4002 Soil Fertility PDF

BA SIC GUIDE
The Basics
of Soil Fertility
Shaping our relationship to the soil
2004 Ausgabe Deutschland
The enhancement of soil fertility

was a crucial value already to
the pioneers of organic farming,
but the conservation of fer-
tile soil is not always given
enough attention. And yet
organic farming depends
on good natural soil fer-
tility. Exhausted and dam-
aged soils cannot offer the
desired performance. The
cultivation of soil fertility
requires a lot of care.
This booklet offers a view
on soil fertility from different
angles. It deliberately avoids
offering universal 'instructions',
but rather seeks to provide informa-
tion to stimulate new thinking about
a sustainable relationship to the soil.
2016
This publication results from the Organic Knowledge Network Arable project
funded by the Horizon 2020 programme of the European Union.
net
arable
Why Talk About Soil Fertility?
In cultivating the land, we live from and with soil
We feel that in many areas, simple
fertility. An ecologically vital soil is continuously
cause-and-effect observations do not
restoring its productivity. If we neglect its needs,
match up to our actual living environment.
it suffers as a result. The soil loses vitality, and
This is why it is more timely and necessary
becomes more sensitive to weather and erosion;
than ever to see the soil as a complex organ-
harvests decline. In organic farming, damage can
ism instead of a simple chemical-mechanical
not be offset by purely technical means. This is why
model.
an exhausted or degraded soil requires recovery
Thomas Fisel, advisor Bioland
by means of ecologically sensitive actions, which
help the soil to regenerate on its own. Despite the
practical constraints and problems, many possible
actions are available enabling us to act according CONTENTS
to our responsibility as farmers for a living soil. It is PART 1: PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY 3
worth it, not only financially. 1.1 The soil of pioneers 3
In the 1960s, scientist Ernst Klapp defined soil 1.2 Soil fertility A term undergoing change 4
fertility in a practical sense as "the natural, sus 1.3 What does soil fertility mean in organic
tainable ability of a soil to produce plants". He farming? 5
described it as the ability of the soil to provide 1.4 The invaluable contribution of soil
everything for stable yields without external aid. organisms 7
Since then, agricultural science has widely been 1.5 Using the potential for gentle soil
replacing the comprehensive term soil fertility with cultivation 9
a multitude of physical, chemical and biological
variables. One of the current tasks of science is PART 2: PERCEIVING SOIL FERTILITY 11
to render such detailed knowledge applicable to 2.1 Direct observations 11
farming practice. 2.2 Observation with the help of
Many practitioners have developed their own stra instruments 12
tegies and techniques for the care of soil fertility.
They have learnt through observation, and relied PART 3: PRESERVING AND IMPROVING
on their intuition. Such experience and the know SOIL FERTILITY 14
ledge gained via scientific experiments and obser 3.1 Soil organic matter management 14
vations complement each other well. This booklet 3.2 Organic matter-preserving crop rotations 15
aims to stimulate the practice of a truly sustainable 3.3 Organic fertilisers 17
culture of a fertile, living soil, based on well-tried 3.4 Green manure 20
fundamentals, as well as on the testing of new 3.5 Promoting wild plants instead of
possibilities. fighting weeds? 22
The editors 3.6 Soil compaction and how to avoid it 24
3.7 Soil erosion and how to avoid it 26
PART 4: THE FUTURE OF SOIL CULTURE 28

4.1 Taking account of the climate 28
4.2 Improving the stability of the agro-
ecosystem 29
4.3 Ideas for the organic soil culture of
the future 30
The microsphere is a wonderful habitat. In the centre of the picture: a single-celled organism.
2 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Part 1: Principles of Soil Fertility
1.1 The soil of pioneers ciated with Christian values may help us realise
"that all in the heavens and on earth is only part
Organic farming has developed as an agricultural of one whole", and further, that the health of the
approach since the beginning of the 20th century. soil, plant, animal and human is one and indivisi
However, its historical roots are as old as agricul ble. Her agricultural colleague Sir Albert HOWARD
ture itself. For several decades, organic farming was observed (1948) that "Mother Earth never tries to Rudolf Steiner 1861-1925
practised and developed only on a small network do agriculture without animals; she always culti
of farms. The 1980s and 1990s saw increased vates mixed cultures. "Organic farming is supposed
recognition, and newcomers to organic farming. to adopt Mother Earth's natural agriculture me-
Before introducing the reader to current knowl thod." Mina HOFSTETTER (1949), a Swiss pioneer
edge about good treatment of soil fertility from a of organic farming, regarded the feminine qualities
holistic point of view, based on scientific and prac of the earth to be a key to a deeper understand
tical information, we would like to acknowledge its ing of soil fertility. Mother Earth may speak directly
roots with the help of a few quotes from the early to the female farmer if the latter finds peace and
pioneers: quiet to listen: "she will teach us again, or wipe
us out." Albert Howard 1873-1947
Influences of soil biology
The farm owner Albrecht THAER recognised (1821): Why the terms organic and ecological
"Much in the way that organic matter is a product farming?
of life, it is also the precondition of life." And while The 'Bio-logy' (i.e. the logos of life) of organic
most researchers were turning towards agricultural farming was literally understood as a life teaching
chemistry, Charles DARWIN discovered a fact most by its founders, i.e. as a holistic life and farming
crucial for organic farming (1882): "The plough is philosophy. Rather than concentrating on chemi
one of the oldest and most valued inventions of cal substances, they focused on cohabitations of
man, but, long before its existence, the land was individual beings or 'ecosystems', which on a high
regularly ploughed by earthworms." er level were perceived to be a unit in the whole, Mina Hofstetter 1883-1967
At the beginning of the 20th century, new micro i.e. an 'organism'. Hence organic farming uses
scopes were tapping into the inconceivable diver the terms soil organism, farm organism, organism
sity of soil life, and an ecological way of thinking earth, as well as soil, farm and earth as an ecosys
started to develop. Richard BLOECK (1927) wrote: tem. Not to replace the interaction and the steady
"Through the activity of microscopic life, arable land continuation of natural and social life by technolo
became a real living being." The image of a cycle gy, for many against the backdrop of an interaction
reoccurred. The Swiss farmer Alois STCKLI wrote with spiritual, divine influences, was believed to
(1946): "persistent and increasing soil fertility be essential. Exemplifying the interconnectedness
depends on the condition of a cycle of the sub of all things, the following guiding principle was
stances", yet "in many places there is resistance coined: "Healthy soil healthy plants healthy Maria Mller 1894-1969
against accepting the integral role of organisms in humans." This idea is still key in our day, and stat
the soil in this context". One of the co-founders of ed for example in the principle of health, one of
organic farming, Hans-Peter RUSCH, regarded the the four principles of Organic Agriculture defined by
cycle of life to be essential (1955): The "living sub IFOAM (2005).
stance" is "introduced to each living being in the Nikola Patzel
substance cycle". The agronomist Franz SEKERA
emphasised (1951): "The tilth (optimum soil con
dition) is defined as the biological engineering of Soil fertility is the indispensable foun-
the crumb structure by soil-inherent microorga dation of agriculture, not oil. This is why
nisms." the soil belongs in the hands of those who Eve Balfour 1898-1990
nurture it, not those of speculation. In order
Ideological ideas and influences to cope with the challenges of the 21st cen-
Rudolf STEINER taught the following during his tury, practical knowledge gathered by farm-
agricultural course (1923): "One needs to know ers and scientific knowledge of academia
that fertilisation must consist in life-promotion of must come together better.
the soil. And in the seed we gain an image of
the universe as a whole." In England, Lady Eve Jrgen Hess, University of Kassel,
BALFOUR (1943) stated that only ecology asso Witzenhausen, Germany
Hans Peter Rusch

1906-1977
The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 3

1.2 Soil fertility A term undergoing demand for external inputs such as fertilisers, pes
change ticides and energy. In a fertile soil, soil organisms
efficiently turn nutrients and organic matter into
With the emergence of applied agricultural scien plant yields, build up organic matter, protect the
ces, a soil's yield was regarded to be its essential plants from diseases, and make the soil crumbly.
fertility measurement. The soil's nutrient content Such a soil can easily be cultivated, absorbs rain
(mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potash) was water well, and withstands capping/siltation and
interpreted as a fertility indicator until artificial erosion. A fertile soil leads via its filtering to clean
fertilisers came to be seen as being available on groundwater and it neutralises (buffers) acids
demand and substituted self-reliant soil fertility in which reach the ground surface through polluted
the eyes of many. But with dwindling resources, air. A fertile soil also quickly breaks down harmful
the discussion of the term is moving yet again in substances such as pesticides. Moreover, a fertile
another direction. The efficiency of nutrient cycling soil represents an efficient reservoir for nutrients
in the soil especially within the cycle for plant and carbon dioxide. It thus prevents overfertili
yields as a way of measuring soil fertility is return sation of rivers, lakes and seas and contributes to
ing to the foreground. reducing global warming.
In the view of organic farming, soil fertility is
Soil fertility is an ecological life process mainly the result of biological processes, and not
The soil is habitat to an immense variety of micro of applied chemical nutrients. A fertile soil reacts
organisms, animals and plant roots. A fertile soil actively with the plants; it structures itself and is
bears healthy crops over generations with its low capable of regeneration.
Balancing the appreciation of the soil's

functions and the demand that it func-
tions
Today, the term 'soil quality' is sometimes used
instead of soil fertility. Soil quality is the sum
of all socially valued functions of the soil. This
perspective may help to extend attitudes to the
soil into new areas. Nevertheless one needs
to appreciate that the definition of soil quality
determined by soil functions always depends
on contemporaneous economic and/or political
constraints. The most important natural soil func
tions are:
Production function: Yields that suit local
conditions.
Transformation function: Nutrients are effi
ciently turned into yield.
Habitat function: Living space for an active
and diverse flora and fauna.
Degradation function: Degradation/trans
formation of plant and animal residues, and
thereby closing the nutrient cycle.
Self-regulation function: No danger of being
permanently thrown off its healthy balance
e.g. efficiently 'digesting' or suppressing path
ogens which penetrate the soil.
Filtering, buffering and storage function:
Retaining and breaking down harmful sub
stances; keeping nutrients in the soil; storing
carbon dioxide.
Paul Mder
In such 'earthworm towers', clayhumus complexes and earthworm mucilage work rather visibly
towards soil cohesion.

Perspectives and definitions of soil fertility
Currently obtains a great yield Fulfills socially desired func-

under highly industrialised tions, e.g. nutrition, pollutant
conditions Corresponds to the decompositions, water Is the sum of all nutrients
achievable financial gain absorption
Is the sum of all scientifically

Steadily delivers a great yield
quantifiable 'positive' soil
with a strong external input Functional perspective properties
Perspectives and definitions

Yield perspective of soil fertility Factor perspective
Is assessed with the help

Delivers a good yield with a Biocentric perspective
of an indicator set
low use of auxiliary additives
Includes plant health Is proving its regenerative Corresponds to a qualitative

through the soil capacity system analysis of influencing
Secures yield despite of factors
highly fluctuating conditions Is a life process Is an ecologically sound soil
Regulates the cycle of life

and death
Diagram: Nikola Patzel
There are many perspectives and definitions of soil fertility in agriculture. Are we assessing the soil itself (biocentric) or that which we
demand from it (functional)? Do we measure soil fertility on the basis of the yield or of different properties of the soil itself?
Scientific analysis of fertile soil 1.3 What does soil fertility mean in
As an alternative to purely nutrient chemistry, for a organic farming?
long time there were efforts to detect the funda
mentals of soil fertility with organic matter chemis For organic farming, 'soil fertility' primarily means
try, attempting to elucidate and classify organic a characteristic of the living soil. As soil fertility is a
matter directly via its chemical structures. Such feature of the never quite transparent soil organism,
attempts were unfruitful. Today we focus on other we may never fully understand it on an intellectual
properties: the availability of nutrients, the carbon/ level, nor fully quantify it by measurements alone,
nitrogen (C/N) ratio of organic matter, as well as similar to our understanding of human beings. This
the transforming and recycling activity and the is why we talk about soil fertility in the context of a
organic matter quality of the soil. They all serve as holistic acknowledgement of the soil and its impact
a measure for on plants, as well as the analysis or measurement
nutrients directly available to plants. Which ele of individual characteristics.
ments are to be found in a heated-water extract The diagnoses and measures in this booklet are
of the soil? concerned with possibilities of observing the soil
readily available nutrients in the life cycle. What and describing it with regard to individual qualities:
is the size of microbiological biomass, and what Physical qualities can be recognised e.g. via a
is its C/N ratio? spade test. A physically sound soil offers living
organic matter stability (stable organic matter and working space for all soil animals and plant
is heavier and immature organic matter). How roots, with sufficient air for respiration. It is the
complex are its molecular assemblies, and what farmer's responsibility to stabilise the soil struc
is its density? ture with plant roots, to make it viable and to
Paul Mder avoid compaction by gentle use of machines.
Unfortunately, our current society is distanced from nature, and only

a minority of people is aware of the importance of a sound and
intact soil. The high use of chemicals in today's conventional agriculture
will in the future be labelled as a flash in the pan, as it is neither soil-im-
proving nor life-enhancing. Only high soil fertility will guarantee sustaina-
ble and sufficient nourishment for humanity.
Jean-Louis Colling-von Roesgen, organic farmer on the Karelshaff, Luxembourg

