Lesson 3:

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of each lesson, you are expected to demonstrate understanding on how to:

A. Distinguish between and among patterns of development in writing across

disciplines:

1. Narration

2. Description

3. Definition

4. Exemplification/classification

5. Comparison and contrast

6. Cause and effect

7. Problem solution

8. Persuasion

B. Write 250-word sentence using patterns of development in writing across

disciplines.

1. NARRATION

Narration tells a story to make a point. It can be used in an anecdotal, abbreviated

way to introduce or illustrate a complicated subject or in an extended way to provide a
detailed, personal account of what happened.

An effective narration has a plot. A plot is a meaningful and dramatic sequence of

actions that may or may not follow the order in which the events actually occurred. It
usually focuses on some tension or conflict within the writer, between the writer and

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others, or between the writer and the environment.

To narrate means to tell a story. The writer chooses the most significant event to
form the basis of the narrative. Ethical narratives avoid making inaccurate implications
about the cause and effect. Sentence structure and length are varied to make the
paragraph flow smoothly and to avoid monotony. Additional details make the story
clearer and more interesting. All details are relevant and they fit together in a way that
addresses the purpose.

Characteristics of Narrative Paragraph

1. Vivid Description of Details

A good narrative presents a vivid description of details. Description must be

appealing to the five senses of the human body such as sense of sight, sound, taste, smell,
and touch. To make the readers understand narrative, bring them to the world of the story
by letting them feel how it is like to be in the world of the characters.

2. Consistent Point of View

Consistency of point of view is one good quality of a narrative. A good narrative

must present consistency in point view to help the readers easily understand the story.
The three most commonly used point of views are the first, second, and third point of
views. Generally speaking, one would know that the third person point of view is being
used in a story when the pronouns, he, she, it, him, her, they, her, its, and them
consistently appear in the narration. The third person point of view is generally used to
convey the narrator as an omniscient and dispassionate observer. The narration presents a
relatively objective story to the reader, one without much bias and opinion. The narrator
tells the story as it happens, with no commentary and partiality.

3. Consistent Verb Tense

Verb tense is a feature of every narrative. It helps the reader to easily understand
the flow of events. Thus, it is essential to clarify to the reader whether the story in the

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narrative had already happened, has been happening for some time now, happens on a
regular basis, is currently happening, and will do so definitely, or will happen sometime
in the future.

4. Well defined Point or Significance

A writer chooses a story that he or she would weave into a narrative. It should
have the vivid details of the story. The writer should also observed the consistency point
of view when narrating, as well as tenses of verbs. A well-defined point or significance is
the literary element we called theme. The theme is a unifying thought or idea born out of
all other elements of the story. It is a universal human truth that is not usually blatantly
said in a story; rather unraveled as the reader reads.

Narrative Devices

Narrative devices are techniques utilized by writers to add flavor and enrich the
meaning of their stories. With the help of these devices, an author can shorten, lengthen,
and/or focus on a particular event in the story.

1. Anecdote

Anecdote is brief story that is written from the writers imagination. It can be used
in various ways, such as an introduction to an essay, as an example to describe a point,
or as a closing statement that caps things off nicely in an essay or as moments the writer
would like the reader remember the short story.

2. Flashback

A flashback is an event that happened in the past. As the word itself defined, one
is flashing back or quickly looking at something that had already happened. It is not
necessarily the focus of a story; rather, more of an addition to explain or to elaborate a
point made by the writer in the narrative.

3. Time Stretch

A time stretch is a single event in the story that the author focuses writing about.

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There is no a narration of events only, but also dialogue. A time stretch is a single event in
the story in which the focuses in writing. It has no narration and dialogue.

4. Time Summary

In contrast to a time stretch in which a single event is extended, a time summary

is characterized by putting together multiple events and/or shortening a relatively long
period of time. Time summaries can be determined with expressions such as In a single
day, Overnight, After the winter season, A few years after, etc.

5. Flash forward

Contrary to flashback, a flash forward is an event that has to happen in the story.
It is flashing forward or quickly looking at something that will happen in the future.
But, like a flashback, a flash forward is included in a narrative to add meaning to the
story.

6. Dialogue

A narrative does not only have a narrator who tells a story in accordance to how
he or she observes a sequence of events. Writers also include dialogues, a word or a series
of words enclosed in a pair of quotation marks, which signal the characters spoken
language.

Aside from the narrator, who tells a story according to the observed sequence of
events, the writer also includes dialogue in narration. A dialogue is a word or a series of
words enclosed in a pair of quotation marks. The quotation marks tell that these words
are the characters spoken language or direct speech.

Words that Show Sequence

Since narrative writing describes events that happen sequentially, writers use
sequence words to indicate to the reader in what order the events occurred. For example,
if one write a paragraph describing a trip to the beach, he or she might begin by saying,
First, we packed the car with towels, sunscreen, and a picnic lunch. The following
sentence might begin with transitional words or phrases such as next, or second or after

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that.

Writers use two main types of transitional sequence words. The first type is
ordinal transitions. Ordinal transitions are words such as first, second, third, and so. It
may also be firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on. The second type of transition is time
sequence words. These are words such as then, afterwards, next, subsequently,
previously, yesterday, later and soon. Any word that indicates when an event took place is
a time sequence word.

Processes in Writing a Narrative Paragraph

1. Identify the purpose of the narrative

2. Note the significant events that must be included.
3. Choose additional details as needed to make the story flow smoothly.
4. Maintain coherence and ensure that all details are relevant, and that they fit
together in a way that addresses your purpose.

Example for Narration

Last January, I watched my ten-year-old grandson act like an adult in an

emergency. While cleaning the living room carpet, I tripped and fell over the vacuum
cleaner hose. At first, I maws dazed. Soon I realized that my left arm hurt terribly. I
called to my grandson, Lawrence, who was the only other person at home. When
Lawrence saw me on floor, his face went pale. Then he calmly took charge of the
situation. He went to the phone and dialed for emergency help. I heard him give our
address, exact details of what had happened, and a description of the position I was lying
in. I could tell that he was carefully listening to the instructions he was given. Returning
to the living room, Lawrence covered me with a wool blanket and told me that an
ambulance was on its way. He sat by my side in the ambulance and stayed with me while
the doctor treated me. My sprained arm bothered me for only three weeks, but I will
always feel proud of what my grandson did on that day.

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Task 1
Directions: Each numbered item below describes a situation in which a narrative
paragraph is required. Based on the situation and the paragraphs purpose, identify three
main events that will form the basis of the paragraph. Since the descriptions are
incomplete, you must create the main events to finish each story.

1. You are a high school chemistry teacher. Today in class, one of your students was
extremely disruptive. After a several warnings, you gave the student a detention.
You thought the punishment was necessary because the student behaved badly
and because unruly behavior in the chemistry lab can result in an unsafe
situation. The school requires that teachers write an explanation of the behavior
that lead to the detention.

Paragraphs purpose ____________

First event ____________________________________
Second event ______
Third event

2. As a costumer claims representative at an automobile insurance agency, your job

includes talking with customers who have been involved in collision. Based on each
conversation, you must submit a report that will be evaluated to determine who was
at fault. You have just finished speaking with Mr. Warren Mendoza, who was stopped
at a red light when another car hit him behind

Paragraphs purpose ____________

First event ______
Second event

Third event

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 3. You work for the local police department. One of your responsibilities is to respond
to residents call, investigate the reported problems, and document what was done to
address the problems. Today you received a call from a woman who reported that her
purse was lost or stolen. She was in the park with her children and left her purse on a
bench while she ran to help a child who had fallen. When she returned to the bench
several minutes later, her purse was gone. After asking the woman several follow-up
questions to get the details of her story straight, you file a report about the missing
purse.

Paragraphs purpose ______

First event __________________
Second event ____________
Third event

Task 2
Choose from different narrative experiences below. Write 10 sentences about the chosen
experience.

1. Think of a real experience you have had that would be hard to forget. Think about
what makes it unforgettable. Narrate what happened.

2. Think about your best holiday celebration ever. Write an essay telling about this
celebration and why it was your favorite.

3. Think about how you spend Saturdays during the school year. Pick out a
particularly memorable Saturday, and explain exactly what you did that day and
why it was especially memorable.

4. Remember the best school assembly ever. Write an essay telling what happened,
how the audience responded, and why the assembly was important.

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 5. Write a letter to an old classmate about an event in elementary school that was
the most memorable to you.

6. A flying saucer has been sighted over your town. You have never believed in
flying saucers, but then you see it for yourself. Write a science fiction story telling
what happen next. Does the saucer land? Do you meet the crew? How do you
communicate? What do they look like? Are they friendly? Puzzled? Shy?
Suspicious? What about sounds? Sights? Smells? Make your story as interesting
as you can for your reader. Create characters and describe the setting. Make your
plot move along to a climax and a satisfying conclusion.

7. Pretend you were selected to receive a special award. Write the article that would
be in the newspaper to announce your award.

8. Have you ever been stranded in a place you didn't want to be? Maybe your
parents forgot to pick you up after a ball game, and you were left stranded long
after everyone else had gone home. Narrate your story about any of these.

9. You won a school contest that allowed you to be teacher-for-a-day. Write about
your experience as teacher-for-a-day.

10. At an awards assembly, you were surprised to hear your name called for a certain
award. Afterward, when your teacher asked you to write in your journal, you
decide to write about this experience.

Task 3
Directions: Choose one writing activity that pertains to your discipline. Use your new
skills to write a 250 words sentence narrative paragraph on the subject. Use a separate
sheet for this activity. Attach this writing assignment to validate your grade.

Communication and the Arts

You are a promoter of a musical band. As part of your responsibilities, you

advertise the bands tours by sending press releases to media outlets in the cities the

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 band visits. To interest your readers, you give personal information about the band,
including how the group met, how their music has evolved, why they have become so
popular with fans, and how they work together.

Write a paragraph about the bands history or tell a story about the band that will
be interesting to potential audiences. Base your writing on any band that you find
enjoyable, making whatever details you need to write the paragraph.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

As a family doctor, you have emphasized preventive health care. You talk to your
patients about the benefits of a balanced diet, pure water, regular sleep, and plenty of
exercise. Over the years, you have determined that your patients have become
healthier, both as a group and individually. One way to illustrate the importance of
these habits is to tell stories about patients who have improved their overall health by
changing their lifestyles.

Write a paragraph telling the story of someone you know or have heard about who
have improved his or her health by making a lifestyle change. For example, you may
choose a person who has lost a great deal of weight or someone who has begun an
exercise in some other form of exercise.

Criminology, Public Administration, Psychology and Social Work

As a director of a public shelter for homeless families, you send a lot of time
trying to increase funding for the many organizations that provide assistance to
individuals and families in transition. You find that personal stories are more effective
than statistics in helping people understand the reality of homelessness.

Write a paragraph telling one familys story about how they lost their apartment
and ended up at the shelter. Make up any details that you believe will add to your
story. For additional information seek information about Human, Personal, and Public
Service.

Business Administration, HRM and Tourism

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 You work for a small coffee roaster that specializes a coffee from family farms.
Because you know that many coffee drinkers are interested in the source of their
coffee, on each package of beans that you sell, you include a story about one of the
families.

Write the story of one coffee-growing family, describing how the tradition has
been passed on through the generations. To help you with this topic, access the
website to for supplemental information on business and marketing.

Engineering, Computer Science and Technology

Many scientific discoveries and inventions are made by accident. One such lucky
accident was the creation of nylon, which occurred when several chemist were
working in a laboratory with a sample of polyester. While trying to see how far they
could stretch the polyester, they found that they had created a new and much stronger
material.

Read about the background story of nylon in any general references such as
encyclopedia and the like. You may access also the website about science and
technology related to nylon discovery. Then, write a paragraph telling how nylon was
created.

Environmental Science, Biology, Education, and Agriculture

You work for a nonprofit organization that raises awareness about species in your
region. You are currently working on a project to protect and restore the eagle
population. To alert people to problems these animals face, you tell them about how
the situation has changed over the past two centuries. Write a brief paragraph
describing changes in the eagle population and the dangers eagles face today. Access
any website of Environment and Natural Resources for additional information.

2. DESCRIPTION

Description presents a verbal portrait of a person, place, or thing. In the context of

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writing, description means choosing words and phrases that make your reader experience
sights, sounds, and smell as realistically possible. You can think of this technique as
drawing a picture with words. Description appeals to the readers senses. Good
descriptive writing makes the reader see (or feel, smell, or hear) what the writer is
describing.

Guidelines in Writing Descriptive Paragraph

1. Using Simple and Direct Words

When writing descriptive paragraphs, at times, students like you are tempted of
using long, fancy, or uncommon words. There is nothing wrong with these, as long as
these words are suited and appropriate to the paragraph. However, your words should
flow so easily and smoothly that the reader notices what you are saying, not how you
are saying. When this happens, it is better to use simple and direct words in your
narratives.

2. Eliminating Unnecessary Words

A good writing is concise. While long sentences or long words may be necessary
occasionally, every word should have a purpose. Otherwise, the point you are making
may get lost. One way to cut down on extra words is to eliminate redundant
expression or sentences that restate an idea you have already covered. For example,
each and every are redundant expression because each and every mean the same
thing. Choose one and eliminate the other.

3. Using Your Own Words

Expressions or descriptions repeated too often become meaningless. Have you

heard someone say, I slept like a baby or Its raining cats and dogs? These clichs
are fine in casual conversation, but they should be avoided in writing. They are so
overused that they no longer create vivid mental pictures.

For more powerful writing, describe things in your own words. Find only the right
adjective or adverb or make comparisons that enable the reader to picture your
subject in a perspective. Or just keep it simple- sometimes I slept well or Its
raining hard! is fine.

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 4. Being Specific

In a casual conversation, you may use some of the same descriptive words over
and over- words such as nice, cool, and nasty. Your friends know what you mean, but
with readers, you need to write more specifically to get your point across. Using
specific nouns and verbs make your writing more vivid and cuts down on extra words
that can distract the reader and can confuse the readers understanding.

Example of Descriptive Paragraph

Observe the following examples. Determine the characteristic of a descriptive

writing shown in two examples.

Once you drive our new sport wagon, you will wonder how you ever got
along without it. The spacious rear compartment has plenty of rooms for all your
weekend gear, and the roof rack provides extra storage for bikes and skis. Optional
four-wheel drive gives you power in tough conditions, but the handling is smooth that
youll feel as though youre driving on air. Finally, the compact size means slick
maneuverability and gas mileage that rivals a midsize sedan. This car is custom made
for the practical adventurer.

An incredibly compact size and light weight mean you can take it anywhere
at any time for any purpose. At the same time, the high power and large memory
capacity give you the versatility of a larger unit. High-resolution video and audio
capabilities make this a state-of-the art model. From video editing to desktop
publishing to gaming, this computer meets the needs of professionals, students, and
personal users alike. The Centrum XE laptop is the ideal personal computer for
anyone who needs high performance on the go.

Task 1. Using Simple and Direct Words

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Directions: For each of the sentences below, write a description that illustrates the same
subject with simpler and more direct language. Use a dictionary to look up the meanings
of words you do not understand. Feel free to rearrange the order of the sentence or break
it up into two parts if that helps. The first example has been completed for you.

Example: The incandescent, resplendent sun issued from the horizon and thus
commenced another torrid day.

Answer: The bright sun appeared on the horizon, promising

another scorching day.

