We're fascinated with robots because they are reflections of ourselves.

Ken Goldberg

Morphology of the robot, transmission, actuators and sensors

Robot Links and Joints

In a robot, the connection of different manipulator joints is known as Robot Links,

and the integration of two or more link is called as Robot Joints. A robot link will be
in the form of solid material, and it can be classified into two key types input link
and output link. The movement of the input link allows the output link to move at
various motions. An input link will be located nearer to the base. [1]

Link

Joint

The Robot Joints is the important element in a robot which helps the links to travel
in different kind of movements. There are five major types of joints such as:

Rotational joint
Linear joint
Twisting joint
Orthogonal joint
Revolving joint

Degrees of freedom

In physics, the degree of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of

independent parameters that define its configuration. It is the number of parameters
that determine the state of a physical system and is important to the analysis of
systems of bodies in mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, robotics,
and structural engineering.

The position of a single car (engine) moving along a track has one degree of freedom
because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of
rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has only one degree of freedom
because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of
the track.

An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a rigid body

traveling on a plane (a flat, two-dimensional space). This body has three
independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and
one angle of rotation. Skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobile's three
independent degrees of freedom.

The position and orientation of a rigid body in space is defined by three components
of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees
of freedom.

The exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom
to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device. [2]

Rotational Joint:

Rotational joint can also be represented as R Joint. This type will allow the joints
to move in a rotary motion along the axis, which is vertical to the arm axes.

Linear Joint:

Linear joint can be indicated by the letter L Joint. This type of joints can perform
both translational and sliding movements. These motions will be attained by several
ways such as telescoping mechanism and piston. The two links should be in parallel
axes for achieving the linear movement.

Twisting Joint:

Twisting joint will be referred as V Joint. This joint makes twisting motion among
the output and input link. During this process, the output link axis will be vertical to
the rotational axis. The output link rotates in relation to the input link.

Orthogonal Joint:

The O joint is a symbol that is denoted for the orthogonal joint. This joint is
somewhat similar to the linear joint. The only difference is that the output and input
links will be moving at the right angles.

Revolving Joint:

Revolving joint is generally known as V Joint. Here, the output link axis is
perpendicular to the rotational axis, and the input link is parallel to the rotational axes.
As like twisting joint, the output link spins about the input link.
In robotics different authors name the joints differently and there are more than one
option, among the most used today by degrees of freedom are:
Rotational (1DOF)
Prismatic (1DOF)
Cylindrical (2DOF)
Planar (2DOF)
Spherical (3DOF)
Screw (1DOF)

Figure 1. Examples of Robot Joints

In the transmission of the robot multiple mechanisms are used to execute the
movement, one of the most important parts within the design of the robot is to select
the suitable one since the set of these elements will give the type of movement to
the robot, here are some basic mechanisms
Four-bar Mechanism
Slider-crank Mechanism
Rack and Pinion
Cams and Cranks

Transmission of the robot

The transmissions are the elements in charge of transmitting the movement from the
actuators to the joints. They will be included along with the transmissions to the
reducers, responsible for adapting the torque and the speed of the output of the
actuator to the values suitable for the movement of the robot elements.

Since a robot moves its end with high accelerations, it is of great importance to
reduce to its maximum its moment of inertia. Similarly, the static pairs that must
overcome the actuators depend directly on the distance from the masses to the
actuator. For these reasons it is tried that the actuators, usually heavy, are as near
as possible of the base of the robot. This requires the use of transmission systems
that transfer the movement to the joints, especially those located at the end of the
robot. Also, the transmissions can be used to convert circular movement in linear or
vice versa, when necessary.

Industrial robots with direct coupling between drive and articulation are currently on
the market. However, it is a question of particular cases within the generality that in
present industrial robots supposes the existence of transmission systems together
with reducers for the coupling between actuators and joints.

It is expected that a good transmission system will fulfill a series of basic

characteristics:

Must have a reduced size and weight;

It must be avoided that it presents games or considerable gaps;
You must look for transmissions with great performance.