Amoeba Mite
1.4 The invaluable contribution of soil
organisms
Nematode
A fertile soil hosts a rich variety of organisms
which are all taking part in important process
es. Earthworms and insect larvae burrow through
the uppermost soil layers in search of dead plant
material. Their passages aerate the earth and the
pores and passages are able to absorb water like a
sponge. Springtails, mites and millipedes degrade
plant litter. Microorganisms turn residue from ani
mals and plants into valuable organic matter. Finally,
bacteria convert organic residues into their chem
ical constituents, and predatory mites, centipedes,
Root with beetles, fungi and bacteria regulate organisms
root hair Humus before they can become harmful.
particle
(organic
matter)
Springtail
Silt
Fungal hyphae
The soil particle illustrates well Bacteria

how through the organic matter
Nematode
everything in the living soil is
interconnected.
A springtail (Collembola). No need to worry about the decom-
position of plant litter in an intact soil.
Chemical qualities are determined through Earthworms Master builders of fertile soils
measuring individual nutrients and possibly With a single generation and a maximum of eight
also pollutants, and e.g. the pH value (calcium cocoons per animal and year, earthworms repro
oxide/acid levels). A chemically well-appointed duce at a rather slow rate. With a life expectancy
soil-plant organism has all necessary chemical of five to eight years they are however the most
elements and organic compounds available for long-lived soil animals, and play a prominent role
its nourishment. Complex metabolites of dif in the soil.
ferent organisms enhance the plant's immune Earthworms produce 40 to 100 tonnes of valua
response. By returning extracted nutrients, we ble worm casts per hectare and year in Central
are trying to support these qualities in a healthy European soils. This is equivalent to a soil growth
balance. In the case of previous overexploitation, of 0,5cm for arable land, and 1,5cm for grassland.
the soil first needs to be balanced out. The valuable material contains on average five
Biological qualities of the soil we are able to times more nitrogen, seven times more phospho
see in its transforming/recycling activity, the rus, and eleven times more potassium than the
occurrence and visible evidence of life forms surrounding soil.
in the soil. The cohabitations are robust and An intensive mixing of organic substance with
active at the right time. Within the self-regulating mineral soil particles, microorganisms and mucous
ecological balance, all the animals, plants and secretions of earthworms leads to stable crumb
microorganisms are working symbiotically. It is structures. The latter help to prevent the soil from
our job as cultivators to understand soil ecology silting up, and promote its cultivability as well as
well enough to be able to create or restore the
conditions for a robust balance.
As a cumulative effect of its activities, cultivated fer Learn to love your worm; it's the best
tile soil can produce good yields again and again. livestock investment you will ever
If this does not happen, we should observe the make on your farm.
aforementioned soil qualities closely in order to
identify irregularities. Iain Tolhurst, organic grower near Reading, UK
The editors

its nutrient and water retaining capabilities. In this
way, earthworms loosen up heavy soils and make
sandy soils more cohesive.
With their burrows, earthworms ensure a good
aeration of the soil. Especially the stable burrows of
vertically digging earthworms improve the absorp
tion and storage of water significantly. Soils rich in
earthworms absorb four to ten times the quantity
of water of soils with fewer worms. This way, sur
face runoff and erosion can be reduced. Up to 900
meters of worm burrows can be found per square
metre and to a depth of a metre in unploughed
soils.
Earthworms break down up to 6 tonnes of
dead organic material per hectare and year in the
ground. At the same time, they are transporting
soil material from the subsoil to the topsoil, thereby
Soil-inhabiting species, such
rejuvenating the latter. They are also promoting the as earthworms, are the quiet
colonisation and reproduction of useful soil bacte master builders of soil fertility.
ria and fungi in their passages and faeces. Once Intensive tillage considerably
diseased foliage moves into the ground, harmful reduces their populations.
organisms inhabiting the leaves are degraded

organically. Over 90% of worm burrows are popu
lated with plant roots. The latter can thus penetrate
deeper soil layers without encountering resistance,
and there find ideal nutritional conditions. The number of cocoons in the
soil indicates good living condi-
tions for earthworms.
Maintaining soil fertility on a stockfree farm

Our soils at Hardwick are sandy clay loams, a fair Secondary cultivations are shallow, no more than
ly useful soil type for the wide range of vegetable 100mm, except prior to potatoes when they are
types that we grow within a seven-year stock- up to 150mm. Power harrow is the preferred
free rotation. We have over many years aimed to tool with some use of triple K spring tines and/or
reduce tillage to the minimum needed in order harrow comb for the creation of stale seedbeds.
to preserve the soil organic matter and avoid soil All tined implements including power harrow are
damage. This is not easy, primarily due to lack round tines as opposed to knife blades, as the
of suitable equipment for small scale vegetable latter are particularly damaging to soil structure.
systems. We make great use of green manures The use of bladed implements causes smear
within the rotation, with almost 3 years of long and shear hence their avoidance. All cultivations
term clovers/lucerne mixtures, as well as many are aimed at creating the best conditions for crop
overwintering and relay green manures slotted in establishment and weed control using the min
around the vegetables. imum of force and soil inversion. And generally,
Making good use of this fertility is a chal we use a lot of relay green manures within estab Iain Tolhurst is an organic
lenge in the context of land preparation ahead lished crops to maintain ground cover, enhanced producer since 1976,
of planting and sowing crops. The plough is still biodiversity, nutrient trapping/fertility building and organic advisor and tutor
the primary tool of cultivation at some points weed control. since 1984. He is a lead-
in the rotation to create a clean seedbed from ing figure in both Organic
heavy green manure crops. Timing is critical and and Stockfree Organic
all primary cultivations are done during the spring, since its conception. His
immediately ahead of plantings to minimise peri 8 ha vegetable farm
ods of uncovered soil. is a commercial enter-
Due to the high usage of green manures and prise, but also acts as a
additional applications of woodchip compost dur demonstration unit and
ing the fertility building phases in the rotation, our teaching centre for stock-
soil structure is very good with no problems of free, agro-forestry and
compaction. Earthworm populations play a major agro-ecological principles
role in maintaining good soil structure. of production.

How to protect and promote earthworms Use minimal machining processes which are
Farmers can contribute to the promotion of earth gentle on the soil as well as till and drill combi
worms. The following are the most important nations. Avoid heavy machinery.
points: Only cultivate completely dry, stable soils.
Tillage and mechanisation Crop rotation

Ploughs and quickly rotating devices should A long crop rotation with perennial and deep-
only be used if essential, as they may kill many rooting catch crops rich in clover or green man
earthworms, depending on when the cultivation ure, and varied harvest residues, offer abundant
is done. The loss rate with ploughing is at about nourishment for earthworms.
25 %, with rotating instruments up to 70 %. A plant cover, especially during winter, may pro
At times of earthworm activity, March/April and mote earthworms considerably. Soil-regenera
September/October, (intensive) tillage should tion periods, provided by the use of perennial
be avoided. meadows, are a godsend to earthworms.
Tillage of the soil in a dry or cold state is consid
erably less harmful to earthworms, as they will Fertilisation
remain in the deeper soil layers. A balanced and well cared for soil is beneficial
The soil should be turned as little as possible; to plants and earthworms.
when ploughing, do it only minimally with an Slightly rotted manure or compost is usually
on-land plough, to avoid compaction in deeper more helpful than fresh manure to build soil
soil layers. Plant residues should be worked in organic matter, to reduce weeds, to speed
only superficially; not buried in too deep. the take-up when applied to grassland and to
achieve long term nutrient supply.
Organic fertilizer and manure should only be
worked in superficially.
Ploughing results in loosening up the Dilution and processing of liquid manure has
topsoil for a limited amount of time. a positive effect on earthworms. However
The earthworms' influence is more profound non-processed liquid manure (ammonia!) may
and varied. They build an extensive system seriously damage earthworms and other bene
of channels which ideally supplies the soil ficial organisms living in the soil surface layer.
and plants with water and nutrients. Liquid manure should only be applied on
absorbent soil.
Lukas Pfiffner, FiBL, Switzerland Regular liming (according to pH values) is
important, as most earthworms avoid soils with
a pH below 5,5.
Effects of various intensive cultivation practices on earthworms
Intensive soil tillage Medium-intensive soil tillage

Medium-intensive soil tillage
Up to about 70 % earthworm losses Up to about 25 % earthworm losses
Up to about 25 % earthworm losses
Leaf litter dwellers cm
cm cm
0
0 0 Moderate damage
5 of the habitat
Moderate damage
5 5 of the habitat
Spring/autumn: Horizontal burrowers
10
Horizontal burrowers Horizontal burrowers
10 vertical burrowers 10 Tractor-drawn equipment
in the topsoil 15 Tractor-drawn equipment
15 15
Rotary equipment Severe damage 20
20 of the habitat
20
25 Compacted zone by plough
25 25 Compacted zone by plough
30
30 30
Summer/winter: vertical burrowers in the subsoil
Vertical burrowers Summer/winter: vertical burrowers in the subsoil
The more intensively the soil is cultivated, the higher the losses. In springtime and autumn losses are highest.

I am always amazed how all the myri-
ads of soil organisms know exactly
what needs to be done. The great collabora-
tion, which ultimately makes soil fertility
possible, cannot simply be called coinci-
dence, in my book. We ought to simply stand
in awe.
Martin Kchli, organic farmer in Buttwil, Switzerland
Bacteria and fungi underrated helpers

One gram of soil contains hundreds of millions
of bacteria and hundreds of metres of fungal
hyphae. The microorganisms (including the ones
in animals' digestive tracts) are capable of breaking
down plant and animal material into its basic com Hyphae of an endomycorrhizal fungus with round storage organs (vesicles) in a plant root. The deli-
ponents. They not only regulate nutrient cycles by cate hyphae may grow in the smallest of soil spores where they exploit nutrients and water. This way,
mycorrhizae are able to multiply the roots' active surface, increasing the nutrient- and water intake.
breaking down organic matter, but are also capable
Fertilising, pesticides, and soil cultivation weaken the fungi.
of fixing nitrogen from the air and forming symbios
es with plants. Bacteria and fungi are part of almost
all mineralisation processes in the soil.
Mycorrhizae (root fungi) form a symbiotic rela
tionship with plants, infest the plant root, and open
up an extended soil area for the latter. Mycorrhizal
fungi contribute further positive properties for the
soil structure. They enable an exchange of sub
stances between plants which are connected by
them. Cultivation disrupts the fungal network in the and the lower layer of the soil is loosened). How
soil. The mycelium regenerates however. ever, a systematic investigation into reduced soil
cultivation in organic farming only began about 20
Lukas Pfiffner, Paul Mder and Andreas Fliessbach years ago.
Experiments in organic conditions have shown
that reduced cultivation brings about a further
increase of the topsoil's organic matter content, that
biological activity and soil structure improve, and
1.5 Using the potential for gentle soil that the ability to retain water available to plants
cultivation is also increased. The latter fact is a particularly
important yield factor during dry phases. Neverthe
The extensive degradation of the soil started thou less, weedsespecially grasses and root-spreading
sands of years ago with cultivation and intensive weedsand breaking up grass-clover without deep
tillage, which were often associated with over ploughing remain our key challenges.
stocking. The invention of steel and the introduc
tion of the modern turning plough amplified this
process with an intensive mixing of the soil. The If you apply the system of reduced cul-
use of tractors allowed for ploughing depths pre tivation properly, especially depth-
viously unheard of. In the past 40 years, intensive reduced cultivation, the life in the soil is pro-
soil use has led to a loss of about 30% of arable moted. If this effect is assisted by an appro-
land through erosion. priate crop rotation, it can help reduce sub-
The organic farming pioneers' motto was to soil compaction, offset negative effects seen
loosen soil in greater depth and to minimally cul with denser bedding in a previously plou
tivate it, in order to maintain the natural soil for ghed ploughing layer, and facilitate a gener-
mation. Efforts at reduced cultivation are therefore ally more stable soil. The surface becomes
rather old in organic farming. The practical reali stronger with a higher content of organic
sation of gentle soil cultivation in organic farming matter, also because an increased number
implied innovative technological developments at of fungi stabilise the aggregates.
a very early stage. These include e.g. the Kemink
system (soil loosening, fixed driving alleyway), the Harald Schmidt, Foundation Ecology & Agriculture,
layer plough (the soil is ploughed in two layers), Germany
and the layer cultivator (the soil is tilled minimally,

