa gauge pressure

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WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The diagram shows a tank that is drained by a horizontal pipe. Calculate the pressure head at point
(2) when the valve is partly closed so that the flow rate is reduced to 20 dm3/s. The pressure loss is
equal to 2 m head.

Fig.1.3
SOLUTION
Since point (1) is a free surface, h1 = 0 and u1 is assumed negligible.
The datum level is point (2) so z1 = 15 and z2 = 0.
Q = 0.02 m3/s
A2 = d2/4 = x (0.052)/4 = 1.963 x 10-3 m2.
u2 = Q/A = 0.02/1.963 x 10-3 = 10.18 m/s
Bernoullis equation in head form is as follows.

h 1 z1

u 12
u2
h2 z2 2 hL
2g
2g

0 15 0 h 2 0

10.18 2
2
2 x 9.81

h 2 7.72m

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WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The diagram shows a horizontal nozzle discharging into the atmosphere. The inlet has a bore area of
600 mm2 and the exit has a bore area of 200 mm 2. Calculate the flow rate when the inlet pressure is
400 Pa. Assume there is no energy loss.

Fig. 1.4

SOLUTION
Apply Bernoulli between (1) and (2)
u 2
u 2
p1 gz 1 1 p 2 gz 2 2 p L
2
2
Using gauge pressure, p2 = 0 and being horizontal the potential terms cancel. The loss term
is zero so the equation simplifies to the following.
u 2 u 2
p1 1 2
2
2
From the continuity equation we have
Q
Q
u1

1 666.7Q
A1 600 x 10-6
Q
Q
u2

5 000 Q
A 2 200 x 10-6
Putting this into Bernoullis equation we have the following.

1666.7Q 2
5000Q 2
400 1000 x
1000 x
2
2
9 2
9 2
400 1.389 x10 Q 12.5 x 10 Q

400 11.11 x10 9 Q 2

400
Q2
36 x10 9
11.11 x10 9
Q 189.7 x 10- 6 m3 /s or 189.7 cm 3 /s

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1.4 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

Consider a tank draining into another tank at a lower level as shown. There are small vertical tubes at
points along the length to indicate the pressure head (h). Relative to a datum, the total energy head is
hT = h + z + u2/2g and this is shown as line A.
The hydraulic grade line is the line joining the free surfaces in the tubes and represents the sum of h
and z only. This is shown as line B and it is always below the line of h T by the velocity head u2/2g.
Note that at exit from the pipe, the velocity head is not recovered but lost as friction as the emerging
jet collides with the static liquid. The free surface of the tank does not rise.
The only reason why the hydraulic grade line is not horizontal is because there is a frictional loss hf.
The actual gradient of the line at any point is the rate of change with length i = hf/L

Fig.1.5

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1.

A pipe 100 mm bore diameter carries oil of density 900 kg/m 3 at a rate of 4 kg/s. The pipe reduces to
60 mm bore diameter and rises 120 m in altitude. The pressure at this point is atmospheric (zero
gauge). Assuming no frictional losses, determine:
i. The volume/s (4.44 dm3/s)
ii. The velocity at each section (0.566 m/s and 1.57 m/s)
iii. The pressure at the lower end. (1.06 MPa)

2.

A pipe 120 mm bore diameter carries water with a head of 3 m. The pipe descends 12 m in altitude
and reduces to 80 mm bore diameter. The pressure head at this point is 13 m.
The density is 1000 kg/m3. Assuming no losses, determine
i. The velocity in the small pipe (7 m/s)
ii. The volume flow rate. (35 dm3/s)

3.

A horizontal nozzle reduces from 100 mm bore diameter at inlet to 50 mm at exit. It carries liquid of
density 1000 kg/m3 at a rate of 0.05 m3/s. The pressure at the wide end is 500 kPa (gauge).
Calculate the pressure at the narrow end neglecting friction. (196 kPa)

4.

A pipe carries oil of density 800 kg/m3. At a given point (1) the pipe has a bore area of 0.005 m 2 and
the oil flows with a mean velocity of 4 m/s with a gauge pressure of 800 kPa. Point (2) is further
along the pipe and there the bore area is 0.002 m 2 and the level is 50 m above point (1). Calculate the
pressure at this point (2). Neglect friction. (374 kPa)

5.

A horizontal nozzle has an inlet velocity u1 and an outlet velocity u2 and discharges into the
atmosphere. Show that the velocity at exit is given by the following formulae.
u2 ={2p/ + u12}
and
u2 ={2gh + u12}

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PRESSURE LOSSES IN PIPE SYSTEMS

2 .1 REVIEW OF EARLIER WORK

FRICTION COEFFICIENT
The friction coefficient is a convenient idea that can be used to calculate the pressure drop in a pipe.
It is defined as follows.