1. A tall, statuesque, willowy woman entered the room suddenly and unexpectedly,
startling all of the guests.

________________________________________________________________________

2. Dessert was a toothsome confection bedecked with a corona of luscious

carmine berries.

________________________________________________________________________

3. The oversized pickup is a burly, stalwart 2.3 tons of steel constructed to endure a
multitude of years and plethora of weather conditions.

________________________________________________________________________

4. The day was nascent, and my plans were inchoate, so I loitered idly at the
breakfast table as I cogitated on the upcoming day.

_______________________________________________________________________

5. Beneath the sparkling lunar orb, the sea glistened brilliantly and the adamantine
rocks appeared radiant in the moonlight.

_____________________________________________________________________
___

Task 2 Using Your Own

Directions: For each of the following overused expressions, or clichs, think of a more
original- or a simpler and more straightforward way of expressing what you want to say.
Write your own description on the lines below each example.

1. Hes so cheerful hes like a breath of fresh air.

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________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

2. Im so hungry I could eat an elephant.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

3. These two sisters are as different as night and day.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

4. Bernard talks like a mile a minute.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

5. My nephew is growling like a beanstalk.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Task 3
Directions: Read the following texts. Answer the questions that follow.

This Crazy Feeling Called Love

by Grace Cruz

What is love? Funny, I cannot understand why someone would suddenly change
behavior just because of this thing called l-o-v-e.

I would often laugh at the recollection of my friends attitudes towards love. Why
do they hide whenever they see their crushes coming, and after which, take secret glances
at their directions? And imagine their creativity in throwing clandestine looks at the guys
of their dreams! They would peer through an open magazine newspaper, or whatever
book that they could lay their hands on-to the point that sometimes they do not even

14
notice that they are holding the page upside down. Or sometimes, they would pretend to
powder their nose only to see the image reflected in the mirror that they holding. Ah, you
never know how creative girls can be.

And why do they seem to lose their senses if the guys do not reciprocate their
felling? Or worse, why do they feel like it is the end of the world when they experience
little nonsense quarrels or anything of the sort.

Me? I will never, never allow myself to be fooled by this crazy felling. I know
how to handle myself. I have my head above my heart, and that is where it should be. I do
not want to be an object or ridicule by other teenagers like me. At least, I am sensible. I
am not be fooled easily by any guy around.

But not until the day changed it colors- so I found.

It was the first day of the second semester. I was taking a light snack at the
canteen, before my second period for the day. A neat-looking guy in black rimmed
eyeglasses broke my train of thoughts and asks if he could have the seat across mine.
Sure, I though, and gave him a nod.

It was a casual question on a typical day at the canteen, but it made me throw a
second quick glance at his direction, and I caught him looking at me. Our eyes met, and
he smiled. My, what cute dimples he has! Perhaps I blushed, and lowered my eyes. I tried
to concentrate on what I was sipping, played with the straw until the ice melted. I feel
like melting too.

I heard him ask about the time. The timeUh, its nine thirty. I was surprised
that my voice almost did not come out. I pinched my arms secretly. Behave, I told myself.
He was just asking about the time.

Thanks, he said again and quickly finished his sandwich. Then, he stood up
and with a slight bow; I understood that he meant to end our brief encounter.

I tried to compose myself after that. They are you, I thought, that was nothing. It was just
an encounter-a meaningless casual encounter, I told my brain. After this, I knew that we
would not meet again anymore. Or if we do, we would not even remember having met
this morning.
I was left half-smiling, half-staring at the chair where he sat till my classmate
Aida broke my trance, It is already time. Shall we go now?

Ah, yes, I said. Sure! I followed Aida as she led the way outside the canteen.
Suddenly I felt moving in very slight steps. I looked around and saw the warm color of
surrounding.

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 We reached our room, and seated while wait for our professor. We recognized old
friends and exchanged His and Hellos. We also greeted new acquaintances with broad
smiles and high fives.

When it was almost the start of the class, a guy entered the room. My heart
stopped beating for a second. He was the guy at the canteen! He glances around and
asked, Philosophy 102?He was trying to check if he was at the right room.

He looked for a vacant seat, and he saw a chair-that unoccupied seat beside me.
His notebook fell when he sat, and it landed just right beside my foot. I am sorry. he
apologized. I smiled and did not say a word, but inside, my heart was saying, it is all right
even if all of your notebooks would fall again and again. I surely wouldnt mind.

For the whole period, I kept my face at the other direction, but once in a while I
would side glance to look at him through the corner of my eyes. He wore his uniform
neatly, I thought. And hmmm, he seemed studios-his full attention was focused on our
professor.

That night, he was in my dreams. When I woke up, I hurriedly prepared to go to

school. Suddenly, school was the most exciting place to go to.

I reached school quite early, so I passed by the canteen, just like the previous day.
And saw him again. My heart thumped faster, maybe as fast as his paced steps. How
would I greet him? Should I say, Hello, you come early too? or What is your class
today?

But while I was trying to compose the words that I would say, I saw him greeting
another girl, and they seemed to know each other very well. I could not hear what they
were saying, but they seemed to be cracking jokes. They were laughing heartily, and they
seemed to be very happy.

I felt a slight pinch in my heart. I couldnt understand. I tried to ignore the pain,
and told myself, she was just a classmate, a friend. But when I looked again at their
direction, I saw them holding hands and they seemed to be very comfortable with each
others company. The way they looked at each others eyes portrayed a mutual felling
that had been there long before, even before I met him yesterday in this very same place.

The light feeling that brought I to cloud nine yesterday crashed like the blowing
torrents of Typhoon Yolanda. It whipped me, and it slashed me-and I felt my heart
pounding. I took a deep breath, and then tried to compose myself. I touched my head; it
was still in place-my head with its long wavy hair that was pulled up in bun. My head is
still right above my heart where it should be. I should not let this felling let me down in
any way.

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 I stood up and quickly walked my way past them. I did not even bother to look. I
did not care at all. I was too young yet to fall in love.

A. Processing Questions
1. What does the selection talk about?
2. What is the authors perception of love?
3. Do you agree with the authors ideas? Why?
4. At what point do you agree with the authors view about love?
5. Give your own perception of love. What it is for you?

B. Take note of the author's styles of using beautiful expressions. Read the parts of her
narration that are described on the following page.
1. How did the author describe her friends who had been in loved during her
young age?
2. How did the author describe the uneasiness of having a crush that her friend
had experience for the first time?
3. How did euphoric feeling of love change her moods and emotions after that?
4. How did the author describe the pain of smitten love?
5. How did the author rationalize her experience in the end?

Task 4

Directions: Choose a writing project which is appropriate to your discipline, your new
skills in writing description on the subject. Write a 250 word-sentence paragraph.

Communication and Arts

Pretend that you are a feature story writer of a local newspaper, you write weekly
profiles of interesting people in the community. This week, you have interviewed Serapio
Amang Policarpio, an 80 year old retired cabinetmaker who has lived in this town his
entire life. Besides keeping up his famous woodworking, Mang Serapio has been actively
involved in the community, leading efforts to clean up a nearby river and serving for
several years on the town council.

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 You want your readers to see Serapio as you see him, so they can appreciate what
a fascinating character he is. To create the details you need, write a paragraph that
introduces Serapio: how he looks, how he sounds, and what his personality is like and
other details you think are important. Remember to include a topic sentence that tells the
reader who Serapio is.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

You are a nurse practitioner specializing in obstetrics. One of your patients has just
become pregnant for the first time at the age of 39. She is nervous about the possible
complications of a late-life pregnancy. To give her to be calm and to show her assurance,
you write out a brief description of the signs of a normal pregnancy during the first
trimester. In this way your patient will know what to expect and whether her experience
are normal.

Write a paragraph describing how a pregnancy looks and

Criminology, Public Administration, Psychology, and Social Work feels during the first
trimester. For information to help your descriptive writing, go to a nearby internet shop
and access any website about Health and Medicine. Organize your thoughts and use clear
strong details in your descriptive paragraph.

As a group psychologist specializing in work-related situations, you have been hired

to conduct a stress-relief workshop with the employees of a large company. In one
session, you will ask the participants to close their eyes and picture themselves in a
beautiful and peaceful setting that you describe. Write the paragraph you will use with
the participants. Include descriptions that appeal to at least three senses.

Business Administration, Accountancy, HRM and Marketing

Imagine that you have just opened a native restaurant in your neighborhood. In the
press release that you will send to the local papers to announce your stores opening, you
want to include a paragraph that describes the food in detailed. Your descriptions should
be sharp and should engage the readers senses. Use words that will enable readers to
visualize the taste and appearance of the food. Try to provoke their sense of smell and

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taste using the terms that describe texture, spices, and preparation techniques.

____________________________________________________________________
_

3. DEFINITION

Definition gives a necessary explanation of a word or concept. The explanation

may be a simple substitution of a familiar for an unfamiliar word. For example, you
substitute cancer for carcinoma. It may be a single sentence; In the theater, a prompter
is a person who provides cues for the actors or singers on stage. Or a definition may
consist of one or more paragraphs, or even a whole essay, in which you explain your
subject, such as tradition or excellence, in some depth.

Qualities of a Good Definition

1. Accuracy
The definition should state exactly what the term means. It should not
contain misleading phrases and should have no error.

2. Clarity
The definition should be clear enough for the intended audience to
understand. If you are defining a technical term, for instance, you should
use common words, not another technical term. Clarity helps the reader to
absorb that the definition states.

3. Vividness
Whenever possible, the definition should be vivid, with strong descriptive
details that help the reader remember the terms meaning.

Using Definition in Writing for your Discipline

Career Path Sample Career Use For Definition Example Of

Definition

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Communication and Video Technician Explaining a special The term wipe refers
the Arts effect to a transition in
which a new image
gradually moves
across the original
image, wiping it
off the screen.
Nursing and Allied Nursing Aid Writing an An electrocardiogram
Medical Courses information sheet for (ECG) graphs the
patients hearts electrical
action

Ways in Defining Words or Concepts

1. Analysis

Analysis is the process of breaking down a concept into its basic parts. It also
entails detailing which one, rather than zooming out and describing the concept as a
whole, zooms in and focuses on describing the aspects that make up a concept.

Example: The guitar is a musical instrument that produces sound primarily

through strumming its strings. Its sound is modified or manipulated through the
interaction of the strings with the other parts of the guitar, which are the headstock or
simply the head, the tuners, the nut, the neck, the sound hole, the body, and the bridge.

2. Collocation

Collocation means that there are words or expressions that are usually almost
immediately associated with the concept you are trying to define. These words or
expression are usually located together, as the term collocation suggests.

Example: Passion is usually collocated with the terms love and lust. While
these three words are not only compared but also contrasted in the sample text above,
they are most often defined in terms of each other because they share a common semantic
feature of intense liking.

20
 3. Comparison

Comparison is associating the word or expression you are trying to define with
something else not necessarily synonymous with it. It is highly dependent on imagery
which creates a vivid picture of a concept in the readers mind. Comparison is usually
used through analogy or figurative language like similes and metaphors. It is used to
make abstract concepts more understandable by using comparison to appeal to the human
senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.

Example: Groping for imagery I find myself thinking of passion as hot, strong,
almost thick coffee Coffee unleashes energy, has a full-bloodied flavor, a touch of
bitterness unpleasant to others, but delicious to the drinker.

4. Contrast

Contrasting refers to understanding how at least two similar concepts are different
from each other. In the sample essay of Apassionato, Gonzalez mentions that passion
and love are usually collocated because they mean almost the same thing. Below
passion and love have been contrasted metaphorically to lessen the ambiguity
between the two terms.

Example:

Love is softness; passion is smolder. Love might be contentment, but passion is

adventure. It must be free, untethered. It must explore, drive beyond the boundaries,
and break molds. Passion discovers, unearths, examines, magnifies, and revels in
details. Love rolls up details into a coherent whole. Love is passive; passion
hyperactive. Where love is melancholic, passion is pain.

5. Etymology

Etymology is the derivation or history of a word. It explains the evolution of a

word or how it has come to be.

Example:

21
 Appassionato is the past participle of a Latin word that means to
impassion If passion is so good, then why do many fear it? Because by its
etymology (from the Latin word passus, past participle of pati meaning to suffer) it
brings pain. To be capable of passion one must be open, vulnerable and brave
enough to stare pain in the eye.

6. Exemplification and Illustration

Exemplification is defining something by giving examples. Illustration, on the

other hand, is giving an example and focusing on it to elaborate on the concept you are
trying to define.

Example:

Books are considered to be credible and reputable resource materials to

consult when you are trying to find the definition of a word. Some examples are
dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedias, and manuals.

7. Extended Definition

Extended definition is a personal interpretation of an author to an abstract and

multifaceted concept. It goes beyond denotation and connotation. It gives the reader a
new and fresh understanding of a concept as it largely draws upon the authors own
perspective of the world.

Example:

I believe that a life lived with passion shimmers, shines, rises above the
ordinary. Allow me to seduce you into passionate existence. To think, to sing, maybe
even to sigh- appassionato.

22
 8. Function

Another way of understanding what a word or concept means is to know its

purpose. It answers the question: What is it used for?

Example:

Whether it may be an ancient sundial, a classy pocket watch, a Rolex or

Swatch wrist watch, an antique grandfathers clock, or the mighty Big Ben of London,
a clock, first and foremost, is a mechanical device or technology whose primary
purpose is to measure time.

9. Negation

Negation is a technique that you can use to define a word or concept by

explaining what it is not.

Example:

Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not
proud. It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it
keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the
truth.

-1 Corinthians 13:4-6

10. Synonyms

Synonyms are a single word or phrase that share almost the same meaning with
the concept you are trying to define.

Example:

According to Dictionary.com, mawkish means characterized by sickly

sentimentality or weakly emotional. It can be considered synonymous to
nauseating and sickening due to dependence on too much emotion.

23
________________________________________________________________________

Task 1

Directions: For each of the following items, use the category-detail method to write one
or two sentences that provide a useful and accurate definition. A sample is provided for
you. The general category does not need to be the first word in your definition (in the
sample below, the category is mammal), but it should come early, before most of the
details.

Example: horse A horse is a plant-eating mammal with four legs, hooves and a long
tail domesticated long ago by humans the horse serves as a draft animal and as a means
of transportation.

1. Carabao
____________________________________________________________________
2. Merengue
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Fork (as in knife, fork, and spoon)
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Skyscraper
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Cellular phone or mobile phone

_____________________________________________________________________

Task 2

Directions: For each term listed below, write a short paragraph that begins with the
defining by difference technique. Say what the term is not and continue with sentences
that define what the term is. The first term has been completed for you.
1. Ant lion
Despite its name, the ant lion is not a kind of lion. Nor is it an ant, although it
does belong to the same overall class as ants, namely, the insects. In its adult
stage, the ant lion resembles a dragonfly. In its larval stage, about half an inch
long, it hides in a burrow in sandy soil with its big jaws sticking up ready to

24
 devour other insects, such as ants, that fall in.

2. History
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Food color

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

4. Asthma

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

5. Millennial

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________

Task 3

Directions: Choose a writing project that pertains to your discipline. Use your new skills
to write a 250 word sentence paragraph on the subject. You may access the website for
available information.