The necessity for an even gentler handling of the
soil has prompted practitioners and researchers to
look for new solutions for the problems of reduced
cultivation. The use of an on-land plough alone
is enough to help avoid compaction in the sub
soil. Newer machines such as the Precilab plough,
the Ecomat or the stubble slicer (highly modified
skimmer) allow for shallow soil cultivation. Several
non-turning systems, such as the Ecodyn cultivator,
combine for instance extensive skimmer plough
shares with broad-standing, broadly positioned
loosening tines. Even (no-till) direct drilling follow
ing green manuring has been successfully tried.
Innovations in weed control are also expected to
be delivered by robotics.
Climate change is a further push factor for sys
tems rich in organic matter. Because of these inno
This cultivator with a double-star roller is an alternative to the disc harrow. It loosens the soil in a deep
or shallow manner. The machine offers the option of mountable straw feeder and harrow for an opti- vations, organic farming has a chance to improve
mal incorporation of straw. the productivity of arable farming by utilising bio
logical processes, as well as to combat climate
change thanks to carbon sequestration in the soil.
Paul Mder
Producing living soil with reduced tillage

The focus of all the work on our farm is to pro to fulfil their full potential by rotational grazing or
duce the best living soil that we can. I believe that cutting, allowing the leaves to go up and the roots
a lively soil produces healthy plants and in turn to go down. The plants begin the process of har
healthy animals and people. That means sustain nessing the life-energy from the sun and trans
able, profitable crops. In my view there are four porting it down into the soil.
key ingredients to producing and maintaining a Cow manure is the most valuable initiator in
living soil: plant diversity, soil food, cow manure the process of enlivening the soil. It brings all the
and cultivations. right concentration of bugs and bacteria together
I had been tinkering with cultivators for some to energise the soil into developing more vibrantly
time when I visited Manfred and Fredrick Wenzs than without it. We use small quantities of very
farm in Germany, who have been farming organ carefully composted cow manure, which we
ically for 30 years without a plough. This gave spread as far as possible with plenty of air and
me the inspiration to give up ploughing myself warm water. In addition, living organisms should
Richard Gantlett farms in 2004. For me, ploughs encourage docks and be fed with plant material such as green manures
at Yatesbury in Wiltshire couch and tend to lead to hard pans but most and crop residues.
(534 ha of silty clay of all they bury good soil which I see as being Our medium heavy soils require careful tim
loam over lower grey counterproductive. ing of soil cultivation, working wet soils will create
chalk) growing cereals, We sow pastures with as many different vari house bricks and over working dry soils will create
vegetables and pedi- eties and species as possible, which allows for dust which will set like concrete. But the livelier
gree Aberdeen Angus different plant types to occupy different spaces we make the soils the more friable and easy to
cattle. For further read- in the soil profile and profit from soil variations work and more rain tolerant they become.
ing visit http://yates- across a field. These plants must then be allowed A cut soil will often form a smooth sealed sur
bury.webs.com/soil-life face like a brick which will be resilient to weath
ering, whilst a tined machine breaks open a soil
along weak points, which in turn lead to other
weak points which weather easily. To maintain
good aeration of the soil we tread it as lightly as
possible with machinery. We use a selection of
cultivators depending upon the need, a deep tine
riper with forward pointing legs for lifting and aer
ating, a vibroflex heavy duty spring tine for aerating
at shallower deeps with which we can also sow.
Give it a go, put some life-energy into your soil.

Part 2: Perceiving Soil Fertility
2.1 Direct observations An indirect indicator of soil fertility is the speed
at which plant residue decomposes. The easiest
How can we evaluate soil fertility by simple means? way is to observe straw decomposition. If during a
There are several methods that have proven help vegetation period straw remains unaltered on the
ful, in the past and present. The main goal is to ground, it shows sparsely active soil life.
take your time and observe plants, the soil's sur
face, the soil itself and its inhabitants in more detail. Smelling the soil
A fertile soil smells nice, not repellent. You can
compare it with the smell of forest soil or field mar
Organic farming frequently requires the gins. If the soil smells of rot, something is wrong.
practitioner to often go out in the field Roots also have an inherent odour which derives
with a spade and check the soil I seldom from root excretions (exudates). Leguminous
see this put into practice though. I would plants have a pleasant smell. Earthworms can
welcome farmers engaging more with the often be found in the surrounding area.
complex system that is soil.
Stefan Weller, advisor Bioland
Harald Schmidt
Observing the plants

The cultivated plant is always the best indica
tor plant. If it thrives well and healthily over the
years, the result will be a satisfying, high-quality
yield. If such a result is achieved without the use
of nitrogen fertilisers or chemical pesticides, we
may assume high soil fertility. The strength of soil
fertility becomes apparent particularly with unfa
vourable weather conditions over the whole year.
Associated plants, such as thistles or chamomile,
allow damage or signs of deficiency, such as com
pactions, to be revealed.
Interpreting the soil surface

The soil surface already gives indications of the
state of the underlying soil. If it is protected by a
vegetation cover, a surface crumbling emerges; the
so-called biological engineering of soil crumbs. It
can be recognised by its round soil crumbs, which
also prevent excessive capping/siltation and ero
sion of the soil. This is why capping/siltation and
erosion are indicators of a bad state of the soil.
With increasing organic matter content, capping/
siltation and erosion decrease.
Observing the soil life

The activity of earthworms and even smaller spe
cies, such as springtails, can be recognised by their
exit holes on the soil surface. They can mainly be
observed in springtime when organic mass has
been lying on the soil surface ready for consump
tion by soil organisms. At that time, many small Only loose soil allows for good root penetration. When taproots, e.g. of rapeseed, broad beans or
'drill holes', as well as a few bigger ones can be sugar beet, are splitting and branching out, this is an indicator of a compaction or disruptive layer.
Waterlogging and rot can also be detected at the roots.
spotted. With a cut of the spade, the channels can
also be made visible in the topsoil crumb. Earth
worm faeces on the soil surface, too, can indicate
a high activity of this particular soil worker.

2.2 Observation with the help of Consider the following during examination:
instruments
The spade test

The spade test (also called spade diagnosis) is an
approved manual method for assessing the soil
structure. Before cultivation, the spade test allows
the depth of soil tilth to be checked. If plant growth
is worse in a dry year, the weather is quickly made
the culprit. But could it not also be that the root
depth was being limited by a disruptive layer?
During the summer months, the conditions
Can you detect the desirable round soil crumbs and earthworm
after sowing, as well as the effects of soil cultiva holes on the soil surface?
tion, can also be determined on the basis of crop
plants. Extraction is made in four steps. In addition
to the square-end spade, a small claw is needed
for uncovering roots.
Step 1: Choose a test location representative in

terms of growth and surface. You need to take 2
to 3 test samples.
Step 2: Choose the cut of the spade in such a
manner that a crop plant is drawn during pull-
out. In order to ease the extraction of the soil
brick, dig a lateral hole up to the whole length Between horizon A, where cultivation takes place, and horizon
of the spade's blade. B, the uncultivated subsoil, is there a compacted middle layer,
Step 3: Then uncover the narrow sides of the test or a disruptive ploughing sole? See the boundary at a depth of
sample in a wedge-shape with cuts of the spade. 10cm on the picture above.
Step 4: Now cut off the soil brick at the back and
carefully lift out the test sample. Resting the
sample on a waist-high support will facilitate the
assessment.
Note: Photographs and notes of the soil surface

taken before the sampling and of each test sample
allow for a better assessment of the development
of the soils.
Are the breaking edges in the topsoil rather round, or sharp?

Sharp breaking edges indicate that the soil has had to deal with
strong forces, e.g. heavy weights, and/or that the soil compo-
sition has an inferior soil-life development. Picture on the right:
Round soil crumbs under the catch crop of mustard show good
biological engineering.
Taking spade tests requires a lot of care. The soil brick should not be damaged during digging. During What form do carefully uncovered roots have? Are fine and side
lift-out, the soil brick needs to be held, to prevent it from breaking apart. roots abundant? Does the root length correspond to the season?
Do the roots stand out of the soil brick's bottom (which would
be a good sign)?

Spade test: Example of an assessment
The spade test shown was taken under winter The spelt wheat is able to root through this
spelt wheat. The farm had been cultivating its soil. Its dense structure can also be interpreted as
soils without a plough for a number of years. natural carrying capacity under ploughless cultiva
The soil surface cannot be made out here, tion. We may rate this soil condition as 'satisfacto
but the crumb structure in the upper part can be ry' to 'good'.
indicative for the soil surface. The latter was fine The boundary between cultivated and unculti
at the time. vated soil is very visible. What matters here is that
You can spot the horizons rather well. Just the roots are continuing to grow regularly and that
about in the middle of rainwater is not being
the soil brick is where accumulated (ear th
cultivation ends. Here worm tunnels). Harm
you can also see work ful compac tion and
ing depth before the natural, dense structure
sowing of spelt wheat, in the deeper layers
at about 15 cm depth. are especially if the
The soil structure of soil is still permeable
the cultivation horizon for roots often barely
is excellent. Small round distinguishable without
crumbs can be seen, knowing the conditions
and the spelt is able to root through this part of of cultivation. In this case, the examination with a
the soil the many roots and fine roots indicate soil probe alone is not helpful.
this. The soil also crumbles away easily. Thus it is The spelt's position in crop rotation is yet to be
assessed to be 'good' or 'very good'. included in the assessment. As the first crop after
The nearer we get to the boundary with the grass-clover, this sample would be harder to cate
uncultivated subsoil, the bigger and more sharp- gorise. Being a second or third crop (including the
edged the soil lumps are getting. Roots become cultivation of catch crop), the overall impression
visible and protrude at the lower end of the brick. of the sample is good.
Stefan Weller, advisor Bioland
The soil probe (penetrometer)

The spade test is a simple yet very in-
The soil probe is an iron bar that sometimes comes
formative way to assess the soil's condi
with a pressure-measurement spring and a pres
tion in the field on your own. The spade test
sure display. The probe measures the penetration
has given me a much better understanding
resistance of the soil, i.e. usually its density. The
of the soil.
probe bar is pressed into the soil with a constant
Georg Doppler, organic farmer in Waizenkirchen,
pressure. If the resistance of the soil grows stronger,
Upper Austria
a compaction (or a stone) must have been hit. The
depth is displayed on the probe, or can be meas
ured with a yardstick. The measurement should be
performed several times. The soil probe falls short
of offering data as to how the soil looks inside. If
you suspect there to be difficulties, you should also
dig up the soil.
pH meter
The pH level indicates the acid/base condition of
the soil. It has a significant effect on the plant avail
ability of the nutrients, as well as on the soil life.
The Hellige pH-Meter is a good choice for meas
uring pH. Readings should not only be made on
the soil surface. It is recommended to know the
pH values also at the depths of 10 and 20 cm.
The pH can vary significantly between different soil
layers. Fertiliser input, rock dusts and limings influ
ence the pH. The Hellige pH-Meter combines the soil with an indicator solution, and the level is shown on a colour
Stefan Weller scale.