Cf

Wall Shear Stress

Dynamic Pressure

p = um2

Dp
4L
Wall Shear Stress
2Dp
Cf

Dynamic Pressure 4Lu 2m

From Poiseuilles equation p

2D
32Lu m

Hence
C

f
2
D2
4Lu m

32Lu
16
16

2
2
D u m D R e

DARCY FORMULA

4C f Lu 2m
2D

This is often expressed as a friction head hf

hf

p 4C f Lu 2m

g
2gD

This is the Darcy formula. In the case of laminar flow, Darcy's and Poiseuille's equations must give
the same result so equating them gives

4C f Lu 2m 32Lu m

2gD
gD 2
16
16
Cf

u m D R e
This is the same result as before for laminar flow.

A formula that gives an approximate answer for any surface roughness is that given by Haaland.
1.11

6.9

3.6 log 10

Cf

R e 3.71

This gives a very close model of the Moody chart covered earlier.

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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Determine the friction coefficient for a pipe 100 mm bore with a mean surface roughness of 0.06 mm
when a fluid flows through it with a Reynolds number of 20 000.
SOLUTION
The mean surface roughness = k/d = 0.06/100 = 0.0006
Locate the line for = k/d = 0.0006.
Trace the line until it meets the vertical line at Re = 20 000. Read of the value of C f horizontally
on the left. Answer Cf = 0.0067
Check using the formula from Haaland.

6.9 1.11
3.6 log 10

Cf
R e 3.71
1.11
1
6.9
0.0006
3.6 log 10

Cf
20000 3.71
1.11
6.9
1
0.0006
3.6 log 10

Cf
20000 3.71
1
12.206
Cf
1

C f 0.0067

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WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Oil flows in a pipe 80 mm bore with a mean velocity of 4 m/s.
The mean surface roughness is 0.02 mm and the length is 60 m.
The dynamic viscosity is 0.005 N s/m2 and the density is 900 kg/m3. Determine the pressure loss.
SOLUTION
Re = u d/ = (900 x 4 x 0.08)/0.005 = 57600
= k/d = 0.02/80 = 0.00025
From the chart Cf = 0.0052
hf = 4Cf L u2/2dg = (4 x 0.0052 x 60 x 42)/(2 x 9.81 x 0.08) = 12.72 m
p = g hf = 900 x 9.81 x 12.72 = 112.32 kPa.

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2.2 MINOR LOSSES

Minor losses occur in the following circumstances.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Vi.

Exit from a pipe into a tank.

Entry to a pipe from a tank.
Sudden enlargement in a pipe.
Sudden contraction in a pipe.
Bends in a pipe.
Any other source of restriction such as pipe fittings and valves.

Fig.2.1
In general, minor losses are neglected when the pipe friction is large in comparison but for short pipe
systems with bends, fittings and changes in section, the minor losses are the dominant factor.
In general, the minor losses are expressed as a fraction of the kinetic head or dynamic pressure in the
smaller pipe.
Minor head loss = k u2/2g

Minor pressure loss = ku2

Values of k can be derived for standard cases but for items like elbows and valves in a pipeline, it is
determined by experimental methods.
Minor losses can also be expressed in terms of fluid resistance R as follows.

u2
Q2
8Q 2
8k
hL k
k
k 2 4 RQ 2 Hence R 2 4
2
2
2A
D
D
pL k

8gQ 2
8kg
RQ 2 hence R 2 4
2 4
D
D

Before you go on to look at the derivations, you must first learn about the coefficients of contraction
and velocity.

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COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION Cc

The fluid approaches the entrance from all directions and the radial velocity causes the jet to contract
just inside the pipe. The jet then spreads out to fill the pipe. The point where the jet is smallest is
called the VENA CONTRACTA.

Fig.2.2
The coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as

Cc = Aj/Ao

Aj is the cross sectional area of the jet and Ao is the c.s.a. of the pipe. For a round pipe this becomes
Cc = dj2/do2.
COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY Cv
The coefficient of velocity is defined as

Cv = actual velocity/theoretical velocity

In this instance it refers to the velocity at the vena-contracta but as you will see later on, it applies to
other situations also.
EXIT FROM A PIPE INTO A TANK.
The liquid emerges from the pipe and collides with stationary liquid causing it to swirl about before
finally coming to rest. All the kinetic energy is dissipated by friction. It follows that all the kinetic
head is lost so k = 1.0

Fig.2.3

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ENTRY TO A PIPE FROM A TANK

The value of k varies from 0.78 to 0.04 depending on the shape of the inlet. A good rounded inlet has
a low value but the case shown is the worst.

Fig.2.4
SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT
This is similar to a pipe discharging into a tank but this time it does not collide with static fluid but
with slower moving fluid in the large pipe. The resulting loss coefficient is given by the following
expression.

d
k 1 1
d

Fig.2.5
SUDDEN CONTRACTION
This is similar to the entry to a pipe from a tank. The best case gives k = 0 and the worse case is for a
sharp corner which gives k = 0.5.