Communication and Arts

As a news desk assistant at a television station, you often do background research

to help the reporters and news anchors prepare stories. Today you are working with

25
 reporter Kendereck Yuchengco on a profile of a local scientist who has made
important new discoveries concerning coelacanths. You and Kendereck know that a
coelacanth is a fish; otherwise you know little about the creature. Do some research,
take notes, make an outline, and write a paragraph defining coelacanth in a way that
will help Kendereck.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

What exactly is an EMG? You are an assistant in a neurologists office, where

you often hear this question from worried patients who have been told they need such
a test. You decide to prepare for an information sheet that you can hand out. For this
sheet, write paragraph that defines an EMG by saying what the acronym stands for,
what the test involves, how long it takes, and what kind of medical information it
yields. Remember that your readers have little knowledge, and that you want to be
both straightforward and reassuring. For supplemental information, access the
website.

Human, Personal, and Public Service

You work as a cosmetology consultant at Kris and James Body Care Spa, Ltd.,
where the services range from hair coloring to complete makeovers. This month Body
Care has added a treatment known as the Belos Complete Facial, and you are
preparing a description sheet to explain it to customers. Here are the facts:

Cost: 8 thousand pesos for 5 treatments

Services included: skin analysis, deep pore cleansing with enzyme mask, steaming,
and exfoliation with glycolic acid, mineral mask, massage, and moisturization with
aloe Vera and algae extracts.

Using this information, write a paragraph to define the term Belos Complete Facial
for your customers.

26
Business Administration, HRM and Accountancy

On the menu of your catering service, you list pastitsio as one of your most
popular items, but many customers are not familiar with the dish. To supplement the
menu, write a paragraph defining pastitsio.

Include information about the ingredients and how the dish is prepared. Also, you
want to explain the dishs cultural history. In your audience, is one who hires a catering
service: people getting married, families planning a reunion, and so on.

If you do not already enjoy pastitsio yourself, consult a cookbook or do a web

search for them.

Engineering, Science and Technology

In the catalog for your air conditioning business, you list the Btu rating for each
unit you stock. This rating is an important indicator of an air conditioners ability to cool
a given area, and it helps determine the units energy efficiency.

Some of your customers, however, do not understand the term Btu, so they do not
know how to use the Btu rating to evaluate an air conditioner. To help these customers,
write a paragraph defining Btu on the opening page of your catalog.

As part of your research, do a web search for information about air conditioners.
The web sites are a helpful link. Encyclopedias are another good of source for basic
explanations.

(Hint: Btu stands for British thermal unit, and you can find the term in a
dictionary. But a dictionary definition itself will not be much help for your audience.
Define the term in a practical way that will help your customers make decisions about
which air conditioner to buy.)

Environmental Science, Agriculture, Education, and Biology

27
 The pond at Benguet Lilys Nature Center is a popular spot for nature programs,
especially on late summer evenings when the leopard frogs are active and noisy. Pretend
that you are a staff member preparing a handout for visitors. Define this type of frog in a
paragraph that children as well as adults can understand.

Your task is to answer these questions:

What exactly is a leopard frog?

How will visitors know when they find one?

(Hint: The frogs scientific name is Ranapipiens. Nature guides can tell you about this
common frog. You can also find information online by entering the scientific name in a
search engine.)

4. CLASSIFICATION

Classification organizes information into groups and categories. It means to

arrange topics, items, places, ideas, or people into categories. Classification paragraphs
usually divide topics into more than two categories that distinguishes them from
compare-and contrast paragraphs, which divide items into two categories only.

The Topic Sentence in a Classification Paragraph

In a classification paragraph, the topic sentence states two things:

1.) Who or what you will classify; and

2.) How you will classify it, also known as the organizing principle.

Subgroups And Examples Define Categories.

Subgroups may be classified in any way that will make sense to the reader. By
identifying the subgroups, you are giving the reader a clear indication of what to expect
in the material ahead.

In a classification paragraph, transitional expressions guide the reader from

category to category and follow-up sentences express an opinion or make a

28
recommendation about what classified.

When to Use a Colon

The topic sentence of a classification paragraph contains a colon [:] to signal more is to
come. A colon is also used to:

1.) Introduce the classification categories.

2.) Followed by a complete sentence or by phrase.

When to Use a Classification Paragraph

1.) When writing a paragraph that breaks down information into easy-to-grasp
classification units.

2.) When supplying examples and illustrations, comparisons, and other writing
techniques instead.

3.) When conveying your message, it is best to break down the subject matter into several
categories or subgroups.

Examples

After stating what you will classify and how you will classify it, you may want to give a
concrete example to help the reader better understand an idea. Consider the sentences
below about music on the radio.

1. Rock music may be divided in three ways, based on the style of music: classic rock,
modern rock, and alternative rock.

2. If you like Beatles, the Beach Boys, or ZZ Top, youll like the local classic rock station.

3. This way of looking at local radio stations help me recommend stations based on my
friends tastes in music.

Task 1

Directions: For each of the topics in the following list, write a topic sentence that

29
communicates what people, place, or things you will classify.

Example: Physical fitness

Topic sentence: Most people who exercise can be divided into three groups according to
the reason they give for exercising. Some want to build muscles, some want to lose
weight, and some want to improve their cardiovascular health.

1. My favorite subjects

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. The kinds of movies that are animated

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3.Restaurants in my town

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4.Movies that I liked and disliked

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Professionals

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Task 2

Directions: Below is a paragraph from an employees handbook that shows how a

customer service department is broke down by job categories. Be able to recognize the
topic sentence, the categories, the subgroups, the supporting examples, and the follow-up
sentence. After reading the paragraph, answer the questions that follow.

The Customer Service Department at Benguet Lily Trading Center has five salary
ranges, depending on the job title. Customer Service Representative (CSR) Trainees are

30
entry-level employees. Entry-level employees start at minimum wage's Level 1 employees
are at the next salary level. Typically, a Trainee will obtain a CSR 1 designation after
completing three weeks of training. The next level is CSR II. The CSR IIs earn a higher
salary level than the CRS 1s.They also help train new employees. Finally, CSR
Supervisors 1 and CSR Supervisors II are at the highest and second highest salary levels.
They are responsible for training, scheduling, and monitoring CSRs. This method of
organizing salary scales provides a clearer understanding of pay ranges for both
employees and managers.

1. Name the categories in the paragraph. (There are four.)

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. List an example for each category. Describe why the example is relevant.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Give the subgroups of supervisors. What is the purpose of subgroup in this paragraph?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Does the writer include a follow-up sentence in the paragraph? If so, what is it and
why is it there?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Task 3

Directions: Choose a writing project that belongs to your discipline and use your new
skills to write a 250 word sentence paragraph on the subject.

31
Communication and Arts

You work for Benguet Lily Photography Studio, which specializes in wedding
photographs. For years, the studios photographers have used lightweight traditional
cameras, but you think it is time to upgrade to digital cameras. With digital cameras, the
staff will be able to load images directly into the studios computers for touch-up and
cropping.

After doing some research online or in photography magazines, write comparison

or contrast paragraph analyzing two models. To find online reviews of digital cameras,
try entering digital camera review in a search engine. Remember that the camera will
be used for weddings, so it should be lightweight and portable. High resolution and large
storage capacity are also important.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

As an admissions officer at a health-sciences college, you advise incoming

students about career fields. You find that many students are confused about the
distinction between occupational therapy and physical therapy, especially since many of
the requirements are the same. Write a paragraph that presents the differences.

For this activity, you can begin your research with the U.S. Department of Labors
Occupational on Higher Education (CHED) website. Keep in mind that your readers are
graduating senior high students who are deciding which career path to pursue.

Human, Personal, Public Service, and Criminology

As a communication specialist in the Food Safety Division of your Provincial

Agricultural Department, you help educating the public about food safety issues. Lately,
you find that people have been increasingly worried about E. coli and Salmonella, but
they remain confused about how these bacteria get into food and what illnesses they may
cause.

32
 Write a comparison/contrast paragraph in which you discuss the similarities and
differences between these types of bacteria. By entering food safety in a search engine,
you can find many online sources of information. Be sure to discuss: Ways the bacteria
contaminated and Symptoms of infection with these bacteria.

Business, Accountancy and HRM

Pretend that you are researching new vehicles for a companys appliance-repair
technician. You are deciding between minivans and SUVs.

Assume that you narrowed your search to two minivans.

Choose two models to compare and contrast. Then select one of these two to
recommend to your supervisor. Write a comparison/contrast paragraph to justify your
choice. (Hint: Many online sites offer information about new vehicles, and some even
offer comparative analysis.)

Engineering, Science and Technology

Your company, Benguet Lily Advance Optics, specializes in polycarbonate lenses

for eyeglasses. As part of a brochure for your products, you need to distinguish between
polycarbonate and more traditional types of plastic. Write a paragraph that presents the
contrast or distinction of the two materials.

For your online research, you may type polycarbonate + eyeglass in a search
engine. Look for the key qualities that make this material different and superior from
ordinary plastics.

Environmental Science, Biology, Agriculture and Education

A customer at your tree farm in San Quintin, Pangasinan wants to plant six trees
at the edge of her property along a busy highway. She expects the trees to provide a
privacy screen in summer and to enhance the propertys appearance. When she comes to
you for advice, she says she is considering two trees: Sugar maples (scientific name Acer

33
saccharum) and Red oaks (scientific name Quercusrubra). Your job is to advise her about
the suitability of these trees and to give recommendation.

Write a paragraph that compares and contrasts the two species. Many tree books
and online sources can provide research information. Remember to focus on the needs of
your customers.

If you think these trees are not suitable in San Quintins soil, you may choose two
other varieties and change the customers specifications as necessary.

5. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Comparison and Contrast are common techniques in speaking and in writing. In

fact, they are basic to the way you think about the world. Whenever you think, talk, or
write about how two objects or people like each other, you are using comparison. A
comparison systematically analyzes and evaluates the similarities of two or more things.
On the other hand, when you discuss differences, you are using contrast. A contrast is a
comparison that emphasizes differences rather than similarities. In a comparison and
contrast paragraph, the topic sentence introduces the two subjects to be discussed. The
topic sentence also indicates the general focus of the comparison and contrast.

When comparing, use the one side at-a-time format. Discuss all the relevant
qualities of the subject. Then, switch to the other subject, focusing on the same kinds of
qualities. Use the point by point format that begins with one similarity or difference
between the two subjects. Then, discuss a second point of comparison and then a third,
and so on until you have covered all of the important points.

The body of the paragraph should use a point by point format or a one-side-at-a
time format. The point-by-point method deals with one similarity or difference then the
next, and so on. The one-side-at-a time method discusses all of the relevant qualities of
one subject and then the corresponding qualities of the other subject.

34
Techniques in Wring Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

1. Analogy is a common technique that writers use to demonstrate comparison and

contrast. It delves beneath the surface differences of at least two subjects exposure
unperceived and unsuspecting similarities and/or differences. It is often used
when a foreign or abstract concept is compared with a much more tangible or
more familiar term for readers to better understand the authors intended meaning.
2. Example can be the figurative languages like simile, metaphor, oxymoron, and
personification. These are also excellent techniques to showcase comparison and
contrast.
Simile is used to emphasize a direct comparison between or among objects.
Expressions with similes are written with the use of the words such as like and
as.
Examples:
She was a peasant girl like Joan of Arc.
Your eyes are as bright as the stars in the night sky.

Metaphor is used to present implied comparison between or among objects.

Examples:
The first hammer-blow in the railway has fallen on me! (In this
example, Rizals emotions of hurt and betrayal are being compared with
the pain felt when struck with a hammer-blow intended to build the
railway.)
Time is gold. (Time is being described as having the same high value as
gold.)

Oxymoron happens when two seemingly opposite terms are juxtaposed next to- or
near- each other in a single expression.
Examples: Act naturally, all alone, alone together, auto pilot, a blinding
light, dead in childbirth, deafening silence, a fine mess, a new
classic, The Ugly Truth about Beauty (the title of a humorous comparison
and contrast type of essay by Dave Barry)

Personification is used when non-humans are assigned human characteristics

and/or actions. Personification means giving human qualities to an inanimate
objects.

35
Transitional Terms Used for Comparison and Contrast

Comparison Contrast

Similarly Unlike

In the same way In contrast, by contrast

Likewise conversely

Just as however

Also Rather than

Both While, whereas

Example of Comparison and Contrast

Topic sentence Although the proposals by the Sta. Lucia Group and the Benguet

Introduce similarities Lily Construction is similar in approach , it offers startlingly

And difference different visions of the ambassador future. Both allow for

Comparisons a mix of retail and entertainment, such as restaurants a fashion shop,

a movie theater, and a fitness center. In the Sta. Lucia proposal, these
are all small to midsize spaces, the largest being the four-screen
theater. In contrast, the Benguet Lily construction has the complex
anchored by a big box retailer

36
Point by point such as Garden Gallery or Orion. To allow enough rooms for tenants,
Contrast Benguet Lily would create a four story mall around the anchor space,
complete with an atrium and fountains. StaLucia s more modest
design requires only two stories on the riverfront and one story at the
street. Most important, these two proposals treat the river in radically
different ways. Sta. Lucia imagines large windows on the riverfront
so diners and shoppers can enjoy a view across the water. Benguet
Lilys design turns its back on the river, allowing only small, high
windows facing the water. On the whole, although both proposals are
billed as

Concluding sentence retail entertainment blends, the Benguet Lily Group offers a large
mall that might exist anywhere, whereas the Sta. Lucia has given
some thought to the unique riverside setting
Task 1

Directions: For each pair of items in the following list, supply three points of similarity
that could be used in a comparison paragraph.

Example: Beauty and the Beast and Sleeping Beauty

Animated TV Cartoons Highly Popular Based on Disney

Movies

1. Guitar and Ukulele

___________________ _____________________ ___________________

2. Christmas and National Heroes Day

___________________ _____________________ __________________

3. Basketball and Sepak Takraw

___________________ _____________________ __________________

4. Coffee and Tea

___________________ _____________________ __________________

37
5. Lettuce and Cabbage

___________________ _____________________ __________________

6. Gold and Silver

___________________ _____________________ __________________

7. Psychiatrist and Psychologist

___________________ _____________________ __________________

8. Baguio and Tagaytay

___________________ _____________________ __________________

9. Police and Army

___________________ _____________________ __________________

10. University of Santo Tomas and Marinduque State College

___________________ _____________________ __________________

Task 2

Below are topics for comparison and contrast. Choose two topics to compare and
contrast. Use graphic organizer to creatively present their similarities and differences.

Go on Vacation vs. Stay at Home Heredity vs. Environment

Biology vs. Physics Acting vs. Lying

Medicine vs. Law Physical beauty vs. Inner beauty

Childhood vs. Adulthood Ellen Degeneres vs. Oprah Winfrey

Communism vs. Capitalism Plato vs. Socrates

Greek Mythology vs. Roman Mythology Judaism vs. Christianity

Reality TV vs. Sitcoms Online vs. Traditional Class

Books vs. Movies The Hunger Games vs. Divergent

Football vs. Soccer Julius Caesar vs. Macbeth

38
Revolution vs. Evolution

Task 3

Directions: Choose a writing assignment related to your discipline. Apply your new skills
in writing a 250 word classification paragraph on the subjects.