Part 3: Preserving and Improving Soil Fertility
3.1 Humus (soil organic matter)
Do we take our time to appreciate soil
management
and plant with all senses, and not just
superficially when driving over it? Are we
In organic farming, the formation of soil organic
developing a sense for our soils and plants,
matter is regarded as an important contributing
instead of following general recipes? Have
factor for the improvement of soil problems. There
we preserved our curiosity and willingness
are good reasons for this, since a closer look reveals
to learn in order to better understand the
organic matter to be the crucial point of soil fertility:
complex system that is soil?
Organic matter tends to deposit itself as layer on
Nikola Patzel
the surfaces of crumbs. On such surfaces, big
ger lumps tend to break again (predetermined
break points), so that smaller crumbs remain.
Organic matter covers the crumbs and pro In crumbled, non-capped/non-silted soils,
tects them from too much water. This way, the smaller quantities of fine material are washed
crumbs burst less frequently in the rain, and the into the deeper soil layers. Rain seepage also
soil experiences less capping/siltation. follows more rapidly. Therefore less erosion
On surfaces rich in organic matter, crumbs of happens. Roots can intrude deeper into such
heavier soils do not stick together as much. Thus soils, and get the water in the lower layers dur
soils remain cultivable over a greater humidity ing droughts. Such soils show a better water
range. Organic matter not only lightens heavy balance.
soils, but also makes light soils more cohesive More organic matter means also more nourish
with clay-humus-complexes! ment for bacteria, fungi and other organisms in
the soil. More active soil microorganisms also
reduce pest populations in the soil.
Green vegetation decays rapidly into nutritious
organic matter which is nourishment for the soil
organisms. Lignified plant materials and dead
microorganisms, on the other hand, take longer
to decay. They integrate with clay minerals and
become a clay-humus complex, i.e. permanent
organic matter.
Whether soils are rich or poor in organic matter
depends also very much on the location con
ditions. Heavy and humid soils tend to be rich
er in organic matter, whereas sandy and loess
soils tend to be rather poor in organic matter.
The effects of organic matter reduction due to
unsustainable crop rotation can often only be
seen after a number of years. The formation of
organic matter with crop rotation therefore also
Green waste and manure become organic matter-like, and therefore more valuable for the preserva- takes several years. The addition of green and
tion of soil fertility. manure compost can speed up the process.
In this way, a lack of organic matter in the crop
rotation may be partially compensated for. Addi
tionally bought high-quality manure composts
come at a price, of course.
An increase of the organic matter content leads
to a more active and crumbly soil with a better
nitrogen supply. A decrease of the organic mat
ter content leads to a tougher, quickly eroding
soil with a tendency to compact and with a low
er nitrogen supply.

How can one improve the humus content mately cause great problems with soil fertility and
of the soil? plant diseases. A good crop rotation must produce
permanent organic matter in the long term, or at
With green and manure compost, more
least keep the balance even and avoid the devel
mature organic matter compounds are intro
opment of diseases, pests and weeds.
duced to the soil, largely resisting decomposi
The central element of each organic crop rota
tion, and promoting organic matter formation.
tion is grass-clover. Under grass-clover, the soil can
Lignified crop residues are only slowly degrad
rest. Weed seeds are prevented from germinating,
ed, and thus tend to promote lignin-degrad
and diseases and pests are subdued and cut down
ing, slow-growing soil fungi, which enrich the
by the increased activity of soil organisms. The
soil flora. These crop residues contribute to
longer grass-clover is permitted to stand, the higher
the formation of permanent organic matter.
is its value as a preceding crop. Three-year-old clo
Perennial grass-clover in the crop rotation not
ver meadows also effectively suppress thistles. The
only introduces organic matter formation, but
use of other short-term green manures however,
also a lot of easily degradable root mass to
can only partially replace grass-clover, because of
the soil, and thus primarily provides nutrients
their short cultivation period.
for earthworms and microorganisms.
In the long run, a broad and varied crop rotation
with a high percentage of green cover and chang
ing cultivation and harvest periods will pay off.
Balancing organic matter
The objective of every cultivation should be to Hansueli Dierauer
achieve an at least balanced humus (organic mat
ter) budget on all the plots over the period of the
entire crop rotation. Whether the goal has been
achieved or not can be monitored with an organic
matter balance.
The methods of balancing organic matter (so far
mainly used in Germany, Austria and Switzerland)
are mostly built on estimates and calculations
based on the crop rotation and the cultivation. For
the balancing on organic farms, only a handful
of methods are suitable, such as e.g. the REPRO
method by Hlsbergen1 and the site specific meth
od (Standortangepasste Methode) by Kolbe. For
the application of organic matter balances national
standards apply. Organic matter balances of differ
ent farms must be compared with caution. Addi
tionally, organic matter measurements are recom
mended every couple of years. However, not only
the total quantity of organic matter is important, Grass-clover is an effective self-enforcer of soil fertility. Without leguminous leys or green manures as
but also the quality of permanent organic matter, a main crop in crop rotation, durably profitable organic farming is not possible.
as well as the turnover of nutrient organic matter.
Alfred Berner With regulated organic matter manage-

ment, we are able to preserve the fer-
tility of our soils and to regenerate unsound
3.2 Organic matter-preserving crop soils. The contributing factors should be
rotations made up of manure and compost fertilisa-
tion in combination with green compost
A too one-sided orientation of the market in organ and cultivation of leguminous crops, with
ic farming has the result that crop rotation rules are appropriate cultivation.
partially disregarded because of short-term aspects:
crop rotations are being narrowed and lined up Peter Neessen, organic farmer on the Terrenhof in
lacking balance, and the share of grass-clover is St. Vith, Belgium
being reduced. When it comes to crop rotation
in organic farming, the soil should again be the
focus of consideration. Cultivating solely commer 1
Brock, C., Hoyer,U., Leithold, G., Hlsbergen, K.-J., 2008. A New
cial crops with the highest contribution margin per
Approach to Humus Balancing in Organic Farming, 16th IFOAM
hectare, and largely renouncing the cultivation of Organic World Congress, Modena, Italy, June 1620, 2008
fertility building leys and green manures, will ulti (archived at http://orgprints.org/view/projects/conference.html).

Crop residues of a few crop plants Organic matter-effective rules for crop
Crop Crop residue (tonnes of dry rotation:
matter per ha and year) A minimum of 20% of grass-clover in the
Potatoes, sugar beet 0,61 crop rotation, for the development of soil fer
tility and weed suppression.
Autumn temporary fodder cultivation 0,9 1,8
Maximum 60% cereals in the crop rotation,
Cereals, thresher peas, maize, rapeseed, 12 and maximum 20% of a single type of crop,
field beans in order to avoid diseases.
Winter temporary fodder cultivation 1,5 3 Changing between foliage plants and cere
als, organic matter-promoting and organic
Sowing for use in autumn 24
matter-exhausting crops, winter and summer
Grass-clover- and -lucerne mixtures 36,5 crops, early sowings and late sowings, to pre
Source: Lehrmittel Bodenkunde, edition-lmz, Switzerland vent overexploitation of the soil, and prob
lems with soil-borne diseases and problem
atic weeds.
Cultivating catch crops for green manuring for
the production of nutrients and organic matter,
as well as for the protection of the soil from
erosion.
Schematic examples of a organic matter-promoting and of an organic matter-exhausting crop rotation

Especially root-crop-dominated crop rotations often show a negative humus balance in practice. The following examples
show how even crop rotations with strongly exhaustive root crops and an average of 0,5 to 0,8 livestock units can achieve
a positive humus balance.
Year
Liquid manure Manure (+ 1,0) Hairmeal pellets Manure
(+ 0,6) Liquid manure (+ 0,6) (+ 0) (+ 1,0)
Organic
matter-
exhausting
Balance: Grass-clover Winter wheat Maize Grain legumes Potatoes Spelt
1,3 organic (+ 1,8) ( 1,0) ( 2,1) (+ 0,4) ( 2,8) ( 1,0)
matter units1 Freezing green manure (+ 0,2)
Organic matter-exhausting crop rotation: This crop rotation only makes use of stacked manure (muck heap) and has only single-year
grass-clover. As manure is needed for maize and spelt, the farmer has to use organic commercial fertiliser for potatoes. In combination
with a single frost-kill green manure (e.g. mustard), organic matter is depleted because of the root crops.
Year
Liquid manure Rotted manure (+ 1,4) Manure
(+ 0,6) Liquid manure (+ 0,6) compost (+ 2,0)
Organic
matter-
promoting
Balance: Grass-clover Grass-clover Winter wheat Maize Grain legumes Potatoes
+ 2,8 organic (+ 1,8) (+ 1,4) ( 1,0) ( 2,1) (+ 0,4) ( 2,8)
matter units1 Overwintering green manure (+ 0,3) Freezing green manure (+ 0,2)
Organic matter-promoting crop rotation: This crop rotation comprises two years of grass-clover which contributes significantly to the
formation of organic matter. Adding rotted manure and manure compost brings much stable organic matter into the soil. The two
green manures (e.g. grass-clover, green oats) provide much fresh biomass. Despite two very exhausting crops (potatoes are simply an
example), the organic matter balance of this crop rotation is positive. Farms lacking animal manure may improve their organic matter
balance with generous additions of plant-based compost.
* Calculation basis: Organic matter units simplified according to Leithold and Hlsbergen, Journal kologie & Landbau, Edition 105,
1/1998, pages 3235. Assumption: Addition of liquid manure: 30m3; diluted 1:1; Addition of manure: 20t.

3.3 Organic fertiliser
Manure and liquid manure from animal husbandry,

as well as composts and green cuttings from plant
cultivation, are the most important organic ferti
lisers in organic farming. More recently, fermenta
tion substrates from biogas plants have also been
coming into use more frequently.
These organic fertilisers influence the soil with
differing qualities: physically from liquid to firm
ly structured, chemically from simple-mineral to
complex-organic, organically from one-sided to
many-sided.
Compost
Compost contains organic matter, stabilised by rot
ting, which serves the production of organic matter.
It provides the soil with a phosphorus-emphasised
nutrient-mix. Time and again, studies have shown
that compost advances soil life and soil fertility one
step further than other organic fertilisers would on
their own: compost rebuilds the soil. While manure
compost also displays a good nitrogen effect,
green waste compost has rather little effect.
In practice, the communal composting of com
Long-straw varieties serve not only high straw production, but munity green waste and individual manure has
also the production of organic matter. proven effective, also economically; the costs of a
turning machine and labour can be paid for with
The challenge of soil fatigue the contributions from green waste composting.
If a plant species or a group of species cannot Each country has its own legal framework to be
be successfully cultivated in a soil after three to followed.
four years of cultivation break, the phenomenon When young, lignin-containing plant composts
is called soil fatigue. Apple trees, roses and legu are added to rapidly growing crops, it may lead to
minous plants are especially known for this. Soil a temporary nitrogen-block in the soil, especially
fatigue may be caused by an accumulation of in spring. In such cases, more mature composts
pathogenic microbes, by a one-sided impoverish already containing nitrate are more suitable. An
ment of the soils regarding essential nutrients, by auxiliary fertilisation with a readily available organic
toxins exuded by plants (allelopathy), by a bad soil source of nitrogen, such as liquid manure, can help
structure, or by a combination of these factors. lower the risk.
Legume fatigue can pose problems to an organ
ic farm. It manifests itself in a year-by-year decrease
in the vigour of grass-clover and grain legumes. It
is based on an ecological imbalance in the soil
(development of pests) and various possible caus
es are currently being researched. A cure is usually
individual to the farm and requires competent con
sultation.
Long-term experience shows that a crop

rotation with two years of grass-clover
does not guarantee that the organic matter
content will be preserved, even less so for a
soil with a high level of organic matter. It can
be decisive how many crop residues remain
in the field or are restored.
Alfred Berner, FiBL
Producing a (micro-) biologically high-quality compost, which does not damage the environment and
boosts plants, necessitates good knowledge and experience.