Fig.2.6
BENDS AND FITTINGS
The k value for bends depends upon the radius of the bend and the diameter of the pipe. The k value
for bends and the other cases is on various data sheets. For fittings, the manufacturer usually gives
the k value. Often instead of a k value, the loss is expressed as an equivalent length of straight pipe
that is to be added to L in the Darcy formula.

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WORKED EXAMPLE 6
A tank of water empties by gravity through a horizontal pipe into another tank. There is a sudden
enlargement in the pipe as shown. At a certain time, the difference in levels is 3 m. Each pipe is 2 m
long and has a friction coefficient Cf = 0.005. The inlet loss constant is K = 0.3.
Calculate the volume flow rate at this point.

Fig.2.7
SOLUTION
There are five different sources of pressure loss in the system and these may be expressed in terms of
the fluid resistance as follows. The head loss is made up of five different parts. It is usual to express
each as a fraction of the kinetic head as follows.
Resistance pipe A
Resistance in pipe B
Loss at entry K=0.3

R1

32C f L

32 x 0.005 x 2
1.0328 x 10 6 s 2 m 5
5 2
g x 0.02

gD A 2
32C f L 32 x 0.005 x 2
R2

4.250x10 3 s 2 m 5
5 2
5 2
gD B
g x 0.06
8K
8 x 0.3
R3 2 4
158 s 2 m 5
2
4
g x 0.02
g D A
5

2
2

dA

20

1 0.79
Loss at sudden enlargement. k 1
d

60

8K
8x0.79
R4 2 4 2
407.7 s 2 m 5
4
g x 0.02
g D A
8K
8x1
Loss at exit
K=1
R5 2 4 2
63710 s 2 m 5
4
g
x
0.06
g D B

Total losses.

h L R1Q2 R 2Q2 R 3Q2 R 4Q2 R 5Q2

h L (R1 R 2 R 2 R 4 R 5 )Q2 1.101 x 106 Q2

BERNOULLIS EQUATION
Apply Bernoulli between the free surfaces (1) and (2)

h 1 z1

u 12
u2
h2 z2 2 hL
2g
2g

On the free surface the velocities are small and about equal and the pressures are both atmospheric so
the equation reduces to the following.
z1 - z2 = hL = 3 = 1.101 x 106 Q2
Q2 = 2.724 x 10-6
Q = 1.65 x 10-3 m3/s

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2.3 SIPHONS
Liquid will siphon from a tank to a lower level even if the pipe connecting them rises above the level
of both tanks as shown in the diagram. Calculation will reveal that the pressure at point (2) is lower
than atmospheric pressure (a vacuum) and there is a limit to this pressure when the liquid starts to
turn into vapour. For water about 8 metres is the practical limit that it can be sucked (8 m water head
of vacuum).

Fig.2.8

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
A tank of water empties by gravity through a siphon. The difference in levels is 3 m and the highest
point of the siphon is 2 m above the top surface level and the length of pipe from inlet to the highest
point is 2.5 m. The pipe has a bore of 25 mm and length 6 m. The friction coefficient for the pipe is
0.007.The inlet loss coefficient K is 0.7.
Calculate the volume flow rate and the pressure at the highest point in the pipe.
SOLUTION
There are three different sources of pressure loss in the system and these may be expressed in terms
of the fluid resistance as follows.
Pipe Resistance
Entry Loss Resistance
Exit loss Resistance

Total Resistance

R1

32C f L 32 x 0.007 x 6

1.422 x 10 6 s 2 m 5
5 2
5 2
gD
g x 0.025
8K
8 x 0.7
R2 2 4 2
15.1 x 10 3 s 2 m 5
4
g D
g x 0.025
8K
8x1
R3 2 4 2
21.57 x 10 3 s 2 m 5
4
g D
g x 0.025

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1.458 x 106 s2 m-5

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Apply Bernoulli between the free surfaces (1) and (3)

u 32
u 12
h 1 z1
h 3 z3
hL
2g
2g
01 z 1 0 0 z 3 0 h L
z1 z 3 h L 3
Flow rate

z1 z 3
3

1.434x10 3 m 3 / s
RT
1.458 x 10 6

Bore Area A=D2/4 = x 0.0252/4 = 490.87 x 10-6 m2

Velocity in Pipe u = Q/A = 1.434 x 10 -3/490.87 x 10-6 = 2.922 m/s
Apply Bernoulli between the free surfaces (1) and (2)

h 1 z1

u 12
u2
h2 z2 2 hL
2g
2g

0 0 0 h2 2

2.922 2
hL
2g

2.922 2
hL
2g
h 2 2 0.435 h L 2.435 h L
h 2 2 h L

Calculate the losses between (1) and (2)

Pipe friction Resistance is proportionally smaller by the length ratio.
R1 = (2.5/6) x1.422 x 106 = 0.593 x 106
Entry Resistance

R2 = 15.1 x 103 as before

Total resistance

RT = 608.1 x 103

Head loss

hL = RT Q2 = 1.245 m

The pressure head at point (2) is hence h2 = -2.435 -1.245 = -3.68 m head

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3.