Communication and the Arts

Imagine that you are the stage manager for a professional theater company. Your
job is to make sure that the lights and curtains go up and down on cues and that all of the
actors props are in the proper place. You make sure that the changes to the set happen
quickly during intermission and that the actors are in their proper position at show time.
In short, you run the entire show from backstage. Now imagine that you have been asked
to participate in a college job fair. All attending theater majors will receive a small
booklet about career opportunities in the theater. You have been asked to contribute an
essay about the responsibilities of a stage manager. Write a paragraph in which the topic
sentence describes a stage managers duties before, during and after the show. To write
this paragraph, you may need to do some research on the internet.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

You are a chief nurse at MCU Hospital in Caloocan as well as in the MCU
college. That means each summers you treat a lot of reckless, overly enthusiastic students
for serious cases of sunburn and heatstroke. This year, the hospital and the university are
working together to alert students to the danger of overexposure to the sun. Your
department was asked to write a section for a pamphlet. Your assignment is to research all
of the different methods of prevention and draft a summary to the full committee that is
editing the pamphlet. Write a classification paragraph that describes several methods of
preventing overexposure to the sun. Examples to consider include using sunscreen,
wearing proper clothing, wearing a cap or hat, and staying indoor during certain hours.
For more information, access any website and look for Health and Medicine.

39
Psychology, Criminology, Public and Social Work

Imagine you are a Youth Services Worker who supervises 14 juvenile offenders at
the Paranaque City Jail. As part of your job, you write daily activity logs and incident
reports. At the end of the week, you file a weekly summary. Write a paragraph on the
weekly summary that categorizes incidents based on degrees of severity. (Coming home
20 minutes after curfew isnt as severe as getting into a fight. Showing disrespect to a
staff member is somewhere in between.)

Accountancy, Business Administration and HRM

You own and operate a coffee shop. Early each morning you roast the beans so
you have the freshest-tasting coffee in town. Write an introductory paragraph for your
menu that introduces customers to your wonderful blends of coffees from around the
country. How should you categorize coffee? By region? By flavor? By price? By caffeine
content? Make a decision. Remember, your readers are customers who enjoy the taste of
coffee. Make your categories, subgroups, examples, follow-up relevant to them.
To help you access additional content, visit any website and look for Business and
Marketing and coffee variety.

Engineering, Science and Technology

As an industrial designer, you have been developing a new packaging for General
Milling Pasta Company products. Tomorrow your firm will be making a presentation to
the client. Before General Millings CEO looks at the package design, your manager
wants you to explain the overall look and feel of the new pasta packaging. Some of the
sample boxes are bigger than others, although each holds one pound of pasta. The boxes
are designed according to the shape of the pasta. Write an introductory paragraph that
classifies pasta according to size. For more information on the content, browse a website
and look for Pasta.

40
Environmental Science, Education, Agriculture and Biology

Imagine that you run a small family-owned farm and petting zoo. All of the
animals at your zoo may be handled by children. Your animals are exotic, interesting, and
safe. You decide to write letter to invite local elementary schools in your town. The letter
will try to get teachers to bring their classes to the petting zoo. You want to impress the
teachers with a description of the activities you offer to students. Write a classification
paragraph that describes the benefits of visiting your zoo. Fabricate any details you need.

6. CAUSE AND EFFECT

Many phenomena, events, situations, and trends can be better understood by

describing their causes and effects. The cause and effect relationship explains what
happened and why it happened. In analyzing the cause and effect relationship, causal
analysis, like process analysis, details a sequence of steps that produce a result, rather
than describing these steps, causal analysis examines them for causes and effects. Such an
analysis can be developed in three ways:

1.) by describing an action or event and then demonstrating the effect;

2.) by describing an action or event and then determining its cause; or

3.) by examining two related actions or events and proving a cause-and effect
connection between them.

In each case, you must be careful not to exaggerate or oversimplify the cause-and-
effect relationship. You may be mistaken coincidence for cause, or you may identify one
cause as the direct cause when any number of complex causes (working independently or
in combination) could have produces the same effect.

Normally a cause and-effect paragraph addresses either a cause or an effect.

Think about some examples of cause and effect that you experience everyday:

41
 You eat because you are hungry.

You sleep because you are tired.

Those examples explain cause. They talk about why you eat and why you sleep.
For instance, you stay up all night studying for an exam. Now you are sleep-deprived.
Your current state is an effect of having too little sleep.

Basic Format of a Cause-And-Effect Paragraph

The topic statement identifies the subject and says whether cause or effect will be
discussed. Transitional expressions introduce new causes and effects, show their degree
of importance, or tell which cause or effect came first. Supporting details show how one
event caused another.

Using Transitional Expressions

In a cause-and effect paragraph, a transitional word, phrase, or sentence helps the

writer navigate from one idea to another. Transitional expressions also make paragraph
more readable and interesting, often motivating a reader to continue when he or she
might otherwise stop.

To show cause-effect relationship, you may use the following expressions.

Cause Resulting in Effect Effect Resulting in Cause

As a consequence, consequently Due to
As a result, leads to Because, because of
One of the effect is Owing to
Ifthen, that is why Since
For this reason One cause
Hence, therefore For
So, thus Resulted from

Examples of Cause and Effect Relationship:

42
I think, therefore, I am

One outcome of repeated failure is permanent bitterness.

Dr. Mendoza became rich as a result of his invention.

The mess you see is caused by several months of neglect.

Consequently, everything Lawrence thought about became interesting.

The carpet is wet because of the rain.

Another reason Warren lost the race was weariness.

The hair on Harolds sofa is the result of his dog Borgy sleeping there.

The pipe is clogged because no one has cleaned it in a year.

My high blood pressure was brought on by stress, lack of exercise, and poor diet.

Task 1

Read the following texts. Underline the transitional words that show cause and effect.

Foods for a Healthy Heart

When it comes to heart disease, eating a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet is the key to
staying healthy. In the past, people seemed to kill themselves, because they know little
about balance diet. Today, with all the data available, one cannot ignore that the choice of
eating healthy foods or unhealthy foods is his or her option.

The biggest problem in avoiding cholesterol is to avoid eating fatty red meat and
egg yolks. Unless eaten in very small amounts, red meat is harmful to a healthy heart. It
is important to avoid too much meat, especially organ meats such as liver. Other meats
which are high in fat should also be avoided, such as bacon, ham hocks, and sausage.
Poultry can be eaten in large amounts but the skin should be removed. A large egg yolk
contains about 274 milligrams of cholesterol and saturated fat. Egg whites, on the other
hand, have protein, but dont add cholesterol or saturated fat to the diet.

43
 It is also important to be aware of the different types of fat. Cholesterol is a fat
that is found in the human body and in animal fat. Even without eating meat, the body
creates cholesterol from foods that contain saturated (solid) fats. Coconut and palm oils
are resources of saturated fats. These types of fat are found in many prepared and
processed foods. Avoid shortening and butter, because they also have high levels of
saturated fat.

Eat plenty of low-fat foods. Fish is low in fat and it provides protein for the diet.
Beans are excellent sources of protein, because they are completely free of saturated fat
and cholesterol. They also provide iron, B vitamins, and vitamin A. Fresh fruits and
vegetables are another nutritious sources of low-fat foods.

One of the best things about a low-fat, low cholesterol diet is that while helping
your heart, it will also regulate your weight. In addition to being fit and healthy, you will
look your best. All you have to do is to choose the right foods. Remember, you cant say
you didnt know.

Task 2

I Am Possible

Complete the chart below by providing the possible causes or effects.

Cause Effect
1. Amnesia
2. Flood
Studying 3.
Toxic wastes 4.
Teenage Pregnancy 5.
Climate change 6.
7. Poor eyesight
8. Early Pregnancy
Buildings 9.
10. Dengue
Task 3

Directions: Write a cause-and-effect paragraph on the topics below. Write possible ideas
for your topic sentence. Keep in mind that the topic sentence is the focus of the details of

44
that support the entire paragraph. List ideas for supporting details. Find the best ones for
your topic sentence. Make sure they are clearly supportive, specific, and relevant.

subjects Examples of Cause and Effects

Excelling in school good study habits (cause)
Proper sleep (cause)
Scholarship opportunities (effect)
Sense of personal satisfaction (effect)

Great cooking learning from a world class chef (cause)

practice (cause)
a job as chef in fine restaurant (effect)
delicious meals (effect)

Consumer spending effective advertising (cause)

sales and special offers (cause)
consumer debt (effect)
empty store shelves (effect)

Traffic accidents poor concentration (cause)

Fatigue (cause)
driving under the influence of liquor (cause)
collision (effect)
Injury (effect)
Death (effect)

Task 4

Directions: Choose a writing project related to your discipline. Use your new skills to
write a 250 word cause-and-effect paragraph.

45
Communication and the Arts

You have given an opportunity to create a tour of a natural history museum. The
exhibits in the museum represent 10,000 years of the earths history. Select one time
period and write a paragraph that explains how that era ushered in the next era. Describe
either a cause or an effect and show at least three supporting details.
Consider, just because Event A came before Event B does not mean that A caused B. Your
job is to show the casual relationship between events. You may access websites that will
supplement your writing.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

Assume that you are working at a health club as a personal trainer. As part of your
job, you sell the health services to the general public. Today, you are writing the opening
paragraph of a brochure that will introduce the benefits of physical fitness to prospective
clients. In this paragraph, you need to show a healthy lifestyle, a sensible diet, and the
right amount of exercise that will result in health body. Also, you want to explain how to
loss of weight and how the sense of well-being can be achieved through a total fitness
regimen. Browse available websites that will help you give more information about this
topic.

Psychology, Public Administration, Criminology and Education

Pretend that you are working in the Communication Department of a large school
district whose current problem is teacher shortage. Your manager has asked you to write a
press release for distribution to the local newspapers and radio stations. The purpose of
the press release is to encourage job seekers to apply. Begin by composing a cause-and-
effect paragraph about the teaching profession. For example, you may describe the
feeling of satisfaction that results from teaching, or you may describe the many benefits
that result from ones decision to enter the teaching profession.

46
Accountancy, Business Administration and HRM

Write a paragraph that explains how investing in advertising results in increase

sales. You may write about any business and any kind of advertising that you wish. For
example, you may describe how mailing a catalog to more addresses results in increase
sales. You also may explain how business grow as the result of a billboard on the side of
the expressway.

Engineering, Science and Technology

Write cause-and effect paragraph that describes a natural weather phenomenon.

It may be a hurricane, a tornado, thunder and lightning, a strong storm (signal#4), a flood,
or some other weather condition. Also, you may describe the cause of the weather
condition or its effect. To help you gather additional inputs for your paragraph, surf the
internet and enter the key words that identify your event, for example, tornados or
hurricane.

Agriculture, Biology, Geology and Environmental Science

Write a paragraph about the effect of offshore oil drilling. You may be in favor of
offshore drilling, or you may be against it. Environmentalists could cite damaging effects
on the environment. Proponents could take a favorable view of what drilling does for the
economy. Do not describe the process of offshore drilling. Instead, write about its effect
on the environment. You may log on the Google site, search engines and enter the key
word offshore drilling for additional information.

7. PROBLEM AND SOLUTION

A problem-solution paragraph begins with a topic sentence that presents a

problem that follows with details that present a solution for the problem.

47
 To show the problem-solution pattern, consider the following expressions:

The problem The solution

Because Cause
Since As a result
In order to So that
The question is One answer is

Example #1

Our farmers' market is in danger of closing because a building is going to be

constructed in the empty lot where it has been held for the past ten years. Since the
market is such an asset to our community, a committee formed to look for a new location.
The first idea was to close a street off for a few hours each Saturday morning.
Unfortunately, the city manager nixed that idea since he believed that too many people
would complain. Barry Moore suggested that the market could be held in the state park
that is just a few miles out of town. Again, a government worker struck down the idea.
This time, the problem was that for-profit events are not allowed in state parks. Finally, I
came up with the perfect idea, and our government blessed the idea. Since the high
school is closed on Saturday, we will be having the market in the school parking lot.

Example # 2

Some students receive poor grades on writing assignments, not because they lack
the ability to communicate but because they cannot seem to manage their time when it
comes to a large project. They do not know where to begin and therefore put things off
until the last minute. To solve this problem, students need to develop a timeline for
completing the project. If they divide the assignment into manageable chunks or parts
and then set a schedule for completing each part, they will be able to finish the entire
project before the deadline. Without the pressure of not knowing where to begin, the
students will be able to focus on the assignment and communicate their ideas effectively.

Questions that you need to consider

48
1. What problem is presented in the paragraph?

2. What is the solution?

3. What rhetorical strategy does the writer use to develop his/her idea?

Task 1

Directions: Read the paragraph that shows the problem-solution pattern. Underline the
transition words.

Drug abuse is rife in many countries. Every society, every age and ethnic
group, every social class, and every family has been touched by the devastating effects
of drug addiction. Billions of dollars are spent regulating drug use, treating addicts and
their families, and fighting drug-related crime. Although drugs threaten many homes
and societies, their effects can be combated more effectively.

Drug abuse causes multiple problems for families and communities. Addicts
are often too sick, physically and mentally, to function as normal, responsible
members ofDespite theseorproblems,
a family theFor
of society. menace of drugs
example, theycan be fought.
often neglect Education is the first line
or abuse their
of attack.
families and Children needrelationships
strain these to be taught and
at home and in school
resources, about
especially if the
theydangers of drug abuse.
eventually
For expensive
require example, discussions
treatment oraround the dinner
hospitalization. table
Adult and during
addicts family
may lose their outings
jobs and,and school
programs
therefore, andmeans
their activities in health classes
of supporting can give
themselves children
and informationChildren
any dependents. to help them
and deal with
temptations
teens who abuseand questions
drugs becomeabout
moredrug use. Families
rebellious and counselors
and distant need to talk
from their families, whoto those at
risk
2 and
despair
Task overhelp them
coping resist
with experimenting
their with problems.
loved ones drug illicit drugs. Anotherproblematic
A second approach toeffect
the problem of
drugabuse
of drug abuseisisthe
to crimes
increasecommitted
police manpower and resources
by those profiting from to stop illegal
selling dealersdrugs
and to
andenforce the
law.addicts
by the Statistics
whoshow
lookthe
forbigger the more
more and drug problem
desperateinways
a community,
to supportthe bigger
their its crime rate and
habits.
the bigger its need for police protection. Even though the cost of adding more police may
Increased police resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing illicit
strain a community and its citizens financially, protecting its children from the dangers of
drugs and the criminals who profit from them. Communities continue to struggle to
drug abuse and cutting down on drug-related crimes are worth the price. In conclusion,
find ways to deter drug abuse and to rehabilitate addicts. Combating drug problems
although the problems of drug abuse may seem impossible to eliminate or to even control,
strains the police departments as well as the communities resources. Since many cities
there are concrete steps that can be taken to weaken the hold of drugs on families and on
and communities are financially strapped, adding more police protection, mainly
society. Parents, teachers, and communities must take steps to educate children about the
through taxes, puts a strain on the citizens.
dangers of drug abuse and must offer safe, appealing alternative for restless, inquisitive
young people and programs and for those who are at risk. In addition, police departments
must be provided with more manpower, resources, and community support to combat drug-
related crimes. If the war on drugs is to be won, everyone must realize that he or49
she has a
stake in the battle and in its outcome.

Source from: https://achsenglish.wikispaces.com/file/view/Sample%20Problem-Solution

Task 2

Directions: Read the topic sentence and the first supporting detail of each paragraph.
Complete each paragraph by adding details to support the topic sentence and show the
problem and solution pattern.

Paragraph 1
The high rate of drug cases are serious problems that our country is facing with. The
government is taking an action on stopping the problem about drugs.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________ Paragraph 2
Bullying among students is a perennial problem in the school community. This can be
attributed to various factors.
_________________________________________________________________________________
50
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
 Paragraph 3
One of the biggest problems facing the world today is global warming. Many experts
believe that our production of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is heating the
atmosphere, and this could be very dangerous for human life.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Task 3

Directions: Read the article that follows. Use the graphic organizer to present the problem
and solution presented in the article.