Although there is no specific transmission system for robots, there are some that are
more frequently used, and are mentioned in the following table. The classification
has been made based on the type of movement possible in the input and output:
linear or circular.
 In - Out Denomination Advantages Disadvantages

Circular Gear Tall pairs Gaps

Circular
Toothed belt Large distance Noise

Chain Large distance Limited Spin

Parallelogram Deformability

Cable

Circular Linear Endless screw Little slack Friction

Zipper Middle clearance Friction

Linear Circular Articulated Middle clearance Difficult control

parallelogram
Friction
Zipper

Table 1. Transmission system

Gears can be used to change the direction or speed of movement, but changing the
speed of rotation inversely affects the force trans- mitted. A small gear meshed with
a larger gear will turn faster, but with less force. There are four basic types of gears:
spur gears, rack and pinion gears, bevel gears, and worm gears. Spur gears are
probably the type of gear that most people picture when they hear the word. The two
wheels are in the same plane (the axles are parallel). With rack and pinion gears
there is one wheel and one rack, a flat toothed bar that converts the rotary motion
into linear motion. Bevel gears are also known as pinion and crown or pinion and
ring gears. In bevel gears, two wheels intermesh at an angle changing the direction
of rotation (the axles are not parallel); the speed and force may also be modified, if
desired. Worm gears involve one wheel gear (a pinion) and one shaft with a screw
thread wrapped around it. Worm gears change the direction of motion as well as the
speed and force. Belts work in the same manner as spur gears except that they do
not change the direction of motion.

The force applied to the outer surface of each wheel must also be equal otherwise
one of them would be accelerating more rapidly than the other and again the teeth
of the other wheel would break. The forces of interest, however, are not the forces
being applied to the outer surfaces of the wheels, but rather the forces on the axles.
Returning to the concept of levers, we know that the distance at which the force is
applied affects the force yielded, and a wheel and axle works like a lever. Equal
forces are being applied to each wheel, but on the larger wheel that force is being
applied over a greater distance. Thus for the larger wheel the force on the axle is
greater than the force on the axle for the smaller wheel.

Gear Train

A gear train consists of one or more gear sets intended to give a specific velocity
ratio, or change direction of motion. Gear and gear train types can be grouped based
on their application and tooth geometry.

Parallel Axes Intersecting Axes Nonintersecting Rotary to

(Nonparallel) Translation
Axes

Spur gears Bevel gears: Hypnoid gears Rack and pinion

Helical gears Straight bevel Crossed helical

gears
Herringbone or Zerol bevel
double helical Worm gears
gears Spiral bevel

Table 2. Gear Types Grouped Acoording to Shaft Arrangement

Actuators in robotics

An actuator is the mechanism by which an agent acts upon an environment. The

agent can be either an artificial intelligent agent or any other autonomous being.
The common forms of actuators are pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric solenoids or
motors.
Pneumatic actuators: A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in
Figure 2 below. It operates by a combination of force created by air and spring force.
The actuator positions control the valve by transmitting its motion through the stem.
A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The
upper chamber receives a supply of air through an opening in the top of the housing.
 Figure 2. Pneumatic actuator air-to-close / spring-to-open

Hydraulic actuators: Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes

requiring quick and accurate responses, as they do not require a large amount of
motive force. However, when a large amount of force is required to operate a valve
(for example, the main steam system valves), hydraulic actuators are normally used.
Although hydraulic actuators come in many designs, piston types are the most
common.
A typical piston-type hydraulic actuator is shown in Figure 3. It consists of a cylinder,
piston, spring, hydraulic supply and returns line, and stem. The piston slides
vertically inside the cylinder and separates the cylinder into two chambers. The
upper chamber contains the spring and the lower chamber contains hydraulic oil.

Figure 3. Hydraulic actuator

Electric solenoid actuators: A typical electric solenoid actuator is shown in Figure

4. It consists of a coil, armature, spring, and stem. The coil is connected to an
external current supply. The spring rests on the armature to force it downward. The
armature moves vertically inside the coil and transmits its motion through the stem
to the valve. When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around the
coil. The magnetic field attracts the armature toward the center of the coil. As the
armature moves upward, the spring collapses and the valve opens. When the circuit
is opened and current stops flowing to the coil, the magnetic field collapses. This
allows the spring to expand and shut the valve.

Figure 4. Electric solenoid actuator

Motors: is the least understood concept for robotics hobbyists which require
strategizing and serious analysis. It involves in determining robot speed,
acceleration, torque requirements based on robot weight, wheel size and application
where it is to be implemented. There are many types of motors are available in
todays market, but mostly Tiny pager motors, servo motors, linear motors, stepper
motors and DC geared motors are used in industrial robots according to their
application area.
Motors used in Industrial Robotics are:

Alternating Current (AC) Motors

Direct-Current (DC) Motors
Servo Motors
Stepper Motors.