MATCHING PUMPS TO A PIPE SYSTEM.

The ideal pump for any given pipe system will produce the required flow rate at the required
pressure. The maximum efficiency of the pump will occur at these conditions. These points are
considered in detail in a later tutorial.
The relationship between flow rate Q, pressure head H and efficiency depend upon the speed but
most of all, they depend upon the type of pump. The diagram below shows typical relationships.

Figure 3.1
The relationship between pressure head and flow rate for a given pipe system is generally one that
requires a bigger head for a bigger flow rate. The exact relationship depends upon the losses. If the
pump is required to raise the level of the flow, then the required head h is the change in level (lift)
plus the losses. The losses are due to pipe friction ( and hence the friction factor Cf) , the losses at
entry, exit, bends, sudden changes in section and fittings such as valves. The relationship is typically
as shown.

Figure 3.2
If a given pump is to work with a given system, the operating point must be common to each. In
other words H = h at the required flow rate.

Figure 3.3
The solution of problems depends upon finding the relationship between head and flow rate for both
the pump and the system and finding the point where the graphs cross.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1.

A pipe carries oil at a mean velocity of 6 m/s. The pipe is 5 km long and 1.5 m diameter. The surface
roughness is 0.8 mm. The density is 890 kg/m 3 and the dynamic viscosity is 0.014 N s/m 2.
Determine the friction coefficient from the Moody chart and go on to calculate the friction head hf.
(Ans. Cf = 0.0045 hf = 110.1 m)

2.

The diagram shows a tank draining into another lower tank through a pipe. Note the velocity and
pressure is both zero on the surface on a large tank. Calculate the flow rate using the data given on
the diagram. (Ans. 7.16 dm3/s)

Fig. 3.4
3.

Water flows through the sudden pipe expansion shown below at a flow rate of 3 dm 3/s. Upstream of
the expansion the pipe diameter is 25 mm and downstream the diameter is 40 mm. There are
pressure tappings at section (1), about half a diameter upstream, and at section (2), about 5 diameters
downstream. At section (1) the gauge pressure is 0.3 bar.
Evaluate the following.
(i) The gauge pressure at section (2) (0.387 bar)
(ii) The total force exerted by the fluid on the expansion. (-23 N)

Fig. 3.5
4.

A tank of water empties by gravity through a siphon into a lower tank. The difference in levels is 6 m
and the highest point of the siphon is 2 m above the top surface level. The length of pipe from the
inlet to the highest point is 3 m. The pipe has a bore of 30 mm and length 11 m. The friction
coefficient for the pipe is 0.006.The inlet loss coefficient K is 0.6.
Calculate the volume flow rate and the pressure at the highest point in the pipe.
(Answers 2.378 dm3/s and 4.31 m)

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5.

A domestic water supply consists of a large tank with a loss free-inlet to a 10 mm diameter pipe of
length 20 m, that contains 9 right angles bends. The pipe discharges to atmosphere 8.0 m below the
free surface level of the water in the tank.
Evaluate the flow rate of water assuming that there is a loss of 0.75 velocity heads in each bend and
that friction in the pipe is given by the Blasius equation C f = 0.079(Re)-0.25
The dynamic viscosity is 0.89 x 10-3 and the density is 997 kg/m3.
(0.118 dm3/s).

6.

A pump A whose characteristics are given in table 1, is used to pump water from an open
tank through 40 m of 70 mm diameter pipe of friction factor C f=0.005 to another open tank
in which the surface level of the water is 5.0 m above that in the supply tank.
Determine the flow rate when the pump is operated at 1450 rev/min.
(7.8 dm3/s)
It is desired to increase the flow rate and 3 possibilities are under investigation.
(i) To install a second identical pump in series with pump A.
(ii) To install a second identical pump in parallel with pump A.
(iii) To increase the speed of the pump by 10%.
Predict the flow rate that would occur in each of these situations.
Head-Flow Characteristics of pump A when operating at 1450 rev/min
Head (m)

9.75

8.83

7.73

6.90

5.50

3.83

Flow Rate (l/s)

4.73

6.22

7.57

8.36

9.55

10.75

Table 1

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7.

A steel pipe of 0.075 m inside diameter and length 120 m is connected to a large reservoir.
Water is discharged to atmosphere through a gate valve at the free end, which is 6 m below
the surface level in the reservoir. There are four right angle bends in the pipe line. Find the
rate of discharge when the valve is fully open. (ans. 8.3 dm3/s).The kinematic viscosity of
the water may be taken to be 1.14 x 10-6 m2/s. Use a value of the friction factor Cf taken
from table 2 which gives Cf as a function of the Reynolds number Re and allow for other
losses as follows.
at entry to the pipe 0.5 velocity heads.
at each right angle bend 0.9 velocity heads.
for a fully open gate valve 0.2 velocity heads.
Re x 105
Cf

0.987
0.00448

1.184
0.00432

1.382
0.00419

Table 2
8.