slightly rotted manure and mature manure com
What needs to be considered when
post are significantly better than fresh manure or
composting green waste or manure?
(rotting) stacked manure. Even if only consider
Compost should not be waterlogged (check ing nitrogen, processed manure works as a better
by squeezing it in your fist). Covering may be fertiliser, as it will not induce nitrogen-blocks from
needed. barely rotted straw or cause damage via manure
Compost should not dry out. If necessary, clods. Manure compost approaches the quality
water the compost during turning. of compost given a longer storage time. Deep lit
Turning the compost helps the rotting process. ter manure is a special case: it usually requires an
Adding soil (10%) promotes stable organic additional mechanical loosening before it can rot
matter compounds. and then be applied.
A rotting temperature of at least 50C promotes
hygiene and kills off weed seeds. Appropriately evaluating the nitrogen effect
The effectiveness of a fertiliser as a provider of
nitrogen depends not only on its nitrogen content,
Liquid manure but also on the ratio of carbon and nitrogen (C/N
Liquid manure contains much readily available ratio). Liquid manure has e.g. C/N 7 ('narrow'),
ammoniacal nitrogen and quickly mineralising straw has C/N 50 to 100 ('broad'), compost is
organic substances which contribute little to the often around a C/N of 20 to 30. A rapid N-fertilis
formation of organic matter. The quick and specif ation takes place at a C/N ratio of about 10. With
ically applicable fertilising ability of liquid manure a rising C/N ratio, organic fertilisers function more
during growth is its great advantage. and more as long-term fertilisers with an increasing
Liquid manure should be applied during humid contribution to the formation of organic matter. The
weather on absorbent soils, in order to minimise speed of nitrogen absorption also depends strong
loss of nutrients as well as the harmful effect on ly on general availability of nitrogen in the soil, e.g.
air and water. If too much liquid manure is applied on the nitrogen found in root exudates of legumes,
to the soil, the emerging ammonia can burn earth on the temperature and humidity of the soil, as
worms living on the surface. A well-developed soil well as on the diversity and vitality of the soil life.
life may however incorporate moderate adminis
trations of diluted or processed liquid manure of
about 25m3 per hectare into the food chain, and Manure should reach the soil as brown
thus return it into the organic cycle. rotted manure or manure compost,
and not as fresh farmyard manure. This way,
Manure it is best transformed by soil organisms.
Manure, being a mixture of plant and animal sub
stances, is a more balanced fertiliser than liquid Alfred Berner, FiBL
manure. Its quality however depends greatly on
its storage. For the production of soil and for yield,
Within the substance cycle of

soil fertility, cows usually play
the leading role. Digestion, milk
and manure of a cow feeding
on diversified roughage differ
quantifiably from a heavily
protein-fed cow.

Digestates as fertilisers?
Since the invention of biogas plants, it has been
possible to fertilise with their digestates. The diges
tate often originates from the same initial sub
strates as compost (liquid manure, solid manure,
plant material, etc.), and it also contains a similar
amount of nutrients and organic matter. Due to
different degradation processes during compost
ing and fermentation, the quality of such fertilisers
however varies considerably: compost emerges
with oxygen from aerobic rotting; its organic mat
ter and nitrogen are stabilised during maturation.
Digestate, on the other hand, emerges without
oxygen from anaerobic fermentation (rotting), and
is still in the process of degradation when being
applied. This is why the following should be con
sidered for fertilisation with digestates:
Solid digestates can transform into more valuable fertiliser with the help of aerobic post-rotting.
Liquid digestate (digestate/fermentation liquid
manure) contains much ammonium (NH 4+),
which can easily escape as ammonia (NH 3)
Content of main nutrients (in kg per t) in organic fertilisers (fresh substance)
during drying. Digestate liquid manure should
therefore be used on absorbent soil during cool, Corg Norganic Nmineral P K
humid and windless weather with a trailing Animal-run 175 4,0 1,3 1,0 9,0
hose or shoe, or with the slotted-nozzle proce manure*
dure, perhaps even in diluted form. Avoid anaer Stacked 150 4,1 0,8 1,4 5,5
obic conditions for formation of nitrous oxide manure*
(N2O)!
Manure 106 4,6 1,0 2,0 6,6
Moist, solid digestate can be effective as a
fast nutrient provider, but makes an uncertain compost*
contribution to long-term organic matter produc Green waste 214 6,7 0,3 0,1 4,2
tion and adds next to nothing to the soil struc compost
ture. If digestate dries out, ammonia is lost! Moist Solid digestate 235 5,7 0,3 0,1 4,2
digestate may be rotted later on, to create better
Slurry 1:1* 35 0,9 1,2 0,4 6,6
compost. In order to minimise loss of ammonia,
you should mix in slightly rotted woody material. Liquid 61 2,0 2,0 0,9 3,3
digestate
In organic farming, fertilising with digestates is only * Farm fertiliser from dairy cattle Source: GRUDAF, Switzerland, 2009
allowed with restrictions (consult the relevant certi
Organic nitrogen becomes plant-available in the mid- and long-term; mineral nitrogen however can
fication guidelines!).
quickly be absorbed by the plants and microorganisms with potential negative impacts on plant
health and product quality. It is also promptly lost. The table shows average figures. Especially the
Alfred Berner and Jacques Fuchs phosphorus content of the fertilisers can vary widely, depending on what the animals were fed.
Is there a phosphorus-deficiency problem If soils have been depleted and exhaus

on organic farms? ted over centuries, we have the duty
and debt as arable farmers to help these
In farms lacking addition of nutrients, phospho
soils regenerate.
rus can become scarce in fodder or fertiliser. A
possible way to address phosphorus deficiency Sepp Braun, organic farmer in Freising, Germany
without having to acquire raw phosphate would
be to add manure or compost. Cultivation of
legumes and the promotion of soil-microorgan
ism activity may be able to mobilise larger quan
tities of phosphorus bound in the soil. Farms
which are suffering from a phosphorus deficien
cy for plants and animals often have a high pH
value in their soils. The high pH value impedes
the plants' uptake of phosphorus.

3.4 Green manure Objective: Erosion protection during winter
For erosion protection, the timely seeding of a
Good reasons for the use of green manures are winter-hardy green manure, such as a grass-clover
manifold. They improve soil quality, decrease mixture or ryegrass after cereals, or forage rye (also
crop-rotation diseases, and help to bind nutrients vetch rye) or winter turnips after potatoes or maize
from the air or to mobilise them in the soil. Green can be used.
manuring is a one of the most important possibili
ties for farms with few or no cattle to nourish the
soil and to produce organic matter. Green manures and climate
But no green manure can meet all demands Green manures that are incorporated after they
and wishes at the same time. Depending on what have been killed by frost, or those that are rich in
is to be achieved with green manure, different sin biomass and winter-hardy, can release more cli
gle seeds and mixtures are worth considering. A mate-damaging gases (especially nitrous oxide)
mixture with grasses is often sensible when the into the atmosphere during freezing and thaw
green manure is also being used for fodder. For ing cycles in winter. Winter-hardy green manures
pure green manures, grass-free mixtures are also sown before the beginning of September
well suited. (depending on climatic region) should be mown
in October, and the mowings removed from the
field, e.g. for use as silage.
Objective: Nitrogen supply for following crop

The best nitrogen supplies are achieved by leg
ume crops, e.g. peas or field beans, or, for longer
service times and seeding after cereal harvesting,
clover-lucerne mixtures. Dense legume cultivations,
left standing until flowering, can furnish 70140kg
nitrogen per hectare for the following crop. For
short-term greening during the season and with a
growth period of about 3 months, summer vetches
or Egyptian-Persian clover are suitable. Undersown
grass-clover stubbles bring an increase of 50kg N
per hectare.
Especially grain legumes, such as the lupine,
are able to tap phosphorus for following crops, as
well as fixing nitrogen.
In spite of time, labour and cost efforts, the cultivation of green manures across the whole crop rota-
tion is economically sound, as market crops deliver more stable yields. Objective: Conservation of nitrogen for the
following crop
For this purpose, fast growing varieties, especially
Choose the appropriate plants for your green oats, forage rye, or mustard and Brassica
objective rapa/turnip varieties are most suitable.
Objective: Improved soil structure, production Oil (fodder) radish in particular can exploit deep
of organic matter soil layers and recuperate translocated nitrogen. If
For organic matter production, grass-clover mix however frost-kill varieties are not ploughed before
tures with cultivation duration of at least 1,5 years winter, and the following crop is cultivated before
are best suited, as they grow roots through the soil winter, much nitrogen can be wasted.
most thoroughly and intensively. Quite a few new varieties are currently being
Ideally, the mixture is regularly mown (perhaps introduced into cultivation as catch crops, such as
with fodder sales), and the last growth processed Sudangrass, lyme grass, Guizotia (Guizotia abyss-
into mulch. Cattle-free farms can dispense with inica/ramtil), which grow fast and efficiently sup
grasses (lucerne-clover mixtures), to bring in more press weeds , and are in part drought-resistant.
nitrogen but it is usually an advantage to include Experience will tell which ones will prevail.
grasses, as they greatly promote organic matter
production thanks to their stronger soil rooting and
they provide a more stable release of nitrogen with
lower risk of leaching. In dry locations, lucerne-
grass mixtures work best.

Nitrogen gain from legumes
At the cut from grass-clover and pure legume
cultivation, the N supply can be estimated as fol
lows:
Grass-clover stubbles: +50kg N/ha.
Grass-clover before grass shoots: 1525kg N/
ha for each kg/m2 of fresh mass. This gives
us, given 14kg of fresh mass per m2, about
20100kg N per hectare.
Grass-clover after grass shoots (including for
age rye, green oats): 020kg N/ha, regard
less of quantity, as the C/N ratio is usually
quite wide.
Pure legumes before flowering about
3035kg N/ha per kg of fresh mass and m2.
Dense, knee-high cultivation about 34kg/m2
This silty soil of an organically cultivated vegetable farm near Vienna shows structure problems.
= 80140kg N/ha.
Marchfeld has almost no animal husbandry, and therefore no farm manure. With additionally bought
straw and green manure, the farm is now offering more nourishment to soil organisms, in order to
improve the soil structure. This will also reduce water and wind erosion.
Green manures and their effect

Green manure/ Production Gain of Subsoil Erosion Prevention Weed sup- Comments
mixture of organic nitrogen loosening protection of pests pression
matter for follow- during and
ing crop winter diseases1
Grass-clover Suppresses thistles and bindweed, pro
1,5 years motes docks/sorrels. Risk of wireworms
for following crop. Thorough rooting of the
deeper soil with lucernes.
Pure grass seeds Non-host for root-knot nematodes and
(up to 9 months) many crop-rotation diseases of root crops
and vegetables.
Clover-lucerne Suited as a green manure between cereals
mixture and maize, little depth effect given an
(up to 9 months) over-year-long cultivation. Longer periods
of cultivation maybe applicable.
Lupines, field Susceptible to nematode varieties, few
beans (until problems with wireworms in following
flowering) crop. Lupines need warmth. Rather unsuit
able when legumes are part of the main
crop.
Peas, vetches Pea is less warmth-dependent, also suita
(until flowering) ble for winter cultivation. Vetches depend
ing on type. Peas are unsuitable if the
same are part of the main crop. Vetches
only limitedly.
Phacelia Not related to crop types. N-gain via pre
(until flowering) vention of washing out.
Oil (fodder) Not in a crop rotation with cruciferous
radish plants, subsoil loosening only when cul
tivated for a longer period. N-gain via
prevention of washing out. Recovery effect
depending on variety (nematodes).
Key: no effect; = very strong effect; 1 Focus on diseases with a wide range of hosts, and nematodes