Topic: __________________________

Article headline: _________________

Article date: ____________________

TOWN CONVERTS TRASH INTO FERTILIZER,

HOLLOW BLOCKS STUFF*

MANILA, Philippines - Theres cash in trash. This is what a town in Davao del
Norte has proven by converting garbage in the municipal landfill into several products
for various purposes.
GMA regional network news Testigo reported Wednesday that Sto. Tomas town in
Davao del Norte is converting its garbage into fertilizer and additives for cement in
51
hollow block, paving block and tiles making.
The Sto. Tomas town is known as municipal ecological park and ecology center
for its environmental and waste management programs.
It has also become study destination of other municipalities in the region.
The towns folk convert biodegradable wastes into fertilizer, while the non-
biodegradable ones they make into additives in making other products.
The residual wastes from the various garbage processing activities have found
unique use in the hollow blocks and pavement block factories, the report said.
Hollow blocks makers buy from garbage recyclers the residue which is mixed
with sand and cement to make sturdy blocks for construction purposes.
Recyclers grind plastic and cellophane refuse, which they mix with cement and
sand. The report said that Sto. Tomas dump site doesnt stink as wastes are recycled and
disposed off properly. - GMANews.TV-

See more at: http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/91273/news/regions/town-

converts-trash-into-fertilizer-hollow-blocks-stuff#sthash.AYUQnl7z.dpuf

Problem Solution

My Ideas My Ideas

Task 4

Choose a trending issue in our country today. Apply what you have learned. Write a 250
sentence problem-solution paragraph about the issue that you have chosen.

PERSUASION

52
 Writers use persuasion when they want to convince to readers to do something
specific or to agree with their point of view on a particular issue.

Elements of a Persuasive Paragraph

1.) A central proposition or argument

2.) Supporting points that demonstrate valid reasons for the proposition or argument

3.) An awareness of the audience and an appeal to the readers interests

4.) A concluding sentence that reinforces the strongest argument of the writers case.

Stating Your Proposition

A persuasive paragraph is based on a central argument, or proposition supported

by logical reasons. The proposition may be a point of view or a proposed action.

An effective proposition must be clear, focused, and debatable. Being debatable

means that there must be at least two sides of argument, even though the persuasive
paragraph presents only one side.

Consider the examples:

Debatable: College and universities should require students to wear uniforms

Not debatable: College and universities that enforce uniform policies show higher
achievement and fewer discipline problems than schools that do not require
uniforms.

A proposition should not be merely a statement of opinion. To write persuasively, you

must support your proposition statement with arguments, evidence, and logic. You must
be able to offer reasons that support your point of view or proposed action.

Supporting Your Proposition with Arguments

53
 Once you have composed an appropriate proposition statement, you must back up
the point using arguments and evidence. Note that the word argument does not have a
negative connotation in this context. Argument is the use of reasons to convince someone
of something. While your proposition is debatable, the arguments that support it must be
factual. They should be verifiable and specific. In choosing supportive arguments, the
writer must be aware of the paragraphs intended audience. Certain arguments will be
more effective with some people than with others.

The arguments should appeal to the readers own interests. A concluding sentence
reinforces the strongest argument to make the writers case.

The following are some transition signals that can help you express your ideas for
writing a persuasive essay.

Introduction Details Conclusion

I believe First As I have noted
In my own opinion Second In conclusion
From my point of view Third Without a doubt
I maintain that Finally Obviously
In addition In summary
Likewise, Besides In short
Furthermore In any case
Again Finally
Equally important To conclude
Example of Persuasive Writing

Valued Guest*

Here at Benguet Lily Luxury Suites, we appreciate our natural environment, and we work
hard to protect it. One way we do this is though our new water conservation program.
With this program, we offer you the opportunity to enjoy a comfortable stay at Benguet Lily
|Luxury Suites while contributing to a healthier planet. As you know, water is a precious
resource. By using less water, we can leave a greener and more vibrant planet for our
children. In addition, reducing water consumption helps to lower costs and to keep room
rates affordable for our guests. Our water conservation program means that your

54
housekeeper will provide clean sheets and towels for as long as they wish. As always, our
housekeeping staff will tidy your room at your convenience. By participating in this
program, you help conserve our regions water supply and contribute to the long-term
health of the planet. We h hope that you choose to be involved in this exciting new
program, and that you enjoy your stay at Benguet Lily Luxury Suites.

*Alex V. Abelos Essays and Biographies

Task 1

Choose an object that will represent you. Identify the characteristics of the objects you
have chosen. Let them believe the advantages of being YOU. Be ready for your
presentation.

________________________________________________________________________

Task 2

Directions: Read each proposition statement below and determine whether it is

appropriate for a persuasive essay. Ask yourself if the statement is debatable. If the
statement can be argued from the opposite point of view, it is debatable, and therefore,
appropriate. If the statement is factual- either factually correct or factually incorrect-it is
not appropriate for a persuasive paragraph. In addition, the statement should be merely an
opinion.

1. The city should install more traffic lights at busy intersections. Appropriate? Why or
why not?
________________________________________________________________________

55
2. Chocolate cake is delicious. Appropriate? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________

3. Working hard and getting good grades in school is important. Appropriate? Why or
why not?
________________________________________________________________________

4. This years rainfall has been higher than average. Appropriate? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________

5. The Honda Civic gets better gas mileage than the Toyota Innova. Appropriate? Why or
why not?
________________________________________________________________________

Task 3

Directions: Write a persuasive paragraphs or essay on the following topics. Remember

that your topic should be debatable and should be a proposition that you can back up with
reasons. It should not simply be youre feeling about something. Here are some
suggestions. Select one for essay writing.

All students who want to attend college should (or should not) be allowed to
attend for free.
The government should (or should not) allow oil companies to raise their fuel
prices every now and then.
Young children should (or should not) be allowed to dress in the style of current
entertainers.
Homosexual and lesbians should (or should not) be allowed to teach in the
elementary and high school level.
Homosexual marriage should (or should not) be allowed by the government and
their respective churches.

56
 Old and retired teachers should or should not) be allowed to teach again.
Politicians should (or should not) have limits on the amount of money they are
allowed to raise for campaigning.
The government should (should not) Filipino women to work as entertainers in
Japan.
The government should (should not) execute by firing squad fraternity heads and
members involved in hazing.
Showbiz couples who are involved in marriage scandal (like Regine Velasquez)
should or should not be executed by firing squad.

Task 4

Directions: Choose one writing project related to your discipline. Write a 250 word
persuasive essay on the subject.

Communication Arts

Being a promoter of a new record label, your job includes identifying up-and-
coming artists and attracting them to your label. To draw them in, you must persuade
them that it is in their interest to sign with you. You are small independent company that
provides both advantage and disadvantages compared to large established labels. Your job
is to emphasize the advantages. Write a paragraph in which you argue that musicians
should choose your company. For backgrounds about the recording industry, access the
websites for information about independent labels.

Nursing and Allied Medical Courses

You are a public health official preparing for the upcoming flu season. You know
that some doctors prescribe antibiotics for common ailments such as colds and viral
infections that produce flu-like symptoms, whether or not the illness is caused by a
bacterial infection. Antibiotics are recommended only for bacterial infections. Because of
the overuse of antibiotics, many health professionals are concerned that the medications
will lose their effectiveness.

57
 In preparation for the rainy season, you are writing a public service announcement
that encourages people not to take antibiotics, unless they are needed for a specifically
diagnosed bacterial infection. For more information about antibiotic resistance, log on to
the Internet search engine. Write a paragraph persuading people to protect public health
by using these medications properly.

Psychology, Public Administration, Social work and Criminology

You are working as a regional outreach director for the International Red Cross.
Your job includes recruiting new volunteers by persuading them that service in the Red
Cross would help them achieve their educational, professional, and personal goals.
Although most people think of the Red Cross as an opportunity to serve others, the
organization offers many benefits for volunteers. After reading about the Red Cross
programs and opportunities (research for their brochure or log on to the Red Cross Web
site), compose a paragraph persuading potential volunteers to get involved, or at least
learn more about the Red Cross Organization.

Accountancy, Business Administration, HRM and Tourism

Marketing involves identifying people who need what you are selling and then
persuading them that your product is the best one to serve their needs. As the director of
marketing for a small travel agency, you send out periodic e-mail alerts to past and
potential customers, informing them about current sales and other promotions. Compose
a paragraph based on the proposition that readers should plan a trip by summer. Support
your proposition with arguments about airline prices, vacation hot spots, and other
information. If you like, you may create details about possible vacation destinations,
deals, and other information or research the brochures of the Department of Tourism for
available vacation spots. You may also inquire on the package tours of several airlines
such as Philippine Airlines, Cathay Pacific Airways, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways,
and Malaysia Airline System.

Engineering, Computer Science and Technology

As an Information Technology executive, you want your employees to keep

updated in this fast-changing industry so your company can remain competitive. You

58
believe that e-learning, or electronic learning, is an excellent and cost-effective way to
achieve this. Because you have been studying the possibilities and effects of e-learning,
you are excited about bringing these ideas to your company. You decide to write a memo
to your manager, explaining the benefits that you perceive from this new approach to
workplace training.

Before writing your memo, you can learn more about e-learning by searching on
the Internet search engine on e-learning. Once you have acquired an understanding of e-
learning and its benefits, write a paragraph persuading your manager to bring this
technology to your company.

Environmental science, Biology, Agriculture and Education

You work for an advocacy organization that tries to protect the countrys natural
resources by promoting smart growth, resource conversation, and recycling programs.
Your organization recently completed a report analyzing your citys recycling programs.
You learned that consumers are not taking advantage of the many excellent programs that
are already in place. Your research also shows that the lack of participation is, to a large
degree, a result in consumers lack of information about the benefits of recycling.

Write a paragraph that aims to encourage the customer to take advantage of city
recycling programs. You may log on to the Internet for more information about recycling.

Lesson 4:

Properties of a Well Written Text

Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to have demonstrated understanding
on how to:

59
 A. Identify the properties of a well written text
1. Organization
2. Coherence and cohesion
3. Language use
4. Mechanics
B. Critique an article in terms of the pattern of development focusing on information
selection, organization, and development.

1. ORGANIZATION OF A WELL WRITTEN TEXT

The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication is

powerful, both for the "sender" and the "receiver." For the writer, a well-organized
outline of information serves as a blue print for action. It provides focus and direction as
the writer composes the document, which helps to ensure that the stated purpose is
fulfilled. For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with which one can
understand and remember the information being presented. People seek out patterns to
help make sense of information. When the reader is not able to find a pattern that makes
sense, chaos and confusion abound. Effective communication, then, begins with a clearly
organized set of ideas following a logical, consistent pattern. Thus, one of the most
important decisions a writer makes concerns the pattern of organization that is used to
structure and order information.

There are many patterns a writer can use to organize his/her ideas. The specific
pattern (or combination of patterns) chosen depends upon the particular topic and the
objectives the writer has identified for the document. There is no rule to follow in
choosing a pattern of organization; one must simply think carefully about which pattern
makes the most sense in helping the reader to better understand and remember the
information. There are many different ways of organizing the same information, and
often two or more different organizational patterns are combined to create a final outline
of information.

60
The most commonly used patterns of organization are described below.

1. Chronological Patterns

A chronological pattern of organization arranges information according to a

progression of time, either forward or backward. When a topic is best understood in terms
of different segments of time, a chronological format works well. For example, topics of
an historical nature are best organized using this pattern.

When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information represents a

particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each main section refer to
significant events that occurred within that time frame. A variation of this organizational
pattern involves dividing a topic into "past-present-future" or" before-during-after"
segments.

Chronological Pattern Example

I. 1895 - 1920
Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2

II. 1920 - 1945

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2

III. 1945 - 1970

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2

2. Sequential Patterns

A sequential pattern of organization is similar to a chronological pattern, but

arranges information according to a step-by-step sequence that describes a particular
process. Using a sequential pattern, each main section of information represents a main
step that one would follow in the actual process. The points included within each main

61
section represent the sub-steps one would follow. When one wishes to describe a process
that follows a specific series of steps in a particular order, then, a sequential pattern works
well.

Sequential Pattern Example

I. Step One: Harvest the grapes

Harvesting procedure number one

Harvesting procedure number two

II. Step Two: Prepare the grapes

Preparation procedure number one

Preparation procedure number two

III. Step Three: Ferment the grapes

Fermenting procedure number one

Fermenting procedure number two

IV. Step Four: Press the grapes

Pressing procedure number one

Pressing procedure number two

V. Step Five: Age the wine

Aging procedure number one

Aging procedure number two

3. Spatial Patterns

A spatial pattern of organization arranges information according to how things fit

together in physical space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern

62
works well when a writer wishes to create a mental picture of something which has
various parts distinguished by physical location. Topics involving geography, for
example, are often best organized using a spatial pattern.

Spatial Pattern Example

I. Downtown Waterfront
Aquarium

Pike Place Market

II. Seattle Center

Space Needle

Pacific Science Center

III. University District

University of Washington campus

The "Ave" (shops on University Avenue)

4. Compare-Contrast Patterns

A compare and contrast pattern arranges information according to how two or

more things are similar to or different from one another (or both). This is an effective
pattern to use when the reader can better understand one subject when it is described in
relation to another. If the reader is familiar with one topic, the writer can compare or
contrast it with another topic to shed insight on it.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to help the reader make an
informed decision about whether to attend a two-year college or a four-year university.
One way to arrange the information is to compare and contrast the two educational
options along several important dimensions, such as cost, quality of education, and
variety of educational programs. In this case, the number of main sections in the outline
would depend on how many dimensions or factors were considered (three in the case

63
below). Another way to arrange the information would be to create two main sections,
one that describes similarities and one that describes differences (as shown in example #

2). Notice that either format could be equally effective.

Compare and Contrast Pattern Example One

I. Cost of Tuition

Two-year

Four-year

II. Quality of Education

Two-year

Four-year

III. Educational Programs

Two-year

Four-year

5. Advantages-Disadvantages Patterns

This pattern organizes information about a topic by dividing it up into its "good"
and "bad" parts, or pro's and con's. It is effective to use when a writer wishes to
objectively discuss both sides of an issue without taking a persuasive stance. This allows
the reader to weigh both sides of an issue. As with the compare-contrast pattern, there are
a number of possible variations to an advantages-disadvantages pattern. The simplest
form of this pattern is shown below.

Suppose, for example, that a writer's stated purpose is to describe the advantages
and disadvantages of attending a two-year college. One way to arrange the information is
to divide it into two main sections, one for the advantages and one for the disadvantages.
In this scenario, the information contained within each main section will represent the
specific topics of analysis (cost, accessibility, etc).
64
Advantages and Disadvantages Example

I. Advantages

Cost

Accessibility

II. Disadvantages

Number of educational programs

Quality of instruction

6. Cause-Effect Patterns

This pattern is used to show the different causes and effects of various conditions.
This pattern is particularly effective when writing a persuasive document in which the
writer advocates some action to solve a problem, because it demonstrates important
relationships between variables. There are two major variations to this pattern; (a)
dividing the outline into two major sections comprised of causes and effects; or (b)
dividing the outline according to the different causes, with the effects of each cause
contained within the larger "causes" section. See the examples below.