(i) Sketch diagrams showing the relationship between Reynolds number, Re, and friction
factor, Cf , for the head lost when oil flows through pipes of varying degrees of roughness.
Discuss the importance of the information given in the diagrams when specifying the
pipework for a particular system.
(ii) The connection between the supply tank and the suction side of a pump consists of 0.4 m
of horizontal pipe, a gate valve one elbow of equivalent pipe length 0.7 m and a vertical pipe
down to the tank.
If the diameter of the pipes is 25 mm and the flow rate is 30 l/min, estimate the maximum
distance at which the supply tank may be placed below the pump inlet in order that the
pressure there is no less than 0.8 bar absolute. (Ans. 1.78 m)
The fluid has kinematic viscosity 40x10-6 m2/s and density 870 kg/m3.
Assume
(a) for laminar flow Cf =16/(Re) and for turbulent flow Cf = 0.08/(Re)0.25.
(b) head loss due to friction is 4Cf u2L/2gD and due to fittings is Ku2/2g.
where K= 0.72 for an elbow and K= 0.25 for a gate valve.
What would be a suitable diameter for the delivery pipe?

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4.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE DEVICES

Differential pressure devices produce differential pressure as a result of changes in fluid
velocity. They have many uses but mainly they are used for flow measurement. In this
section you will apply Bernoulli's equation to such devices. You will also briefly examine
forces produced by momentum changes.

4.1

GENERAL RELATIONSHIP
Many devices make use of the transition of flow energy into kinetic energy. Consider a flow
of liquid which is constrained to flow from one sectional area into a smaller sectional area as
shown below.

Fig.4.1
The velocity in the smaller bore u2 is given by the continuity equation as
u2 = u1A1/A2
Let A1/A2 = r

u2 = ru1

In BS1042 the symbol used is m but r is used here to avoid confusion with mass.
If we apply Bernoulli (head form) between (1) and (2) and ignore energy losses we have:
u2
u2
h1 z1 1 h2 z 2 2
2g
2g
For a horizontal system z1=z2 so
u2
u2
h1 1 h2 2
2g
2g

2 g h1 h2 u 22 u12 u12 r 2 1
u1

2 g h1 h2
r 2 1

Vol / s Q A1u1 A1

2 g h1 h2
r 2 1

In terms of pressure rather than head we get, by substituting p= gh

Q A1

2p
r 2 1

To find the mass flow remember m = Au = Q

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Because we did not allow for energy loss, we introduce a coefficient of discharge Cd to
correct the answer resulting in

Q C d A1

2p
r 2 1

The value of Cd depends upon many factors and is not constant over a wide range of flows.
BS1042 should be used to determine suitable values. It will be shown later that if there is a
contraction of the jet, the formula needs further modification.
For a given device, if we regard Cd as constant then the equation may be reduced to :
Q = K(p)0.5
K is the meter constant.
4.2 MOMENTUM and PRESSURE FORCES
Changes in velocities mean changes in momentum and Newton's second law tells us that this is
accompanied by a force such that
Force = rate of change of momentum.
Pressure changes in the fluid must also be considered as these also produce a force. Translated into a
form that helps us solve the force produced on devices such as those considered here, we use the
equation
F = (p )
u.
When dealing with devices that produce a change in direction, such as pipe bends, this has to be
considered more carefully and this is covered in chapter 4. In the case of sudden changes in section,
we may apply the formula
F = (p1A1 +

u1) - (p2 A2 +

u2)

Point 1 is upstream and point 2 is downstream.

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WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A pipe carrying water experiences a sudden reduction in area as shown. The area at point (1) is 0.002
m2 and at point (2) it is 0.001 m2. The pressure at point (2) is 500 kPa and the velocity is 8 m/s. The
loss coefficient K is 0.4. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. Calculate the following.
i.
ii.
iii.

The mass flow rate.

The pressure at point (1)
The force acting on the section.

Fig.4.2
SOLUTION
u1 = u2A2/A1 = (8 x 0.001)/0.002 = 4 m/s
= A1u1 = 1000 x 0.002 x 4 = 8 kg/s.
Q = A1u1 = 0.002 x 4 = 0.008 m3/s
Pressure loss at contraction = k u12 = x 1000 x 0.4 x 42 = 3200 Pa
Apply Bernoulli between (1) and (2)

u 12
u 22
p1
p2
pL
2
2
1000 x 4 2
1000 x 8 2
p1
500 x 10 3
3200
2
2
p1 527.2 kPa
F = (p1A1 + mu1)- (p2 A2 + mu2)
F = [(527.2 x 103 x 0.002) + (8 x 4)] [500 x 103 x 0.001) + (8 x 8)]
F = 1054.4 + 32 500 64
F = 522.4 N

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5.