1. AC motors can be further subdivided into asynchronous and synchronous types.

For example, an induction AC motor is an asynchronous type unit that is essentially
comprised of a wire-wound stator and a rotor. Power is connected to the wire and
AC current flowing through it induces an electromagnetic (EM) field in the coiled wire,
with a strong-enough field providing the force for rotor motion. Synchronous motors
are constant-speed motors that operate in synchronism with AC line frequency and
are commonly used where precise constant speed is required.

2. Many industrial applications, including robotics, make use of DC motors oftenly

because of the ease of controlling speed and direction. They are capable of an
infinite speed range, from full speed to zero, with a wide range of loads.

3. Servo motors are used in closed-loop systems with a digital controller. The
controller sends velocity commands to a driver amplifier, which in turn feeds the
servo motor. Some form of feedback device, such as a resolver or encoder, provides
information on the servo motors position and speed. The resolver or encoder may
be integrated with the motor or located remotely. Because of the closed-loop system,
a servo motor can operate with a specific motion profile that is programmed into the
controller.

4. Stepper motors can operate with or without feedback, with the rotation of the motor
broken up into small angular steps. It is controlled by pulsed command signals, and
can stop precisely at a commanded point without need for brakes or clutch
assemblies. When power is removed, a permanent-magnet stepper motor generally
remains in its last position. Multiple stepper motors can be maintained in
synchronization by driving them from a common source. [3]

Robotic sensors

Robotic sensors are used to estimate a robot's condition and environment. These
signals are passed to a controller to enable appropriate behavior. [4][5]

Sensors in robots are based on the functions of human sensory organs. Robots
require extensive information about their environment in order to function effectively.

Sensors provide analogs to human senses and can monitor other phenomena for
which humans lack explicit sensors.

1. Simple Touch: Sensing an object's presence or absence.

2. Complex Touch: Sensing an object's size, shape and/or hardness.
3. Simple Force: Measuring force along a single axis.
4. Complex Force: Measuring force along multiple axes.
5. Simple Vision: Detecting edges, holes and corners.
6. Complex Vision: Recognizing objects.
7. Proximity: Non-contact detection of an object.
 8. Sensors can measure physical properties, such as the distance between
objects, the presence of light and the frequency of sound. [6] They can
measure:

9. Object Proximity: The presence/absence of an object, bearing, color, distance

between objects.
10. Physical orientation. The co-ordinates of object in space.
11. Heat: The wavelength of infrared or ultra violet rays, temperature, magnitude,
direction.
12. Chemicals: The presence, identity, and concentration of chemicals or
reactants.
13. Light: The presence, color, and intensity of light.
14. Sound: The presence, frequency, and intensity of sound. [7]
15. Motion controllers, potentiometers, tacho-generators and encoder are used
as joint sensors, whereas strain-gauge based sensing is used at the end-
effector location for contact force control.

Internal sensor: It is the part of the robot. Internal sensors measure the robot's
internal state. They are used to measure its position, velocity and acceleration.

Position

Internal
Velocity
sensors

Acceleration

Position sensor: Position sensors measure the position of a joint (the degree to which
the joint is extended). They include:

Encoder: a digital optical device that converts motion into a sequence of

digital pulses.
Potentiometer: a variable resistance device that expresses linear or angular
displacements in terms of voltage.
Linear variable differential transformer: a displacement transducer that
provides high accuracy. It generates an AC signal whose magnitude is a
function of the displacement of a moving core.
Synchros and Resolvers
Velocity Sensor: A velocity or speed sensor measures consecutive position
measurements at known intervals and computes the time rate of change in the
position values.

Bibliography

[1] Robotics / Appin Knowledge Solutions. Infinity Science Press LLC 2007
[2] Won, S. H. (2007). A study on the analysis and the control characteristics of a 3
DOF spherical motor for robotic joints. Ph. D. thesis.
[3] Landzettel, K., Albu-Schffer, A., Brunner, B., Beyer, A., Gruber, R., Krmer, E.,
... & Sedlmayr, H. J. (2006). ROKVISS verification of advanced light weight robotic
joints and tele-presence concepts for future space missions. In Proceedings of the
9th ESA Workshop on Advanced Space Technologies for Robotics and Automation
(ASTRA).
[4] "Automation and Robotics ( Robot Store )". Robot Store (HK). Retrieved 23
January 2015.
[5] "Robotics sensors (Active)". Active Robots. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
[6] "Robot Sensation". British Pathe. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
[7] "Random Bin Picking & Automated Assembly". Universal. Retrieved 23 January
2015.