Cause and Effect Pattern Example

I. Causes of Conflict Escalation

Expanding the issues

Personal attacks

II. Effects of these causes

Lose focus on original issue

65
 Cycle of defensive responses

Win-Lose orientation

Negative emotions

7. Problem-Solution Patterns

A problem-solution pattern divides information into two main sections, one that
describes a problem and one that describes a solution. This pattern is typically used in
persuasive writing, where the writer's general purpose is to convince the reader to support
a certain course of action. The pattern is designed to compel the reader to make some
kind of change in opinion or behavior by establishing that a problem exists, then
providing a solution. In the problem section, the writer identifies different aspects of the
problem being discussed and offers evidence of these problems. In the solution section,
the writer identifies a potential solution and supports the effectiveness of this solution
over others.

Problem-Solution Example

I. Problem: Motorized Transportation

Increasing traffic congestion

Increasing pollution

Increasing "road rage" from traffic-related stress

II. Solution: Riding Bicycles

Bike riding reduces the number of motorized vehicles in use

Bike riding is not a source of pollution

Bike riding has physical and psychological health benefits

66
Topical Pattern

This pattern is the most commonly used format, and will typically work when the other
patterns do not. A topical pattern arranges information according to different sub-topics
within a larger topic, or the "types" of things that fall within a larger category. Using this
pattern, each "type" represents a main section of information.

Topical Pattern Example

I. Red Wines

A. European

Bordeaux

Burgundy

Chianti

B. Californian

Cabernet Sauvignon

Pinot Noir

Zinfandel

II. White Wines

A. European

Bordeaux

Burgundy

Mosel

B. Californian

Sauvignon Blanc

Chardonnay

Riesling

67
_______________________________________________________________________

Task 1

Directions: Read the passages and determine how each is structured. On a sheet of paper,
put the information from each passage into an appropriate graphic organizer. The
following graphic organizers are examples. Feel free to make changes if necessary.

1. Market Leaders

Most mobile phones sold today have an operating system that was either designed
by Apple or Google. Apple makes the iOS operating system powering their iPhones and
iPads. Google makes the Android operating system that can be found on many different
mobile phones and tablets. Both of these operating systems allow users to connect to app
stores and download applications. To launch these applications, users press small square
buttons that appear on their home screens. One major difference between these two
operating systems is that Apple makes all of its own hardware. That is to say, the iOS
operating system only appears on products created by Apple. On the other hand, many
different manufacturers like Samsung, Sony, and LG use the Android operating system.
Which one do you like better: Android or iOS?

2. Downloading Apps

Getting a new phone is a really cool feeling, but your phone cant do much
without applications. In order to get the most from your new phone, you need to
download apps. To do this you will need a data connection. Some plans allow you to get
data from your phone network. If your plan lets you to do this, you can connect to web
services anywhere that your phone gets a signal. If your plan does not let you to do this,

68
you will need to connect your device to a Wi-Fi network. Free Wi-Fi can be found at
coffee shops, laundry mats, and other public locations. Once your phone is receiving data,
go to the application store on the device. Use the search or browse functions to find fun,
interesting, or useful programs. Once you have found an application that you want to try,
click the button to download and install it on your device. Not all applications are free, so
make sure that you know how much the app costs before agreeing to download it. Also,
if you are under the age of 18, get your parents permission before downloading anything.
Youll like your new phone so much more once you have some cool apps.

3. Lost and Found

A mobile phone is lost every second by some estimates. A 2011 survey shows that
about 22% of Americans have lost a mobile phone. When a person loses their phone, they
dont just lose a device that may have cost as much as $600, they lose phone numbers,
photos, and sensitive information. If the phone isnt locked and it gets lost or stolen,
someone may use it to commit identity theft. Perhaps the worst part about this is that it
can be prevented. Todays smart phones have free applications that allow you to find your
lost phone using GPS signals. Even if you cannot retrieve your phone, you can use these
applications to delete your data so that you are less likely to become a victim of identity
theft. Losing your phone feels horrible, but if you take the time to install a phone-finding
app, youll be much better prepared to deal with it.

4. Eyes on the Road

For better or worse, mobile phones are changing the world; however, one place
where phones are definitely making things worse is on the road. Today it is common for
motorists to play with their mobile phones while driving. Drivers may get bored or
impatient while waiting in traffic and use their smart phones to pass the time by checking
sports scores, stock numbers, or news stories. Worse still, they may engage in text

69
messaging. Some drivers are so used to receiving and responding to communications
immediately that it does not occur to them to wait until an appropriate time to respond.
As soon as they get a message, these drivers will try to read and respond to it. There are
many reasons why people use cell phones while driving, but none of them are good
reasons.

5. The Intelligent Telephone

A smart phone is a mobile phone with built-in computer system that can send
emails, view websites, or download applications. The first use of the term smart phone
was in 1997, when Ericson described its GS 88 as a smart phone. In 2003 phones got
even smarter when Andy Rubin launched the Android mobile operating system. It would
take years for the first Android powered phone to reach the market, but today over 80%
of all mobile phones are powered by Android. Yet, perhaps the biggest development in
the history of smart phones occurred in 2007, when the original iPhone was released. The
first iPhone didnt even have an app store, but it set many of the standards that people
have come to expect from smart phones, like using the phone with just a finger on the
screen rather than with a keypad or stylus. Smart phones have changed the world and
continue to improve. I dont know where the future will take us, but I bet that the phones
will be cooler.

6. Difficult Decisions

Since I made honor roll every quarter this year, my mom is going to buy me a
new phone for my birthday. I cant decide whether I want to get an iPhone or a Galaxy.
They are both really cool phones, and they cost about the same, but they are also different
in a lot of ways too, like the Galaxy has a bigger screen. The iPhones screen isnt small
or anything, its just not as big as the Galaxys. However, the iPhone connects with my
iTunes account. All of my music is already uploaded to iTunes, so all I have to do is sync
my phone and then I can listen to all of my music. Thatd be cool. But if I got the
Galaxy, I could use Google Play to upload my old songs and buy new ones. This would

70
give me a chance to go through my old music collection. Thatd be cool too. Im not sure
which one Im going to get but Im super pumped about it either way. Maybe if you
make honor roll every quarter next year, you can get a new phone too. Its worth a shot.

http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/text-structure-worksheets/

Task 2

Directions: Read each of the following passages and complete the following steps on a
separate of paper.

A. Write the main idea

B. Write how the text is mainly organized
C. Put key information from the text into the appropriate graphic organizer.

1. Whats that in the sky? Is it a bird? Is it a plane? No, its a firework! Fireworks capture
the attention of crowds around the world, but how do they work? First, the firework is
stuffed into a tube loaded with gunpowder. This is the mortar. Second, a fuse that leads to
the mortar is lit. When the fuse ignites the gunpowder in the mortar, an explosion
launches the firework into the air. A fuse on the firework is lit at the same time as the
mortar fuse, but this fuse burns slower, allowing the firework to get into the air before it
explodes. After it has risen to its peak, the firework should explode, causing tiny pieces of
metal to burn in different colors as they scatter outward. Oooooh!

2. Fireworks are beautiful; but as with many beautiful things, they are also dangerous.
Misusing fireworks can result in property damage, injury, and even the loss of life. Such
accidents usually happen for one of two reasons. The operators may be using poorly
manufactured products, such as fireworks with fuses that burn too quickly. A defective
firework can cause even the most skilled operator to have an accident. Other times,
however, it is the operator who is at fault. The operator may be unskilled or distracted and
make a mistake, such as setting up an explosion sequence improperly or not accounting

71
for conditions in the environment, like soundproof foaming. For these reasons even the
most beautiful fireworks display can turn really ugly really quickly.

3. Fireworks have been around for at least as long as gunpowder. Both gunpowder and
fireworks are Chinese inventions. During the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries,
fireworks were commonly sold in Chinese markets as a way to get rid of evil spirits.
During the thirteenth century, Chinese merchants developed rocket propulsion. This
allowed fireworks to travel great distances, much like they do today. In the 17th century,
Chinese fireworks were popularized in Europe. After becoming popular with the British,
fireworks spread all over their vast empire. Nowadays people around the world celebrate
with fireworks. Whether at a sporting event, concert, or public gathering, fireworks signal
a great celebration.

4. There is an increase in firework related injuries every year around the Fourth of July.
Emergency rooms around the city become filled with children and adults suffering from
wounds and burns inflicted by fireworks. But you dont have to suffer from these injuries.
Keep yourself safe by staying away from fireworks. If you see someone who is not a
professional playing with fireworks, take that as your cue to leave. If everyone stayed
away from fireworks, there wouldnt be any fireworks related injuries. You cant control
everyone, but you can control yourself. If you remember that accidents happen, you can
keep them from happening to you. Stay away from amateur firework displays this Fourth
of July.

5. Last night there was a fireworks display at a park by my house. The community
sponsored it, so it was really cool. Around 5:30 PM, people began gathering on the beach.
The local radio station was playing music and restaurants were selling food. My friends
and I played along the tree line while we waited until dark. Around 8:30 they started the
show. It was a beautiful show. The explosions were timed to music and it lasted for about
half an hour, but we snuck out during the grand finale, so that we wouldnt get stuck in
traffic. I love firework displays.
http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/text-structure-worksheets/

72
 I. COHERENCE AND COHESION

Cohesion is the connection of the sentences and ideas in your text. For example,
words and phrases used in one statement must stick together or lead to the flow of ideas
in the succeeding statements. When a text is cohesive, the sentences appear a single unit,
not just a random sequence of sentences or thoughts. Good cohesion leads to coherence.
Coherence, on the other hand is the overall understandability of what you say or write. It
refers to the logic of ideas in how such ideas are presented rather than the language used
to explain or expressed them. It makes sure that each phrase, sentence, and paragraph
contribute to the overall meaning of an entire piece. Simply, cohesion refers to sentence
unity while coherence deals more on text unity. In order to be a good writer and speaker,
one must learn to make these two principles.

Cohesive writing is achieved when the writers can smoothly transition one
sentence to another. Through this smooth transition, all details in the paragraph become
well connected and the readers are able to follow the progression of ideas easily. To
achieve cohesion, the writer should pay close attention to how words, phrases, and
sentences are linked within the paragraph.

Cohesive devices

1. Lexical chains refer to the sequence of related words in writing sentences or

paragraphs. Through the effective use of lexical chains, a writer is able to present
his/her ideas in a cohesive manner. Example: The students listened carefully as the
teacher gives the directions for their experiment in the Science laboratory, which help
them understand and explain the scientific analysis of it.

2. Cohesive nouns are single words that name an idea presented by the writer in the
preceding sentence/s. These create a clear connection between the first and the
succeeding sentences. Example: They will be on a tour for tomorrows field trip.
Everyone are so excited to the given itineraries given by the organizer.

73
 3. Pronoun reference is another way to achieve cohesive writing. Basically pronouns are
used to replace nouns. The word/group of words that a pronoun replaces or refers to is
called antecedent. Cohesion is achieved when the relationship between the pronoun and
its antecedent is clear. Example: The driver who personally return the found money in
his taxi is very honest.

4. Ellipsis is another cohesive device. It is done by omitting a word phrase and

substituting them with those dots. Instead of repeating, the writer omits words without
changing the meaning of the sentence. Example: Ana doesnt want to go out for a movie
and so as Beth, since their tests will be tomorrow already. (doesnt want to go out for a
movie)

5. Unlike ellipsis where the writer leaves out words, substitution achieves cohesion by
replacing a word or an idea with a more general word.

Example: The mother asked his son, Which color of bag do you like? The daughter
replied excitedly, I like the pink one!

6. Through the correct use of conjunctions-coordination's and subordinators-writers are

able to connect ideas logically. Example: Teenagers should be careful in engaging
themselves with social media because syndicates use them to earn money.

7. Transitional words and expressions to help you connect words and sentences smoothly
and produce a coherent and cohesive text.

Addition Cause Effect Comparison

And As a result By the same

Also Then token
Furthermore Therefore In similar fashion
Moreover Thus Likewise
Besides Consequently Similarly

74
 First, second, third For this reason In like manner
In addition Accordingly In the same way
In the first place, in the And so
second place Hence
To begin with, next, so
finally
Place Emphasis Contrast

In back of Definitely But

In front Indeed On the contrary
Nearby In face On the other hand
On top of No However
To the left, to the right yes In contrast
Above Instead
Alongside nevertheless
Still
Yet
Example Restatement Time

To illustrate In short Recently

As an example In other words meanwhile
For example In simple terms Previously
For instance That is Simultaneously
Particularly To put it differently Afterward
Specifically To repeat At the same time
Then
Until now
In the future
In the meantime
In the past
Later
Currently

75
 Earlier
Formerly
Immediately
Subsequently

Conclusion and Summary

thus after all

in conclusion at last

on the whole finally

to conclude in brief

to summarize in closing

and so

76
Why is understanding coherence and cohesion important?

Its an important part of understanding a text as a whole. Analyzing how different

parts of the text are related to each other helps you understand the functions of different
words and phrases. Some exam tasks test this, meaning that you need to think about more
than just the exact point in a text where an exam item, such as a missing word, appears.
This might be to decide whether an answer should be negative or positive, or, for
example, if it should be a pronoun or an article.

Example paragraph of missing structure

Thirty sixth-grade students wrote essays that were analyzed to determine the
effectiveness of eight weeks of training to distinguish fact from opinion. That ability is an
important aspect of making sound arguments of any kind. in an essay written before
instruction began, the writers failed almost completely to distinguish fact from opinion.
In an essay written after four weeks of instruction, the students visibly attempted to
distinguish fact from opinion, but did so inconsistently. In three more essays, they
distinguished fact from opinion more consistently, but never achieved the predicted level.
In a final essay written six months after instruction ended, they did no better than they did
in their pre-instruction essay. Their training had some effect on their writing during the
instruction period, but it was inconsistent, and six months after instruction it had no
measurable effect.

Revised Paragraph

In this study, thirty six-grade students were taught to distinguish fact from
opinion. They did so during the instruction, but the effect was inconsistent, less than
predicted, and six months after instruction ended, the instruction had no measurable
effect. In an essay written before instruction began, the writers failed almost completely
to distinguish fact from opinion. In an essay written after four weeks of instruction, the
students visibly attempted to distinguish fact from opinion, but did so inconsistently. In
three more essays, they distinguished fact from opinion more consistently, but never
achieved the predicted level. In a final essay written six months after instruction ended,
they did no better than they did in their pre-instruction essay. We thus conclude that short-
term training to distinguish fact from opinion has no consistent or long term effect.

How to improve cohesion in sentences

1. Rewrite your sentences so that they begin with information familiar to your reader
and the sentences end with information that readers cannot anticipate.
2. Use the Writers diet to re-write your original paragraph until it is fit and trim.
3. Write your original and your two re-written paragraphs onto a fresh piece of paper
(in no pre-set order). Swap this page with your neighbor. Let him order the
paragraphs according to clarity.

Task 1

Read the following text. Underline the cohesive devices used in the text.