Objective: Subsoil loosening 3.5 Promoting wild plants instead of
For this purpose, oil (fodder) radish or perennially fighting weeds?
cultivated lucerne are worth considering.
The soil must be loosened with a cultivator Most wild plants originate from riverbanks and
beforehand, so that the roots and green-manure locations where the soil was constantly in motion.
plants may access the deeper soil layers more eas Thanks to cereal cultivation they have made their
ily and subsequently stabilise the pores (biological way to Central Europe, where they colonised the
engineering). Oil radish also requires a sufficient fields as 'weeds'. They took their time adapting to
ly long cultivation period of at least 3 months for certain light and soil conditions. This is why they
good effects. Lupines and field beans can, along are often specialised, some making use of even
side other deep-rooting legumes, also be used for extreme conditions such as compacted soils.
a deeper root penetration of the soil. Europe counts about 650 plant species among its
field plants. Depending on the soil's acidity and
Objective: Prevention of diseases and pests the cultivated crop (cereal or root crop), different
Green manures are supposed to minimise the plant communities emerge.
disease and pest pressure for the following crop.
Therefore no green manure should be cultivated
that is closely related to the main crop (e.g. mus
tard with rapeseed or cabbage varieties). Peas are
most succession-sensitive, followed by other types
of legumes. Green manures of grain legumes do
not belong in a crop rotation which cultivates the
same legume as a main crop.
One should pay attention to diseases and pests
which affect many different host plants, such as
Sclerotinia, Rhizoctonia and certain kinds of nema
todes.
Highly disease-susceptible green manures (e.g. This beautiful cornflower brings beneficial organisms into field
sunflowers to Sclerotinia) should be avoided if sus and vegetable cultivations. It is contributing to the agroecosys-
tem's self-regulation.
ceptible main crops are cultivated (rapeseed, vege
tables, sunflowers).
With the overwintering cultivation of a green
manure, crop-rotation problems can be bypassed. Due to the use of herbicides, intensive nitrogen-fer
For example, root-knot nematodes cannot repro tilisation, seed cleaning, sophisticated cultivation
duce on winter peas or vetches if the plants are techniques, and productive arable crop plants, life
broken up at an early enough stage. conditions of these field plants have worsened
considerably. Today, 40% (Germany) to 80%
Objective: Weed suppression (Switzerland) of those species are on the Red
Seed-propagated weeds can be suppressed with List. Moreover, after years of conventional farming,
fast-growing green manures. Often the best mix the seed stock is depleted in such a way that the
tures to use are ones that take well to cutting, i.e. absence of location-typical species persists even
are amenable to a cut (a scarifying cut) soon after years after a transition.
growth to 1015cm in height, and which then form
a densely closed stand. Perennial weeds, such as
thistles and bindweeds, are best suppressed with All that sprouts from the earth has its
perennial stands of grass-clover. particular intended purpose, and dili
gently contributes to the completion of the
Martin Koller entire Creation. Nothing growing from the
earth is in vain, nothing useless often-
times the same that poses harm to you is
harmless feed to birds and animals.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 339-397 AD

How to promote endangered field plants?
The following measures can help preserve

endangered field plants:
Minimum tillage of the soil.
Allow for regular fallow periods.
Choose greater row distances or sow crops by
hand.
Later on, stubble cultivation with use as sheep
or cattle pasture.
Include location-specific, older crop plants
such as flax, lentils, buckwheat or millet.
Possibly cultivate perennial forage crops
(there is however a conflict of objective with
soil fertility!).
This accompanying flora for oats, consisting of Camelina (false flax) and low-growing clover, will not
become weeds. Other wild plants like the creeping thistle, wild rye (wheatgrass) or the field bind-
weed should however be regulated in organic farming.
Various benefits not least for the soil
Field plants form the basis of existence for many a
beneficial organism, promote pollination rates, and
provide distraction feed for pests. They also pro
mote the soil's tilth (optimum soil condition), as
they root through the crop plants and protect them
from direct sunlight. On fields staying without plant
cover for longer periods, such as e.g. maize, they
can counteract erosion.
From wild plant to problem weed

In principle, wild plants are competitors of crop
plants for water, nutrients, light and space, and
were therefore exterminated for the sake of crops.
The varieties permanently established in the field
have adapted to weed control. Yet many wild
plants are non-problematic because of their weak
competitiveness.
Unfavourable growing conditions, especially,
bring out varieties which are superior in growth to
arable crops. Plants like the creeping thistle, the How many field plants does wheat tolerate or need?
field bindweed, docks (sorrels) or wild rye (wheat
grass), which can multiply fast from roots or rhi
zomes, are a great challenge in the field. Many studies have substantiated the
A balanced crop rotation, careful soil cultiva important role organic arable farming
tion, and optimal starting and growth conditions has in protecting endangered field flora. In
for arable crops often contribute to the wild plants organic fields, the diversity of wild plant vari-
becoming an accompanying flora which can have eties is two to three times higher than with
overall positive effects on soil fertility and harvests. herbicidal cultivation. High cultivation inten-
sity, nurse crops, perennial field forage-crop
Soil cultivation irritates wild plants! cultivation, excessive control of field weeds,
Every kind of soil movement, even that provoked and immediate stubble cultivation have
by a light, minimal tillage of the soil, stimulates the adverse effects on the diversity of the flora
wild plants' germination. If there is a strong emer in organic farming too.
gence of wild plants, these can be controlled with Lukas Pfiffner, FiBL
multiple minimum stubble-tillage or multiphase
seedbed preparation with a pseudo-seedbed. Only
after these possibilities have been tried should one
decide whether weeds should be controlled with
special devices or in other ways.
Lukas Pfiffner and Herwart Bhm

3.6 Soil compaction and how to avoid it What to do if soil is compacted?
During mechanical loosening of the subsoil, the
Soil compaction Machine-induced damage
soil may lose more of its structure, resulting in
on the ground
a re-consolidation worse than the original com
Soil compaction occurs when vehicle-induced soil
paction that was being tackled. To avoid this, the
pressures are higher than a soil's carrying capacity.
following should be observed:
Any soil can be compacted, be it sandy or clay soil.
Only carry out subsoil loosening if the soil is
Damaging compactions of clay soils are quickly
dry in the loosening depth.
apparent. Fertile loess-loam soils seem to be more
Stabilise the loosened structure by sowing
forgiving of mistakes. But even they show compac
long-term deep-rooting plant species (e.g.
tion, although yield reductions may only be seen
grass-clover, lucerne), if possible during the
in years of extreme weather conditions. Even small
same working step.
proportions of silt and clay increase the compac
Change cultivation techniques in such a way
tion sensitivity of sandy soils.
that mistakes are not repeated.
If the soil is being compacted, this primarily means

that the soils supply lines for oxygen and water are
being crushed. As a consequence, the soil absorbs
water less well, and water drains off on the sur
face. The living conditions for soil microorganisms
and roots deteriorate with the lack of air exchange,
i.e. the resulting lack of oxygen. Soil compaction
makes physically deep-reaching soils ecologically
shallower by obstructing roots from growing into
deeper soil layers.
"The courage of waiting is one way to avoid

mistakes"
Soil moisture is the defining factor of a soil's car
rying capacity because the water works as a lubri
cant between the soil particles. If there is too much
A severely compacted soil, with mechanically loosened subsoil, before the sowing of lucerne. water, the soil structure ceases to support it. It takes
nerve to wait until the soil has dried and is stable,
but it is well worth it in the long term. An antici
patory crop rotation and choice of crops, allowing
for more flexibility especially during the sowing and
harvest season, can be helpful in this case. Catch
crops draw water from the soil in autumn and
improve its carrying capacity for autumn sowing.
Sometimes a soil has been so com-

pacted with heavy machinery that life
can barely get by. In this case we need to
apply expensive technology and roughly
repair the damage. Then, everything needs
to stabilised with complete root penetration
of all the soil layers, and be brought back
Growth of grass-clover and lucerne with unhindered soil penetration of over 2 metres depth. into balance. We as humans are responsible
for this.
Sepp Braun, organic farmer in Freising, Germany

We first had to learn what a heavy soil
really means. If you have got a spade
and take out about a spade's length of soil,
and water is present, it is quite clear that
you have no business working on the soil. It
may look dry on the surface, but this does
not mean that you can go on the field. And
you really need to develop a sense for this.
Uwe Brede, organic farmer in Hesse, Germany
Soils are more stable if they are cultivated less

often and less deeply. Uncultivated soil develops,
thanks to the work of earthworms and microorgan
isms, a thorough system of pores, which ensures
sufficient air and water supplies. There may how The on-land plough can drive outwith the furrow. The as yet uncultivated soil sustains less damage
ever be conflicts with mechanical weed control from driving. Slippage and the creation of a plough sole can be avoided. The usual rules of practice
operations. against soil compaction still apply for the on-land plough.
The inner pressure of a tyre largely corresponds
to the pressure on the soil surface to a depth of
about 10cm. This makes it clear that the tyre pres
sure should be kept low. Modern radial tyres are
ideal, as they can be driven on the field with a very
low pressure, whereas trailers with truck tyres do
not belong on the field!
To determine how much the tyre pressure can
be lowered, one needs to find out the wheel load
(measured axle load divided by two), and to read
the minimal tyre pressure for the wheel load and
driving speed recommended in the tyre-pressure
table provided by the manufacturer. This procedure
increases the transfer of traction and reduces sur
face-smearing slippage.
The greater the wheel load, the deeper the pres
sure penetrates the soil, independent of contact
area and inner tyre pressure. Wide tyres can there
fore help avoid topsoil compaction, but are less
effective against subsoil compaction given higher
wheel loads. Lighter tractors, trailers and machinery
are generally more soil-conserving, and allow for
inner tyre pressures of even less than 1 bar/14,5
Psi.
As an additional rule: the more frequently the
soil is driven on, the more compaction you have
in the driving lane. Driving practice adjusted to the
requirements of the soil promotes soil fertility and
saves money.
Melanie Wild, Markus Demmel, and Robert Brandhuber
This very compact silt soil on a slope is physically moderately compacted. Was the compac-
tion caused by driving, or may we interpret it as a good natural carrying capacity for driving? After
decades of strong erosion, this soil has been cultivated without ploughing, but including the use of
glyphosate. The soil is permeable for earthworms and water; erosion has been stopped. However, the
dense bedding and the modest organic activity of the soil have led to a lack of mesopores as well as
to a relatively low water-retention capacity.

3.7 Soil erosion and how to avoid it
The primary objective of farming should
be to keep the soil permanently cov-
Every mechanical soil cultivation technique loos
ered. Even organic farming can still improve
ens the soil's compound structure and thereby
in this area. For instance, we should recon-
reduces the energy expenditure needed to wash
sider the late sowing of cereal in autumn;
away soil material. Freshly cultivated soil lacking a
the soil lies bare for a long time and the
protective vegetation cover is, given even a very
cereal cannot possibly exploit the available
slight slope, vulnerable to the impact of raindrops
nutrients before winter. We should further
and to surface runoff.
favour mixed instead of monocultures this
is where organic farming still barely differs
from other cultivation methods.
Bernd Ewald, organic advisor, IBLA, Luxemburg
The pictures show the impact

of erosion. The remaining
soil is structurally weak, and Organic farming generally creates good conditions
shows a low germination rate. for the prevention of water and wind erosion: The
Sown-in soil from a depth of
proportion of especially erosion-vulnerable row
020cm (A), 2030cm (B),
and 3060cm (C), under a crops is low, and grass-clover guarantees a good
700-year-old meadow. A soil cover and helps to stabilise soil aggregates after
cultivation. Nevertheless there are periods without
soil cover and the clean-wiped slate associated
with the use of the plough is still common practice.
Robert Brandhuber, Markus Demmel,and Melanie Wild
Erosion-effective cultivation measures:

Lay out hedges transversely to the slope. The
division of a 200-m-long, erosive slope into
two 100-m-long slopes reduces the soil loss
by a third.
Lay out wide grass verges alongside streams
as buffer zones, ideally with trees and bush
es. A number of countries offer corresponding
funding programmes.
B Where possible, cultivate transversely to the
slope.
Avoid the cultivation of crops with wide row
spacing (e.g. maize) or requiring frequent
soil cultivation (e.g. field vegetables) on ero
sion-endangered fields.
Cover the soil with catch crops and nurse
crops.