SPECIFIC DEVICES
We will now examine specific d.p. devices starting with an orifice. All these devices appear
in BS1042

5.1. ORIFICE METERS

When a liquid flows through an orifice it experiences frictional energy loss and a contraction
in the diameter of the jet, both of which affect the value of C d. The diagram below shows
this contraction which is due to the fluid approaching the orifice from radial directions and
not along the centre line. This makes the velocity of the jet greater than it would otherwise
be because of the reduction in area. In addition to this, there is a 2 or 3 % reduction in
velocity due to friction. The value of Cd depends upon the sharpness of the orifice edge. In a
sharp edged orifice Cd is typically 0.62 but is slightly larger if the sharp edge is replaced by
a square edge.

Figure 5.1
5.1.1

COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION

The coefficient of contraction is defined as

Cc = Area of Jet/Area of Orifice =Aj/Ao = Dj2/Do2
5.1.2

COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY

The coefficient of velocity is defined as

Cv = Actual velocity of jet/theoretical velocity
The theoretical velocity = (2p/)
It follows that the actual velocity is

u = Cv(2p/)

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5.1.3

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE

The flow rate through the orifice is the product of area and velocity so
Q = Aju= CcCvAo(2p/)
The product of CcCv must be the coefficient of discharge so it follows that
Cd =CcCv
Q = Cd Ao(2p/)

and

This formula neglects the approach velocity. The kinetic energy up stream of the orifice is
not usually neglected. Let's do the derivation of the flow formula again.
FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE
Referring to fig.5.1, applying Bernoulli between point (1) upstream and the vena-contracta
(2) we have
p1 + u12 = p2 + u22
p1 - p2 = (u22 - u12)
u1A1= u2A2

u1= u2A2/A1 = u2d22/d12

A2/A0= Cc

= d22/d02

d22=Ccd02

u1= u2Ccd02/d12 = u2Cc 2

1
p1 p 2 p u 22 1 Cc2 4
2
2p
u2
1 C c2 4

=d0/d1

This is the velocity at the vena contracta. If friction is taken into account a coefficient of
velocity must be used to correct it.
2p
u 2 CV
1 Cc2 4

Q = A2u2

Q C v C c Ao
Q C d Ao

A2 = CcA0
2p
1 C c2 4

2p
1 C c2 4

This formula may be rearranged to give the pressure drop if the flow is known.

Q
p
C d Ao

1 C c2 4
2

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The pressure tapping points are normally placed at one pipe diameter upstream and one half
pipe diameter downstream in order to get the maximum d.p. However if the maximum value
is not important, the d.p. is more easily obtained by the use of corner or flange tappings. The
results are still valid but less d.p. is obtained.

Fig.5.2 showing tapping positions

Figure 5.2 shows how the flow after the orifice must expand to the full bore of the pipe. The
velocity in the full bore is less than the jet so the jet must be slowed down. It can only do
this by colliding with the slower moving fluid downstream and consequently there is a lot of
friction and energy loss in the turbulent mixing taking place. The result is that only a small
amount of kinetic energy is reconverted into pressure downstream and the overall pressure
loss for the system is high. The loss from the vena contracta (2) to the point downstream
where the flow has settled (3) is the loss due to sudden expansion covered earlier and is
given by:
pressure loss due to expansion = (u2 -u3)2
Further pressure losses are produced by skin friction and could be estimated. The problem is that
the mean velocity is uncertain in the areas near the orifice so it is difficult to apply Darcy's
formula.
Figure 5.3 shows the way that pressure changes on approach to and departure from the orifice.

Figure 5.3
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(c) D. J. Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

WORKED EXAMPLE No.9

The figure shows a sharp edged orifice plate of diameter 20 mm in a horizontal pipe of
diameter 25 mm. There are three pressure tappings as follows.
(1) at about 3 pipe diameters upstream of the orifice plate. (2) at half a pipe diameter
downstream of the orifice plate and (3) at about 5 pipe diameters downstream of the orifice
plate. The tappings read pressures p1, p2 and p3 respectively.
If there is a flow rate of 0.8 x 10 -3 m3/s of water at 25oC, evaluate the pressure differences
p1- p2 and p1- p3. Calculate the % of pressure recovered downstream of the orifice. It may
be assumed that the discharge coefficient is 0.64 and the contraction coefficient is 0.74. The
density and viscosity for water are usually given on the front of the exam paper. The density
is 998 kg/m3.