I become disgusted when I'm exposed to people with atrocious manners. I'm
sickened when they lick their fingers as they eat. I think it's repulsive when they chew
with their mouths open, and I become irritated when they use their teeth to open packages
of food. Recently, I went to a movie theater with my family and some friends. Just before
the movie started, the friend next to me decided that it was the perfect time to devour a
large bag of greasy potato chips. At first, she wrestled to open the bag. She tried pinching
and pulling and finally tore it open with her teeth. The bag burst and the top portion of the
chips flew everywhere, including on my lap. Every time she stuck her fingers into the bag
to get a chip, the bag crackled. Her teeth crunched loudly on each chip and her mouth
hung open for everyone to see. As she finished the bag, she licked her fingers. Next she
held up her hand to let it dry and I saw her saliva glistening in the lights of the room.
Unsightly! Needless to say, when she offered to shake hands with me at the end of the
night, I avoided them and gave her a hug.

https://opencourses.uoc.gr/courses/pluginfile.php/16672/mod_resource/content/0/Presentation%203%20-
%20Coherence-Cohesion%20in%20Writing.pdf
Task 2

Below are sentences that need to be linked to each other by using a linking word.

1. Drugs and various crimes continues to be a serious problem in the Philippines.

Numerous efforts have been made to combat crime.

2. The accused was found guilty. The accused denied committing the murder.

3. The financial management company charges an upfront fee. They charge an ongoing

Operating expense.

4. He failed to win the athletic competition. He trained every day for five years.

5. He has a lot of money because he committed fraud. He is a thief.

________________________________________________________________________

Task 3

Organize these five sentences into a cohesive paragraph by adding

appropriate transitional words and phrases.

1. Dr. Edward Manahan, after experimenting with rats over a long period of
years, found that rats that learned to run a maze under the pressure of hunger
took much longer to learn the maze than rats that learned under non-crisis
conditions.

2. The learning that did take place was of a narrow type.

3. After learning the "right" route, these rats panicked if one avenue were
blocked off.

4. They were not able to survey the field to notice alternative routes.

5. When the rats were permitted to learn under non-crisis conditions, they later
performed well in a crisis.

http://grammar.about.com/od/developingparagraphs/a/cohrevisepars1.htm
Task 4

Choose an essay that you have written for any other subject except English class.
Choose one to three related paragraphs from your essay. Working with a partner, identify
what flaws exist in your paragraphs. After getting feedback from your partner, revise your
paragraphs by applying the techniques you have learned in the lesson. Then, working in
groups of three, exchange your work with your group mates. Ask your classmates to
comment on your paragraphs overall improvement.

Task 5

Your job is to research on the characteristics of a good essay and well developed
paragraph. The task is to compile these and then turn them into a recipe for a good
essay. Your clients are your fellow students. The challenge is to think of what food would
best represent a good essay, and the ingredients and steps involved in making that dish.
You will create a recipe page for a good essay, and your work needs to follow the format
of a recipe, should be well researched, and creative for it to be successful.

II. LANGUAGE USE OF A WELL WRITTEN TEXT

People use language in patterned ways. We use more formal ways of speaking
when talking to someone important. We use more casual forms when speaking with
friends or family. However, in language assessment we are more interested in the
patterned ways people use more than one language when there is bilingualism, or
multilingualism.

Switzerland is a classic example of a phenomena called diglossia. Swiss-German

is used in the home and all non-formal situations, but High German is used for education,
reading, and writing. A balanced state of usage like this is called stable diglossia. Neither
language is losing precedence to the other. However, in many communities worldwide
one language is becoming more dominant and the heritage language, the language that
has been used for generations in the home, is losing usefulness.

Assessing the use of language is important for many reasons. The examination of
language use patterns strengthens our understanding of human communication and the
primary purposes for each language. The inventory, or repertoire, of languages along with
knowledge about the frequency of contact in social contexts, enables the researcher to
identify the quality of interpersonal and intergroup relationships that individuals or entire
communities have with one another.

Without actually living with a speech community, there is rarely enough time to
observe behavioral patterns as they spontaneously occur. Moreover, the presence of a
researcher can be intrusive and actually obstruct naturally occurring acts of
communication. Therefore, an alternate, indirect method is to obtain reconstructed
observations that is, to ask people to recollect their own and others language use
patterns. For example, these questions may be asked in order to obtain a general
impression of language use patterns:

1. How many languages does a person understand? (list).

2. What is each language used for? (context, purpose).

3. Where are the languages used? (location).

4. With whom? (relationships).

5. How often? (frequency).

Standard English

Depending on the circumstances, your language can be formal, informal, or

somewhere in between. This chart shows some of the appropriate uses of very formal and
very informal English.

Uses of Formal and Informal English

FORMAL INFORMAL

SPEAKIN Formal, dignified Everyday conversation at home, school

G occasions such as banquets work, and recreation
and dedication ceremonies
 WRITING Serious papers and report Personal letters, journal entries, and many
newspaper and magazine articles

Features of Formal and Informal English

Features Formal Informal

Sentence Long and difficult Short and easy
Structure
Word choice Precise; often Simple and ordinary; often includes
technical or scientific contractions, colloquialisms and slang
Tone Serious and dignified conversational

Uses of Informal English

Colloquialisms are the informal words and phrases of conversational language. They
bring flavor and color to everyday speech and a friendly, conversational tone to writing.
Many colloquialisms are figures of speech that aren't meant to be taken literally.

Slang is made up newly coined words or of old words used in unconventional ways.
It is usually clever and colorful. It is often a special language for specific groups of
people, such as students and military personnel. Some people use slang to be up to date.

Example

Bummer a depressing experience

Cool pleasing, excellent

Cop out to quit, abandon

Hassle to annoy, harass

Weirdo a bizarre or strange person

_______________________________________________________________________
Task 1

Directions: Rewrite sentences in more formal English.

1. Bought another pack of coffin nails, huh? Havent you heard about the Surgeon
Generals report?

________________________________________________________________________

2. Maria may seem stuck up, but shes really just shy.

________________________________________________________________________

3. If I cant get my parents to cough up the money, I wont be able to have my bike
repaired.

________________________________________________________________________

4. She plays a wicked game of tennis.

________________________________________________________________________

5. He tried to butter up his sister with compliments, but she still wouldn't lend him car.

________________________________________________________________________

Task 2

Pretend that you are the President of your organization. Write a letter to your
Principal, requesting for permission to let you conduct a youth seminar to students aiming
for strengthening the culture and values of students. Remember to be guided on how to
write a formal letter.

Task 3
You will have a symposium about bullying to students. Write a short speech to welcome
the students in the said symposium.

III. LANGUAGE MECHANICS

Language mechanics incorporate the proper use of spelling, capitalization,

punctuation, grammar, and other factors deemed necessary for high-quality captioned
media. Rules included in these guidelines are primarily those which are unique to
captioning and speech-to-text. For conventional words, dictionaries and style guides must
be followed. Proper names, technical terms, and specialized language must be verified
though specialty references or directly from an authoritative source.

Spelling and Capitalization

a) Do not emphasize a word using all capital letters except to indicate screaming or
shouting.
b) Be consistent in the spelling of words throughout the media. This includes
vocabulary that can be spelled either as one or two words or in hyphenated form.
c) Capitalize proper nouns for speaker identification. All other speaker identification
should be lowercased unless this identification is being used as a proper noun.
d) Lowercase sound effects, including both description and onomatopoeia, except
when a proper noun is part of the description.
e) See the Numbers section on the Captioning Key Appendices page for detailed
guidelines for numbers including dates, time, periods of time, fractions, percent,
dollar amounts, and measurements.

Punctuation and Grammar

1. Commas

When captioning a list separated by commas, use a serial, or Oxford, comma.

Example:

Inappropriate: I'm having eggs, bacon and toast.

Appropriate: I'm having eggs, bacon, and toast.

2. Hyphens and Dashes
a. When a speaker hesitates or stutters, caption what is said.

Example:c-c-c-old

b. When captioning spelling (including fingerspelling), separate capital letters

with hyphens.

Example: A-N-T-I-O-N-E-T-T-E

3. Ellipses
a. Use an ellipsis when there is a significant pause within a caption.
b. Do not use an ellipsis to indicate that the sentence continues into the next caption.
c. Use an ellipsis to lead into or out of audio relating to an onscreen graphic.

4. Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks for onscreen readings from a poem, book, play,
journal, or letter. However, use quotation marks and italics for off screen readings
or voice-overs.

Beginning quotation marks should be used for each caption of quoted

material except for the last caption. The last caption should have only the ending
quotation mark.

Example:Reading from a journal

"Mother knelt down and began thoughtfully fitting the ragged edges of
paper together. The process was watched with spellbound interest."

5. Spacing

Spaces should not be inserted before ending punctuation, after opening

and before closing parentheses and brackets, before and after double
hyphens and dashes, or before/between/after the periods of an ellipsis.

A space should be inserted after the beginning music icon and before the
 ending music icon(s).

Example:There's a bad moon rising.

6. Italics

Use italics as follows:

a. A voice-over reading of a poem, book, play, journal, letter, etc.

(This is also quoted material, so quotation marks are also needed.)
b. When a person is dreaming, thinking, or reminiscing.
c. When there is background audio that is essential to the plot, such
as a PA system or TV.
d. The first time a new word is being defined, but do not italicize the
word thereafter.
e. Off screen dialogue, narrator (see Exception 2 below), sound
effects, or music (this includes background music).
f. The off screen narrator when there are multiple speakers onscreen
or off screen.
g. Speaker identification when the captioned dialogue is in italics.
h. Foreign words and phrases, unless they are in an English
dictionary.
i. When a particular word is heavily emphasized in speech.

Example: You must go!

The Writing Process: Editing

After revising your work, you can edit and clarify your ideas in writing. While
you edit, look for the following items: correct word usage, subject-verb agreement,
correct verb tenses, clear pronoun references, run-on sentences, and sentence fragments.
When editing, cross out words and write new words in margins and spaces. Proofreading
entails checking for spelling, punctuation, and capitalization errors. Use the following
proofreading marks:
 Proof Reading Symbols

_______________________________________________________________________

Task 1

Directions: Use the proofreaders mark to show where capital letters are needed.

Harriet Quimby was the first woman to earn a pilots license. She was a writer in New
York before she flew a plane. She fell in love with airplanes in 1910 when she saw her
first flying meet. Harriet become a pilot and toured in Mexico with a troupe of pilots. She
decided she would be the first woman to cross the English Channel. She took off on April
16, 1912, sitting on a wicker basket in the cockpit. After a scary flight, she landed on a
French beach.

Answer each question with a complete sentence. Use capital letters correctly.
1. What city (or town) and state do you live in?

2. Where do you like to shop? (Use names of stores)

Task 2

Directions: Use the proofreaders mark to show where capital letters are needed (a=A).

1. writer Ed J.Smith report that people are taking cheaper trips in the summer!

2. Mr. and Mrs. sosa droven to nueva ecija and went camping.

3. Last Year, the family would have go to sea world instead?

4. This year, Dr. ortega and his family went Hiking instead of going to Boracay.

5. MS. Wills visited her friend in manila rather than flying to the island of marinduque.

6. Miss miranda link from new town, long island, spent two days in marine.

7. She went to tagaytay last year.

8. city of dreams of Manila in Paranaque City is still busy very , though.

9. Mr. Cruz wants to go to palawan to see the under ground river?

Task 3

Directions: Read the informative article. What do you notice? Rewrite the article
following the writing guidelines.

EARLYGREEKSHAD HARDLYANYPUNCTUATION
FONOITCERIDEHTDEGNAHCNEVEDNA*
THEIRWRITINGATTHEENDOFEACHLINELATER
GNITIRWFOYAWAOTDEGNAHCYEHT*
THATFAVOREDRIGHTHANDEDPEOPLEANDSHOWED
WHEREANEWPARAGRAPHBEGANBYUNDELINING
THEFIRSTLINEOFITLATERTHEGREEKPLAYWRIGHT
ARISTOPHANES , INVERTEDMARKSTOSHOW , WHERE
THEREADERSSHOULDTAKEBREATH:
THE . ROMANS .MADE .WRITING .MUCH .EASIER .
TO .READ .BY .PUTTING .DOTS .BETWEEN .WORDS .
AND .BY .MOVING .THE .FIRST .LETTER .OF .A .
PARAGRAPH .INTO .THE .LEFT .MARGIN .THEY .
ADAPTED .SOME .OF .THE .GREEK . MARKS. SUCH .AS .THE .COLON
.MARK .TO .INDICATE .PHRASE . ENDINGS:
INTHEEARLYMIDDLEAGESTHISSYSTEMOFPUNCTUATION
BROKEDOWNBECAUSEVERYFEWPEOPLECOULDREAD
ANDWRITE BUTWRITERSKEPTASPACEATTHEENDOF
ASENTENCEANDCONTINUEDTOMARKPARAGRAPHS
EVENTUALLY WORDS WERESEPARATED AGAIN AND NEW SENTENCES
BEGAN WITH A LARGER LETTER

________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

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Task 4

Bring a memorandum of your own barangay. Look at how it was written. Are
there any language mechanical errors in the memorandum? Rewrite your own version of
the memorandum.
Final Task
Find a chosen article from the internet that interests you most, critic the chosen article
according to the pattern of development focusing on information selection, organization,
and development.
 References

Dumlao, MG. (1999). Communicaton for Progress. Quezon City: Christian Publishing

Saqueton, G.M., Uychoco, MT. (2016). English for Academic and Professional
Purposes. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store.

Barlow, J., Claiborne, S., Burns, W., et.al. (2000). Pre-GedWriting.Texas: Steck-
Vaughn Company.

Almonte, L.R., Flandez, L.L., Malayo, DR.O., et.al. (2014) A Journey through Anglo-
American Literature- Grade 9 Learners Materials. Pasig City: Vibal Group,
Inc.

Tobias-Domagsang, AG. (2016). Exploring Literature and Grammar (Reading and

Writing Skills). Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.

Abelos, A.V., Basbas, R.T., Gamboa, S.P., et.al. (2008) Essentials of Writing in the
Discipline.

Tiongson, M.T.(2016). Reading and Writing Skills. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Bookstore
Inc.

Cidro, M.K., Gasulas-Montenegro, A., Eusica, F.G., et al. .(2016). Reading and Writing
Skills Senior High School. Quezon City: The Phoenix Publishing House Inc.
 Module 2

Text and Context Connection

(Critical Reading)
 Lesson 1

Critical Reading as Looking for Ways of Thinking

Lesson Outcomes

After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain critical reading as looking for ways of thinking

2. Identify claims explicitly or implicitly made in a written text

a. Claim of fact

b. Claim of policy

c. Claim of value

3. Identify the context in which a text is developed

a. Hypertext

b. Intertext

4. React on the text read based on valid evidences.

What is Critical Reading?

Critical Reading involves scrutinizing any information that you read or hear.
Critical reading means not easily believing information offered to you by a text. Read
not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and
discourse; but to weigh and consider as Francis Bacon stated in The Essays.

Critical Reading is an active process of discovery because when you read

critically, you are not just receiving information but also making an interaction with the
writer. The interaction happens when you question the writers claims and assertions and
when you comment on the writers ideas.

The following requirement in critical thinking (Ramage, Bean, and Johnson (2006) ;

The ability to pose problematic questions

The ability to analyze a problem in all its dimensions-to define its key terms,
determine its causes, understand its history, appreciate its human dimension and
its connection to ones own personal experience, and appreciate what makes it
problematic or complex
The ability to find, gather, and interpret data, facts, and other information relevant
to the problem
The ability to analyze competing approaches and answers, to construct arguments
for and against alternatives, and to choose the best solution in the light of values,
objectives, and other criteria that you determine and articulate
The ability to write an effective argument justifying your choice while
acknowledging counter arguments

The following are some suggested ways to help you become a critical reader.