Requirements for erosion protection
In United Kingdom, to qualify for your full
Basic Payment Scheme (BPS) payment
or any payments under greening or agri-
environmental schemes, you must meet
the requirements of GAECs 4, 5 and 6. This
means that you must: a) take all reasona
ble steps to protect soil by having minimum
soil cover unless there is an agronomic jus
tification not to or where establishing a cov
er would conflict with requirements under
GAEC 5 (GAEC 4); b) manage your land to
minimise soil erosion (GAEC 5); and c) use
appropriate practices to maintain the levels
of organic matter in soil (GAEC 6).
Germany implemented stricter regulations
for erosion protection in erosion-endangered
locations in 2010, within the scope of Cross
Compliance (requirements for direct pay
ments).
In Austria, the measures greening of ara
ble land and mulch/no-till farming can be
combined with organic cultivation on the
same piece of land, and are eligible activities
within the agri-environmental project. Similar
funding measures are offered by the Ger
man federal states.
Switzerland counts criteria regarding catch
crops and soil-cover rate among its require
ments for the ecological proof of perfor
mance.
In Luxembourg, the sowing of catch crops
and nurse crops, mulch and no-till farm
ing, and the planting of erosion-controlling A bad surface structure should be a warning signal to every conscientious farmer! A good cover and
or green verges are supported by an agri- well-nourished biological engineering in the topsoil are prerequisites for a sustainable agriculture.
Pictures: An arable field without (above) and with (below) organic fertilisation after heavy rain (long-
environmental project.
term DOK-trial by FiBL in Therwil, Switzerland). An organically nourished and biologically active soil
can better absorb rainwater, and retains its surface structure even after the rain. Thus, the soil is better
protected against erosion.
The worse the soil structure is, and the

more energy a plant needs to root
through the ground, the weaker it is. This
can play a role for surface diseases and
pests. What's more, the environment in the
soil often promotes certain foot diseases. I
observe this often with peas, which are very
susceptible to compaction. If the soil is too
dense, foot diseases occur more often and
can be identified at an early stage. Soil struc-
ture and plant health hence often strongly
correlate. Cereal varieties are mostly less vul-
nerable than peas.
Harald Schmidt, SL
Nurse crops are an effective measure against erosion. The soil-covering vegetation absorbs the
impact of raindrops, and the near-surface rooting has a superior cohesion effect for the soil.

Part 4: The Future of Soil Culture
4.1 Taking account of the climate The importance of soils in the global carbon
balance
Agriculture and climate change are strongly corre With photosynthesis, plants form organic C com
lated. On the one hand, agriculture is threatened pounds from atmospheric CO2. The compounds
by global warming: increasing drought, and aug are then released into the soil as root residues/
mented extreme precipitation and erosion, pose exudates or driven off the field as harvest. The area
difficulties for food production worldwide. On the of the soils (the pedosphere) is, after the oceans,
other hand, agriculture contributes about 1015% the second largest carbon reservoir of the animate
of overall greenhouse gas emissions. Taking into earth (the biosphere)! In the organic matter and
account the emissions of the supply industry (fer soil life of the earth, there are about 1600 billion
tilisers, pesticides), and land reclamation through tonnes of carbon, which is significantly more than
deforestation, the contribution goes up to 30%. in the atmosphere (780bn t C) and vegetation
(600bn t C, especially wood) combined. In the
soil, the carbon from plant residues and organic
The organic matter supply is not only fertiliser either oxidises or is converted to organic
crucial for soil functions and yield per- matter. Organic matter consists of about 60% car
formance. It determines the carbon storage bon. With a C-content of 1% (this corresponds to a
of the soil, as well as most greenhouse-gas organic matter content of about 1,7%), the topsoil
flows of agriculture. Our research team is binds about 45t C per hectare.
developing organic matter-balance methods, The turnover and reduction rate of organic mat
in close collaboration with practice and con- ter varies from a few days to weeks for fresh plant
sulting services. The objective is to shape material, to years or decades for straw, farmyard
crop rotation, fertilisation and soil cultivation manure or well-rotted compost and to centuries
in a way that gives rise to the location-spe- or millennia for highly interconnected organic mat
cific optimal organic matter content. ter. The more organic matter compounds are bound
to each other and to clay minerals, and embedded
Kurt-Jrgen Hlsbergen, TU Mnchen in structurally stable soil crumbs, the more protect
(Weihenstephan), Germany ed they are from degradation processes.
The function of soil in the carbon balance
Gt = gigatons, C = carbon
CO2 in the atmosphere
780 Gt C
Emission Release
6,5 Gt C/year 90 Gt C/year
Respiration
60 Gt C/year
Photosynthesis
120 Gt C/year Vegetation
n
Reduction currently
600 Gt C
more than
60 Gt C/year
/y
Organic matter formation and
Litter
breakdown play an integral 60 Gt C/year Intake 92
part in climate-relevant carbon Gt C/year
flows. The CO2 content of the
atmosphere is currently increas-
ing by 3,3Gt C per annum. The
exchange of C with lime, the Fossil carbon Soil organic matter Ocean 39000 Gt C
greatest carbon reservoir by far,
4000 Gt C 1600 Gt C
works much more slowly and
thus does not appear on this Source: Heinz Flessa, adaptation by Gattinger and Editors
diagram.

The potential of organic farming for storing
carbon in soils
System comparisons worldwide have shown
that organic cultivation systems are able to retain
about 500kg more C per hectare and year than
comparable conventional systems. During the first
ten to thirty years after conversion of cultivation,
the soils store additional carbon. After this, a new
balance is established. If the crop rotation is also
significantly simplified in organic farming, perhaps
even by doing without grass-clover cultivation in a
main-crop position, the existing organic matter can
definitely not be maintained. Intensive soil cultiva
tion also stimulates organic matter reduction and
further wastes a large amount of crude oil.
Comprehensive studies in Europe have shown
that currently most soils have a net carbon emis
Green soil surface tends to
sion into the atmosphere. One reason is that the absorb CO2, and brown surface
already increased average temperatures are lead 4.2 Improving the stability of the to emit CO2.
ing to organic matter reduction and are therefore agroecosystem
self-reinforcing. These studies further show that in
practice only a small minority of farms is actually Man-made climate change will lead to weather pat
using their potential for organic matter production! terns changing in Europe, with increasing extremes.
Organic farming can prepare accordingly, so as to
Methane and nitrous oxide achieve satisfactory harvests even in bad years.
Methane (CH4) has a greenhouse effect 20 to 40 It is mainly a question of being able to manage
times as strong as CO 2. Living and well-aerated with much or little water. In crop cultivation, this
soils absorb methane from the atmosphere and has consequences for resistance against pests and
break it down. This is opposed by the production diseases. Stability during thunderstorms, which are
of methane by farmyard manure. (Manure-) com likely to increase with climate change, might also
posting produces far less new methane than other pose problems for some crops.
farmyard manures. 1. The most important thing in times of crisis is a
Nitrous oxide (N2O) has a 310-times greater very vibrant and varied soil life. A good network
greenhouse effect than CO2. It occurs when there of soil organisms helps the plants to obtain
is a lack of oxygen in the soil, even for a short time. the necessary nutrients and water even during
The greater the quantities and concentrations of times of scarcity, as well as to find help against
nitrogen introduced by fertilisers, the greater the disease and pest infestation in the immune
amount of nitrous oxide that is produced. There system of the soil-plant organism during times
fore high concentrations of mineral nitrogen (Nmin) of weakness.
should be avoided in the soil solution, and a good 2. A permeable soil structure not only prevents
natural air supply and water permeability of the lack of oxygen, but also protects against flood
soil should be ensured. Research has shown that ing, and minimises risks of water-induced
organic fertilisers with a high ammonium-N con surface, rill and gully erosion. Organic farming
tent have an increased N2O-loss potential. Such further necessitates light cultivation machines,
fertilisers, e.g. pig or biogas liquid manure, can be which have a lower risk of soil compaction.
as damaging as ammonium-nitrate fertilisers. It is
part of the high art of farming to adjust the N-en
try and N-mineralisation from organic compounds Mixed cultivation systems which occu-
according to the crop's actual need. A rather early, py many different layers in the soil
shallow ploughing of grass-clover with an imme and have plants of various heights make the
diate following crop helps to avoid undigested most efficient use of the land area among
plant residues after freeze-thaw cycles in winter agricultural food production systems. At the
leading to high emissions of N2O. same time, they have the greatest utilised
biodiversity.
Andreas Gattinger, Kurt-Jrgen Hlsbergen, Adrian
Mller, Andreas Fliebach, and Hartmut Kolbe International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge,
Science and Technology for Development, 2009

3. A complete soil cover reduces water loss. Shrubs, Conclusion: The more self-supporting and strong
such as hedges or agroforestry thwart drying er a certain location's soil fertility is, the better the
winds, and the half-shade provided by shrubs stress tolerance and robustness (resilience) against
or mixed cultivation can also be an advantage weather extremes. Thus all recommendations
for certain crops (apart from rather humid condi of this booklet will also help secure yields in bad
tions), as they do not need to close their breath years. Crops and machines adapted to extreme
ing pores (stomata) to protect against evapora weather are also needed to this end.
tion.
4. Organic matter can store 3 to 5 times its own Sepp Braun; Department of Soil Sciences FiBL and
weight in water. With e.g. 1% more organic mat extension Bioland
ter, the soil is able to store 40mm more water
for plant availability. Reduced soil cultivation
improves the infiltration rate and water-retaining 4.3 Ideas for the organic soil culture
capacity, thanks to the increase of organic matter of the future
in the topsoil.
5. The soil must remain permeable for roots In its past development, organic farming has
as deeply as possible, which means that one achieved on an exemplary level. Organically mana
should not create barrier layers. This way, espe ged soil-plant organisms are in themselves more
cially deep-rooting plants like lucerne, oil (fod fertile and stable than artificially nourished and
der) radish and sunflower are able to resist dry heavily technically controlled systems with minimal
periods. self-regulation.
6. Varieties bred in organic conditions must deal But: The greater the surfaces cultivated with
with more weeds and microbes than those grow only one plant variety or few varieties in rotation,
ing under the protection of chemical agents or the further away the ecosystem is from the flexi
with artificial fertilisers. The former are therefore ble balance seen in natural meadows and forests.
automatically being selected on the basis of dis Nature has only few monocultures, which collapse
ease resistance and the ability to prevail. A further quickly. As crop farmers, we are however insisting
aspect of breeding is stability. on the former, and prevent the biodiversity moving
7. Plants' resistance to dry periods depends on naturally into the farmland with great expenditure
breeding aspects (thickness of cell wall, breath of external energy: diesel for intensive mechanical
ing pores, among others), but also on balanced control of spontaneous growth, and for the artificial
availability of nutrients during growth. Not over restructuring of the soil. In order to be able to farm
dosing the soil with nutrient salts is self-evident consistently differently and better adjusted to the
for organic farming. inherent needs of soil fertility, we need visions and
8. Mixed cultivation gives greater yield stability, as innovation for all players in organic farming. Here
certain plants assert themselves better depend are some suggestions:
ing on the weather, thereby balancing out yield
losses of the weaker plants. Generally, diversi Firstly: Paying more attention to overall yields
ty can stabilise the overall yield on a farm (e.g. instead of individual yields
lucerne for dry and clover for humid conditions). As extremely high individual yields of a cultivation
crop can only be achieved with very one-sidedly
optimised and highly sensitive high-maintenance
varieties, we ought to bid goodbye to the industrial
ideal of maximal individual yields in organic farm
ing. Instead, we can aim at optimising the yield of
the overall system, which is sufficiently robust even
against weather extremes. Perhaps this will bring us
mixed cultures which are simultaneously suitable
for the harvesting of food, feed and energy sources
together with harvested services, such as climate
protection, the new use of resources and the con
servation of a regionally sustainable water cycle.
Secondly: More and more differentiated coop-

eration with soil organisms
Earthworms, mycorrhizal fungi, rhizobia bacteria,
and many more soil organisms can become more
valuable partners for agriculture. Our arable farm
The saying "The soil is the stomach of the plant" dates back to the times of Hippocrates. Others call ing techniques should be species-appropriate to
soil the naturally-creative head of agriculture. Yet others call it the "the Bosom of Mother Earth". All
them as well.
these designations point to a truth.