Fig.5.4
SOLUTION
First the pressure drop from 1 to 2. There is friction in the jet so the formula to be used is
p = (Q/CdA0)2(1 - Cc2 4)/2
A0= p x 0.022/4 = 0.0003142 m2 b = 20/25 = 0.8
p = {0.0008/(0.64x 0.0003142)2}(1 - 0.742 x 0.84)998/2
p =p1- p2 = 6.126 kPa
This includes the pressure loss due to friction in the jet as well as due to the change in
velocity.
u1 = u3 = 0.0008/(px0.0252/4 ) =1.63 m/s
A2 = Cc x p x 0.022/4 = 0.000232 m2
u2 = 0.0008/0.000232 = 3.44 m/s
The loss due to sudden expansion = (u2 -u3)2/2 = 998(3.44 - 1.63)2/2 = 1.63 kPa
Now we must find the pressure loss due to friction in the jet.
Ideal jet velocity = u2/Cv Cv= Cd/Cc = 0.64/0.74 = 0.865
Ideal jet velocity = 3.44/0.865 = 3.98 m/s
Loss of kinetic energy as pressure = (/2)(3.982 -3.442) = 1.99 kPa
p1 + u12/2 = p3 + u32/2
p1 - p3 = (/2)(u32-u12) + losses
u3 = u3
p1 - p3 = losses = 1.63 kPa + 1.99 kPa = 3.62 kPa
The pressure regained downstream = 6.126 - 3.62 = 2.5 kPa
The diffuser efficiency = 2.5/6.126 = 41%

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5.2. VENTURI METERS

The Venturi Meter is designed to taper down to the throat gradually and then taper out again.
No contraction occurs in the flow so Cc = 1. The outlet (diffuser) is designed to expand the
flow gradually so that the kinetic energy at the throat is reconverted into pressure with little
friction. Consequently the coefficient of discharge is much better than for an orifice meter.
The overall pressure loss is much better than for an orifice meter.

Fig.5.5 showing pressure distribution

If there is no vena-contracta then the flow rate is given by the formula
2p
Q C d A1
r 2 1
Cd = Cv and is about 0.97 for a good meter.

The draw back of the Venturi is the expense involved in the design. The pressure tappings
have special inserts in the bore to gather the pressure from around the circumference.

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5.3 NOZZLE METER

The nozzle meter is a compromise between the orifice and the venturi. It may be easily fitted
in a pipe between flanges with flange or corner tappings. There is no contraction of the jet
but there is little pressure recovery downstream. The loss due to sudden expansion occurs
down stream. The flow formula is the same as before.

Fig.5.6 Nozzle Meter

WORKED EXAMPLE No.10

A nozzle is 100 mm diameter at inlet and 20 mm diameter at outlet. The coefficient of
velocity is 0.97 and there is no contraction of the jet. The jet discharges into the atmosphere.
The static pressure at inlet is 300 kPa gauge. The density is 1000 kg/m 3.
Calculate:
a. the velocity at exit.
b. the flow rate.
c. the pressure loss due to friction expressed as a fraction of the dynamic pressure at outlet.
d. the force on the nozzle.
SOLUTION
The velocity at exit when the inlet velocity is not negligible is
Q = A1Cd[(2p/)/(r2 - 1)]0.5
r = A1/A2 = d12/d22 = (100/20)2 = 25
Cd = Cv Cc = 0.97 x 1 = 0.97
A1 = (p x 0.12)/4 = 0.00785 m2
hence
Q = 0.97x 0.00785 [(2 x 300 x 103/1000)/(252 - 1)]0.5
Q = 0.00747 m3/s
The velocity at inlet = Q/A1 = 0.00747/0.00785 = 0.951 m/s
The velocity at outlet = Q/A2 = 0.00747 x 4/(p x 0.022)= 23.8 m/s
The dynamic pressure of the jet is u22/2 = 1000 x 23.8 2/2 = 282.7 kPa.

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Applying Bernoulli between the inlet (1) and outlet (2) using the pressure form we have
p1 - p2 = u22/2 - u12/2 + pressure loss to friction
3 x 105 = (1000/2)(23.82 - 0.9512) + pressure loss
3 x 105 = 2.827 x 105 + pressure loss
pressure loss = 17.3 kPa
Expressed as a fraction of the dynamic pressure of the jet this is 17.3/ 282.7 or 6.1%.
The force exerted on the water is given by F = p1A1 + - p2 A2

u1 -

u2

We must use gauge pressures to solve this problem because the atmosphere acts on the outer
surface of the nozzle. The mass flow is 7.47 kg/s.
F = 300 x 103 x 0.00785 - 0 + 7.47(0.951 - 23.8) = 2.18 kN
The figure is positive which indicates the force is accelerating the water out of the nozzle.
The force on the nozzle is the reaction to this and is opposite in direction. Think of a
fireman's hose. The force on the nozzle pushes it away from the water like a rocket. The
force to accelerate the water must be supplied by those holding it.

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6.

JET PUMPS
Jet pumps are devices that suck up liquid by the use of a jet discharging into an annular area
as shown.

Fig.6.1 A Typical jet Pump.