We may improve their living conditions with pur
poseful agricultural practices, such as the cultiva
tion of host plants, mixed cultures, grass-clover
cultivation, preserving soil cultivation, and a selec
tion of matching varieties. It needs to be exam
ined whether, in special cases, it makes sense to
vaccinate purposefully species-appropriate Rhizo
bia, Mycorrhiza fungi, and further microorganisms,
such as is already a standard with Rhizobia for soya.
Thirdly: Organic farming needs other varieties

Instead of the current crop plants which cannot
Oats with Camelina is a simple
survive without narrowly defined conditions, we example for intercropping
need socially competent varieties which can be a method that still has much
stable in more near-natural conditions: Perhaps development potential.
long-straw cereals will find their place in the sun
on their own, with much bigger ears than now, but
with a lower population density? Will there be per ing faeces compost, or if we will also introduce ash
ennial varieties, a good perennial rye, perhaps in and charcoal from the farm's own wood heating
mixed culture with legume undergrowth? Or even into the soils. What will certainly be important is that
involving caraway or parsnip ? field work will only access energy sources which
truly meet sustainability criteria.
Fourthly: Nature-appropriate machines
Future farming need not be technology-hostile. We Outlook: Visions start with the individual and
can use devices and machines which serve nature lead to community
and the creation i.e. which do not combat them Starting from the current situation of organic farm
or run counter to the advantages of organic farming. ing, our agriculture still needs to achieve a great
More concretely, this could mean: Light vehicles deal if it is to last for hundreds and thousands of
instead of field tanks? Combine harvesters collect years. Visionary courage and strength are still need
ing also weed seed, instead of blowing it onto the ed to make our agriculture truly sustainable and via
fields? Perhaps even, for certain activities, selective ble via trials and failures.
weeding and harvesting machines which find their It corresponds with the nature of soil fertility, as
way in a mixed culture thanks to sensors and an well as with a positively creative idea of man, that
electronic control unit? the advancement of the handling of the soil cannot
be achieved with tighter requirements in guidelines.
Fifthly: Soil culture needs education and cul- To this end, it needs the freedom and develop
ture ment of the individual, and the exchange of ideas
Not technology, but man is decisive for whether and help among each other. Organic farming is not only a
agriculture is sustainable or not as a culture. Fertile question of surface, but also
of depth.
soil nature needs fertile human nature, and cul Sepp Braun, Paul Mder, and Nikola Patzel
tivated soils need cultivated humans. This is com
plementary to the motto: "Healthy soil healthy
plants healthy animals and humans". Does this
lead us back to more education and extension work
instead of regulatory compliance and controls? Edu People's demand for organic foods
cation and extension work more geared towards our shows that a rethinking process is under
values and visions, and less towards economic gen way. Organic farming thus is increasingly cor-
eral conditions and regulations by the market and responding to the needs of the people. A
society? Involving more mutual exchange, life- and transition to organic farming provides us also
farm-development guidance, before suitable tech with the opportunity to preserve the fertility
nological and economic advice? of the earth for future generations.
Sixthly: Sustainability needs the renewal of Jean-Louis Colling-von Roesgen, Luxembourg

forces and resources
Soils and humans become exhausted when
they are giving more than what they are receiving.
Exploitation cannot be sustainable. Renewabili
ty also entails that we re-enhance local, regional
and global cycles, and that we are open to system
changes. The future will show if we will be produc

Further Information Advice
www.agricology.co.uk/category/soil-management: A selection For advice related to soil fertility management in UK please
of the best available resources. contact:
www.organicresearchcentre.com > IOTA > Research dissemi- Institute for Organic Training and Advice IOTA
nation > Technical leaflet downloads from non IOTA research Organic Research Centre
projects: Technical publications from organic research. Hamstead Marshall, Newbury Berks. RG20 0HR, UK
Phone +44(0)1588 640 118
www.organicresearchcentre.com > Research and develop- mark.m@organicresearchcentre.com
ment > Soils and cropping systems: Information on research
projects.
http://horticulture.ahdb.org.uk/great-soils: Information resour

ces elavorated by the GREATsoils programme funded by AHDB
Horticulture.
Imprint
Published by: Roesgen, Marc Emering, Thomas Fisel, Ernst ISBN Print 978-3-03736-337-9
Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL Frischknecht, Christa Gr, Stephan Jaun, Tom ISBN PDF 978-3-03736-338-6
Ackerstrasse 21 , Postfach 219, CH-5070 Frick Kass, Amand Keiser, Martin Kchli, Stefan Kim
FiBL-Order No. 4002
Phone +41 (0)62 8657-272, Fax -273 melmann, Andreas Koopmann, Jrgen Ltjens,
info.suisse@fibl.org, www.fibl.org Paul Mder, Peter Neessen, Dieter Petsch, Price: 6.00, 7.00 , 9.00 CHF (incl. VAT
Postfach 90 01 63, D-60441 Frankfurt a. M. Alfred Schaller, Bernhard Schreyer, Ingrid Schul plus postage)
Phone +49 (0)69 713 7699-0, Fax -9 er-Knapp, Walter Sorms, Ann-Kathrin Spiegel,
info.deutschland@fibl.org, www.fibl.org Henning Untiedt, Christian Vgeli, Manfred Order addresses:
Seidengasse 33-35/13, A-1070 Wien Weller, Stefan Weller, Markus Wiggert, Klaus- The publication can be ordered at ORC and
Phone +43 (0)1 9076313, Fax 313-20, Peter Wilbois, Birgit Wilhelm FiBL. It is also available for free download at
info.oesterreich@fibl.org, www.fibl.org www.organicresearchcentre.com and
Coordination of English edition: www.shop.fibl.org.
Organic Research Centre Anja Vieweger (ORC)
Elm Farm (main site), Hamstead Marshall, All information provided in this booklet was pro
Translation: Florin Regli, Switzerland duced by the authors to the best of their know
Newbury, Berkshire RG20 0HR, UK
Phone +44 (0)1488 658298, Contributions to the English edition: ledge, and checked by them as well as by the
Fax +44 (0)1488 658503 Iain Tolhurst and Richard Gantlett editors involved with the utmost care. Never
elmfarm@organicresearchcentre.com theless, mistakes cannot be ruled out entirely.
www.organicresearchcentre.com Revision of the English edition: This is why all information etc. comes without
Chris Sinclair and Mark Measures any obligation or guarantee of the authors or
Authors: Alfred Berner (FiBL), Herwart Bhm editors. Both therefore do not assume respon
(vTI), Robert Brandhuber (LfL Bayern), Josef Design: Claudia Kirchgraber (FiBL) sibility and liability for any possible factual
Braun (organic farmer, Bioland), Uwe Brede Picture credits: Thomas Alfldi (FiBL): pages inaccuracies.
(organic farmer), Jean-Louis Colling-von Roes 7(1), 10(1), 13 (2), 18, 25 (1), 29; Amt fr
gen (organic farmer), Markus Demmel (LfL FiBL & ORC
Umwelt Kanton Solothurn: p. 6 (1); Michaela
Bayern), Hansueli Dierauer (FiBL), Georg Braun (Bioland): p. 11, 23(1), 24 (2), 31(1); This publication in its entirety is protected by
Doppler (organic farmer), Bernd Ewald (IBLA), Christophe David (Agropole-Isara, Lyon): copyright. Any use without the publishers'
Thomas Fisel (Bioland), Andreas Fliebach p. 27(3); Hansueli Dierauer (FiBL): p. 17(1); approval is punishable by law. This applies in
(FiBL), Jacques Fuchs (FiBL), Richard Gantlett Otto Ehrmann (Bildarchiv Boden): p. 1, 2, 4, particular to reproductions, translations, micro
(organic farmer), Andreas Gattinger (FiBL), 7(2), 30; Heinz Flessa (vTI)/Andreas Gattin filming, and the feeding into and processing
Hansueli Hberli (organic farmer), Jrgen He ger/Claudia Kirchgraber (FiBL)/ed.: p. 28; with any electronic systems.
(University of Kassel-Witzenhausen), Kurt-Jr Andreas Fliessbach (FiBL): p. 27(1), 27(2);
gen Hlsbergen (TU Mnchen), Martin Kchli Jacques Fuchs (FiBL): p. 14, 17(2), 19; Fritz First edition 2016
(organic farmer, Bioforum), Hartmut Kolbe Hni (private): p. 6(2); Theo Haslbeck (farm This guide was produced in the Organic Know
(LfL Bayern), Martin Koller (FiBL), Paul Mder er Geiselhring): p. 24(1); Martin Koller/ ledge Network Arable project.
(FiBL), Adrian Mller (FiBL), Peter Neessen Alfred Berner/Claudia Kirchgraber (FiBL): p.
(organic farmer), Nikola Patzel (FiBL), Lukas 16; Martin Koller (FiBL): pp. 20, 21(2); Lore The project has received funding from the Euro
Pfiffner (FiBL), Harald Schmidt (SL), Stefan Kutschera(): p. 31(2); Paul Mder (FiBL): p. 9; pean Unions Horizon 2020 research and inno
Weller (Bioland), Iain Tolhurst (organic farmer), Nikola Patzel (FiBL): p. 5, 21, 25(2), 26; Lukas vation programme under grant agreement No.
Melanie Wild (LfL Bayern). Pfiffner (FiBL): p. 23(2); Lukas Pfiffner/Claudia 652654. This guide only reflects the authors'
Editing of original German edition: Kirchgraber (FiBL): p. 8; Katharina Schertler view. The Research Executive Agency is not
Nikola Patzel and Gilles Weidmann (FiBL) (Bioland): p. 22; Soil Association: p. 3(5); Phil responsible for any use that may be made of
Sumption (Organic Research Centre): p. 7(3); the information provided.
Editorial collaboration: Annegret Grafen Anja Vieweger (Organic Research Centre):
(Bioland), Stephanie Klaedtke and Steffi Zimmer
net
p. 7(4), 10(2-4); Manfred Weller (Bioland):
(IBLA Luxemburg) p. 12(3, 6); Stefan Weller (Bioland): p. 12(1,
2, 4, 5), 13(1); www.oekolandbau.de,BLE,
Original edition reviewed by: Max Braun,
Michaela Braun, Jean-Louis Colling-von
Dominik Menzler: p. 15; cf. p. 3(1, 3, 4, 6). arable

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BA SIC GUIDE

2004 Ausgabe Deutschland

The enhancement of soil fertility

PART 4: THE FUTURE OF SOIL CULTURE 28

2 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Hans Peter Rusch

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 3

Balancing the appreciation of the soil's

4 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Currently obtains a great yield Fulfills socially desired func-

Is the sum of all scientifically

Perspectives and definitions

Is assessed with the help

Includes plant health Is proving its regenerative Corresponds to a qualitative

Regulates the cycle of life

Unfortunately, our current society is distanced from nature, and only

Jean-Louis Colling-von Roesgen, organic farmer on the Karelshaff, Luxembourg

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 5

The soil particle illustrates well Bacteria

6 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

organisms inhabiting the leaves are degraded

Maintaining soil fertility on a stockfree farm

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 7

Tillage and mechanisation Crop rotation

Effects of various intensive cultivation practices on earthworms

Intensive soil tillage Medium-intensive soil tillage

8 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Martin Kchli, organic farmer in Buttwil, Switzerland

Bacteria and fungi underrated helpers

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 9

Producing living soil with reduced tillage

10 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Observing the plants

Interpreting the soil surface

Observing the soil life

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 11

The spade test

Step 1: Choose a test location representative in

Note: Photographs and notes of the soil surface

Are the breaking edges in the topsoil rather round, or sharp?

12 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Stefan Weller, advisor Bioland

The soil probe (penetrometer)

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 13

14 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

as well as the turnover of nutrient organic matter.

Alfred Berner With regulated organic matter manage-

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 15

Schematic examples of a organic matter-promoting and of an organic matter-exhausting crop rotation

16 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Manure and liquid manure from animal husbandry,

Long-term experience shows that a crop

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 17

Within the substance cycle of

18 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL

Is there a phosphorus-deficiency problem If soils have been depleted and exhaus

The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL 19

Objective: Nitrogen supply for following crop

20 The Basics of Soil Fertility 2016 ORC FiBL