The solution of jet pump problems requires the use of momentum as well as energy
considerations. First apply Bernoulli between A and D and assume no frictional losses. Note
that D is a annular area and uD = 4Q/{p(d12-d22)} where d1 is the diameter of the large
pipe and d2 the diameter of the small pipe.
u A2
u2
z A hD D z D
2g
2g
Making A the datum and using gauge pressures we find hA = 0 uA= 0 zA = 0
u D2
0 hD
zD
2g
hA

u D2
zD
2g
From this the head at the point where pipes B and D meet is found.
hD

Next apply the conservation of momentum between the points where B and D join and the
exit at C.
pBAB+ QBuB +pDAD+ QDuD = pCAC+ QCuC
but pC = 0 gauge and pB = pD = p(BD) so
p(BD)A(BD)+ QBuB + QDuD = QCuC
(BD) refers to the area of the large pipe and is the same as AC.
Next apply conservation of mass

QB + QD = QC

QB + QD = QC

With these equations it is possible to solve the velocity and flow rate in pipe B. The
resulting equation is:
1
1
1 2Q B Q D p B A C
1
Q 2B

Q 2D

0
AC

AB AC
AD AC
aQ 2B bQ B c 0 This is a quadratic equation whence
b b 2 4ac
QB
2a

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Take the density of water to be 997 kg/m3 throughout unless otherwise stated.
1.

A Venturi meter is 50 mm bore diameter at inlet and 10 mm bore diameter at the throat. Oil
of density 900 kg/m3 flows through it and a differential pressure head of 80 mm is
produced. Given Cd = 0.92, determine the flow rate in kg/s.
(ans. 0.0815 kg/s).

2.

A Venturi meter is 60 mm bore diameter at inlet and 20 mm bore diameter at the throat.
Water of density 1000 kg/m3 flows through it and a differential pressure head of 150 mm is
produced. Given Cd = 0.95, determine the flow rate in dm3/s.
(ans. 0.515 dm3/s).

3.

Calculate the differential pressure expected from a Venturi meter when the flow rate is 2
dm3/s of water. The area ratio is 4 and Cd is 0.94. The inlet c.s.a. is 900 mm2.
(ans. 41.916 kPa).

4.

Calculate the mass flow rate of water through a Venturi meter when the differential pressure
is 980 Pa given Cd = 0.93, the area ratio is 5 and the inlet c.s.a. is 1000 mm2.
(ans. 0.266 kg/s).

5.

Calculate the flow rate of water through an orifice meter with an area ratio of 4 given C d is
0.62, the pipe area is 900 mm2 and the d.p. is 586 Pa.
(ans. 0.156 dm3/3).

6.

Water flows at a mass flow rate 0f 0.8 kg/s through a pipe of diameter 30 mm fitted with a
15 mm diameter sharp edged orifice.
There are pressure tappings (a) 60 mm upstream of the orifice, (b) 15 mm downstream of the
orifice and (c) 150 mm downstream of the orifice, recording pressure pa, pb and pc
respectively. Assuming a contraction coefficient 0f 0.68, evaluate
(i) the pressure difference (pa - pb) and hence the discharge coefficient. (21.6 kPa, 0.67)
(ii)the pressure difference (pb - pc) and hence the diffuser efficiency. (-6.4 kPa, 29.5%)
(iii) the net force on the orifice plate. (10.8 N)
State any assumption made in your analysis.

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7.

The figure shows an ejector (or jet pump) which extracts 2 x 10 -3 m3/s of water from tank A
which is situated 2.0 m below the centre-line of the ejector. The diameter of the outer pipe of
the ejector is 40 mm and water is supplied from a reservoir to the thin-walled inner pipe
which is of diameter 20 mm. The ejector discharges to atmosphere at section C.
Evaluate the pressure p at section D, just downstream of the end of pipe B, the velocity in
pipe B and the required height of the free water level in the reservoir supplying pipe B.
(-21.8 kPa gauge, 12.922 m/s, 6.28 m).
It may be assumed that both supply pipes are loss free.

Figure 6.2
8.

Discuss the use of orifice plates and venturi-meters for the measurement of flow rates in
pipes.
Water flows with a mean velocity of 0.6 m/s in a 50 mm diameter pipe fitted with a sharp
edged orifice of diameter 30 mm. Assuming the contraction coefficient is 0.64, find the
pressure difference between tappings at the vena contracta and a few diameters upstream of
the orifice, and hence evaluate the discharge coefficient.
Estimate also the overall pressure loss caused by the orifice plate.
It may be assumed that there is no loss of energy upstream of the vena contracta.

9.

Fig.6.2 shows an ejector pump BDC designed to lift 2 x 10 -3 m3/s of water from an open
tank A, 3.0 m below the level of the centre-line of the pump. The pump discharges to
atmosphere at C.
The diameter of the thin-walled inner pipe is 12 mm and the internal diameter of the outer
pipe is 25 mm. Assuming that there is no energy loss in pipe AD and there is no shear stress
on the wall of pipe DC, calculate the pressure at point D and the required velocity of the
water in pipe BD.
(-43.3 kPa and 20.947 m/s)
Derive all the equations used and state your assumptions.

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