1. Annotate what you read One of the ways to interact with the writer is to write on the
text. You can underline, circle, or highlight words, phrases, or sentences that contain
important details, or you can write marginal notes asking questions or commenting on
the ideas of the writer. There are no clear and definite guidelines to annotating a text;
you can create your own style. For instance, you can circle unfamiliar words or
underline ideas that you think are questionable.

2. Outline the text In order to fully engage in a dialogue with the text or with the writer
of the text, you need to identify the main points of the writer and list them down so
you can also identify the ideas that the writer has raised to support his/her stand, You
don't necessarily have to write a structures sentence or topic outline for this purpose;
you can just write in bullet or in numbers.

3. Summarize the text aside from outlining, you can also get the main points of the text
you are reading and write its gist in your own words. This will test how much you
have understood the text and will help you evaluate it critically. A summary is usually
 one paragraph long.

4. Evaluate the text The most challenging part in critical reading is the process of
evaluating what you are reading. This is the point where the other three techniques
annotating, outlining, summarizing will be helpful. When you evaluate a text, you
question the authors purpose and intentions, as well as his/her assumptions in the
claims. You also check if the arguments are supported by the evidence and if the
evidence are valid and are from credible resources.

5. Questioning the text

Questioning the text involves asking specific questions on points that you are
skeptical about. These may be topics that do not meet your expectations or agree with
your personal views. Alternately, you should also take note of things that you found
impressive. The following may be asked:

What type of audience is addressed?

What are the writers assumptions?
What are the writers intentions?
How well does the writer accomplish these?
How convincing is the evidence presented?
How reliable are the sources? Are they based on personal experience, scientific
data, or outside authorities?
Did the writer address opposing views on the issue?
Is the writer persuasive in his/her perspective?

6. Keeping a reading journal

A reading journal is similar to keeping a diary, except you are writing your
feelings and ideas in reaction to your reading assignment. This process allows you to
develop your impressions of the text and connect them to your personal experiences.
This allows you to better relate the essay and understand the authors ideas.

_______________________________________________________________________

Task 1
Directions: Explains critical reading as looking for ways of thinking. Map out your
answers on the graphic organizer below.

Critical Process of
Active
Reading Discovery

Task 2

Read the following selection. Using the information in the selection do the activity below.

The Effect of Using the Facebook

By Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang

Think about what people are doing on Facebook today. Theyre keeping up with
their friend and family, but theyre also building an image and identity for themselves,
which in a sense is their brand. Theyre connecting with the audience what they want to
connect to. Its almost a disadvantage if youre not on it now.-Mark Zuckerberg.

With the advent and the continuous development of technology come the Internet
and the emerging issues that it brings. According to the internet world Statistics, there
are approximately 2,267,233,742 internet users worldwide in 2012.Today it is no doubt
that such number has dramatically increased.

The purpose of the internet has been changing from time to time. Decades ago,
many people used the internet mainly to research and acquire relevant information that
could be valuable in their fields of study and life endeavors. It has also been used to
communicate with people. Today, however, many people use the internet as their main
source of entertainment and socialization. You can even bet that many of these Internet
users only go online to check Facebook accounts.

It is important to learn that the Statistics Portal report 1.44 billion monthly active
Facebook users monthly as of the first quarter of 2015.Active users are defined as those
who have logged into Facebook during the last 30 days. Interestingly, Facebook users in
2008 did not even reach a hundred million. But in the third quarter of 2012, the number
of active Facebook users skyrocketed and surpassed 1 billion. Furthermore, as of that
quarter, the social network had 1.25billion active mobile users.

A question remains, however, what is really the impact of Facebook in our world
today?

The Facebook can be used to connect with people. Probably, all of us have found
friends and acquaintances that we would like to reconnect with in the Facebook. This has
been one of the fastest ways to chat and communicate with people all over the world. We
can use this social network to invite friends to an important event, inform people of
significant news in our lives, and vice-versa. This has also been very effective way to
advertise business pursuits, look for job opportunities, validate the credibility of a certain
individual or organization, be informed about important world phenomenon, search for
great leisure places, and find a great educational opportunity and many more.

However, if the Facebook renders countless benefits, it may also cause danger to
users who are not cautious and alert. For example, adding strangers, fake accounts and
untrustworthy acquaintances on Facebook may cause threat on the individual and his or
her family security. If not careful, one may also be a victim of business and other
organizational scams. Other people may even believe on information and news from
unreliable sources, and cause other people to be misled by sharing such information.
Pornography and other materials those are not appropriate for young people can be
accessed easily. Cyber bullying and persecution have caused many people pain and
suffering. Sometimes, opportunities for genuine face to face interaction are sacrificed,
and precious time is wasted.

Kimberly S.Youngs research study untitled Internet Addiction. A new Clinical

Phenomenon and Its consequence in 2013,tackles very critical issues that happen in
reality among Internet users, in which she explains that the Internet has great effect, not
just to the students and employees, but also to family relationships. In fact, three
surprising problems among users emerged after conducting the study. (1) Cyber affair,
(2) student internet abuse and (3) employee internet abuse. Social media, specifically the
Facebook, play a great role in such issues.

So, is the Facebook a blessing to the world of communications and social media?
Or is it a cause for worry among the guardians of societal ethics and morality? Is it a
boon or a bane?

Well, as we reflect upon the impact of social media, it is important to remember

that in the end, it is still up to us whether to use social media can be very beneficial if
used properly. It can help us connect with people and pursue great opportunities.
Pornography, cyber bullying, and other online scams will not be able to affect us if we do
not allow it to enter into our online lives. Because in the end, the nature of the internet is
not really the challenge-but the discipline of its users.

Answer the following questions.

1. How has the purpose of the internet changed over time?

2. According to statistics portal, what is an active Facebook user?

3. What are the benefits of using the Facebook?

4. What are the risks of using the Facebook?

5. According to the study conducted by Kimberly Young, what are the three negative
effects of using the Internet?

6. Do you think that having a social media account is necessary today?

In your opinion, is social media doing more good than harm? Justify your answer.

8. How should we properly use the social media?

Task 3 React
React on the text above based on the ideas presented. Write a letter to Anne Gelene
Tobias-Domagsang on her text entitled The Effects of Using the Facebook.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLAIMS TO SUPPORTS ARGUMENTS

Explicit and Implicit Information

When you want to develop your critical reading skills you should be able to
distinguish the information that is clearly stated (explicit) in the text from ideas that are
suggested (implicit). This will help you to infer what you read.

Explicit information is clearly written and explained in the text so the reader will
not be confused. Implicit information is something that is implied, but not stated outright
in the text. Because the idea is not written in the text, you need to use clues in the text to
make an inference on what you have read. An inference is a conclusion that you make
based on explicit information and your reasoning and background knowledge.

Defining Claims

Learning how to identify explicit and implicit information's will help you in one
of the mostly important skills needed in critical reading; evaluating the claims made by
an author. This involves going back to the text to recognize the writers arguments and
evidence so you can begin judging the writer's work.

Whenever you read something, you find yourself looking for the writers point or
position regarding the chosen topic. That point is also known as the claim, or the central
argument or thesis statement of the text. This claim is what the writer tries to prove in the
text by providing details, explanations, and other types of evidence. As such it is usually
found in the introduction or in the first few paragraphs of the text.

The claim is the most important part of the text. The quality and complexity of the
reading depend on the claim, because claims defines the papers direction and scope.
 The claim is a sentence that summarizes the most important thing that the writer
wants to say as a result of his/her thinking, reading, or writing.

The following are the characteristic of good claims:

1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable.

2. A claim should be specific and focused.

3. A claim should be interesting and engaging.

4. A claim should logical.

Different Types of Claims to Supports Arguments

Assuming that a reader poses some questions about the arguments stated in an
article, the answer to the said questions may be tested by using the multidisciplinary
approach to argumentation. Analyze the claims of fact, policy, and value stated by the
author regarding the article.

In any type of argumentation, it is always important to know these different types

of claims.

A. The claim of fact asserts the existence of something based on facts and data that is
quantifiable and measurable. It also attempts to define, classify, and make inferences.
Factual claims are generally objective and proofs used require reliable authority,
accurate and recent data, and clearly defined terms. Claims of fact usually answer a what
question.

The questions that follow are useful in determining whether something is a claim of
fact.

Is this issue related to a possible cause or effect?

Is this statement true or false? How can its truthfulness be verified?
Is this claim controversial or debatable?
Example of claim of fact

. . . According to the Internet World statistics, there are approximately 2, 267, 233, 742
Internet users worldwide in 2012. . .

Here is another example.

.. Today, many people use the Internet as their main source of entertainment and
socialization..

Remember that claims of fact do not necessarily express true sentences all the time. They
may be true from the authors point of view, but you may think otherwise.

Read this example.

. . . You can even bet that many of those Internet users only go online to check
their Facebook accounts. . .

B. The claim of value, on the other hand, attempts to prove that there are things that are
more or less valuable and desirable. It asserts something qualified. It involves judgments,
evaluation and appraisals. In this type of claims, standards of evaluation must be well-
established, and abstract values must be clarifies through examples. The practical and
moral advantages of the authors standards must also be explained.

Claims of value attempt to explain how problems, situations, or issues ought to be

valued. To discover these explanations', you may ask the following question:

Which claims endorse what is good or right?

What qualities should be considered good? Why?
Which of these values contend with others? Which ones are more important and
why? Whose standards are used?
What are some concrete examples of such values?

Example

This (the Facebook) has also been a very effective way to advertise business pursuits,
look for job opportunities, validate the credibility of a certain individual or organization,
be informed about important world phenomenon, search for great leisure places, find a
great educational opportunity, and many more.

C. The claim of policy asserts that certain policies be instituted as solutions to particular
problems. It tells specific actions should be chosen to a particular problem. It usually
entails sub claims of fact and value. Here, the proposed actions must be clear and well-
justified. The plan must also be workable and the benefits of the propositions must be
explained. Opposition and counter arguments must also be considered. The following
questions will be useful in evaluating a claim of policy:

Does the claim suggest a specific remedy to solve the problem?

Is the policy clearly defined?
Is the need for the policy established?
Is the policy the best one available? For whom? According to whose standards?
How does the policy solve the problem?

Examples

. . . In the end, it is still up to us whether to use social media to our advantage or allow
it to destroys us . .

. . . Pornography, cyberbullying, and other online scams will not affect us if we do not
allow it to enter into our online lives. ..

Task 1

Read the following text.

DOH to Start Giving Out Condoms In Schools Next Year

By: Jhesset O. Enano, Julie M. Aurelio, Tina G. Santos

Starting next year, the Department of Health (DOH) plans to distribute condoms in
schools as part of its business unusual strategy amid the sharp rise in the number of HIV and
AIDS among the youth in the country. The DOH also urges parents to teach safe sex at home as
part of the strategy. As soon as we thresh out the strategy with the Department of Education
(DepEd), we can distribute (condoms) after providing them proper counseling, Health Secretary
Paulyn Ubial said in a press conference for the World AIDS Day 2016 on Thursday. Of course,
we also have to prepare the school authorities, teachers, principals, healthcare providers, Ubial
said.
Data show that from 1984 to October 2016, a total of 38,114 HIV cases were recorded,
with 32,099 tallied from 2011 to 2016. Among 15 to 24 years olds, there were 10,279 HIV cases
during the period, of which 9,066 were tallied since 2011.
Alarmed by the rising HIV/AIDS cases, the head of the Episcopal Commission on Health
Care of the Catholic bishops conference urged the youth to do their part in educating the public
on the occasion of the World AIDS Day.
The cases rose, especially for those aged 15 to 24 years old. They are [our] future, our
high school and college students, said Fr. Dan Cancino, the commissions executive secretary.
On Radio Veritas, he invited the youth to join on Dec. 4 the National Catholic AIDS
Sunday, which is celebrated every first Sunday of December to raise public awareness on
HIV/AIDS. This is a day for us to increase our knowledge and awareness, especially the youth,
on the global problem of HIV/AIDS, Cancino said.
An awareness conference will be held on Sunday at the Chapel of the Eucharistic Lord on
the fifth floor of SM Megamall in Mandaluyong City.
Be honest, factual
Ubial said the information campaign must go down to the household and community
level. As soon as the child asks you a question, be honest, say it outright. (Dont) talk about the
bees and the birds, she said. You talk to the child as if youre discussing any topic under the
sun. Be factual. Dont beat around the bush. Dont even use analogy. Just go straight to the point.
I think that has been proven in other many countries that thats the way to inform the youth, she
added.
World Health Organization (WHO) representative Gundo Weiler said educating the youth
would enable them to protect themselves better.
Right information
National Youth Commission Chair Aiza Seguerra said parents must not avoid talking
about sex to equip their children with the right information.
Because of our culture, we get embarrassed by topics like sex (and) HIV/AIDS but I
believe (correct information) starts at home. Please make sure (your kids) are protected,
Seguerra said. Ubial said the plan to distribute condoms was part of the business unusual strategy
that the DOH intends to develop in an effort to fight HIV/AIDS.
Were offering distribution of condoms with our partners in the National Youth
Commission and DepEd. This is a nontraditional outlet for safe sex interventions, but we have to
do this, she said.
[Our strategy] would no longer just focus on health centers and hospitals. Well go down
to the community, to the households, involving the parents, the education sector, the teachers, the
whole community, she said.
Antiretroviral treatments
Treatment options are available to those who test positive for HIV. Antiretroviral
treatments (ART) are applied to individuals who need to lower the viral load of patients and to
improve their immune response. Next years budget for ART will leap from P900 million to P1
billion and will allow the DOH to provide ART to over 39,000 individuals, Ubial said.
Apart from distributing condoms in schools, the DOH said it was considering heeding the
call of the WHO to make HIV self-testing kits available to the public. Ubial said she planned to
make HIV self-test kits available to individuals in places where they could get adequate
counseling and not in drug stores. Free and confidential HIV testing is available at traditional
health providers, local government units and partner NGOs.
On the sidelines of the World AIDS Awareness program in Quezon City, Dr. Mario
Baquilod, officer in charge of the DOH-Disease Prevention and Control Bureau, said that while
the central health office was focusing mainly on policy formulation, the implementation of health
programs lay with the local governments.

Read more: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/849926/doh-to-start-giving-out-condoms-in-schools-

next-year#ixzz4XPmramw5

Directions: The following statements contain ideas taken from the news article DOH to
Start Giving out Condoms in Schools Next Year. Write I if the statements contains an
implicit idea from the text. Write E if the statement mentions something explicitly from
the text. Go back to the text to locate exactly where the explicit information is found, and
then highlight it.

__________1. DOH will be giving condoms to publish schools to alleviate HIV/AIDS

among teenagers.

__________2. The government is optimistic in promoting awareness among teenagers on

advantages and disadvantages of using condoms.

__________ 3. HIV/AIDS problems are very rampant cases in our country nowadays.

__________4. Culture and faith affects the judgment of an individual especially when we
talk about issues in the society.

__________5. There will be a conflict among the beliefs of the state church and state.

Task 2

Directions: Based on the given characteristics above, evaluate the following claims. Place
a check (/) on the blank beside the number if you consider the examples a good claim.
Otherwise, on the space provided, state what can be improved in the given example.

__________1. The country face numerous problems today.

____________________________________________________________

___________2. Teenagers must be exposed with social media since it is a trend.

____________________________________________________________

___________3. We must provide a good quality of education among the youth to

eradicate poverty and help the country to progress.
___________________________________________________________

___________ 4. Fictional characters from different stories are the product of imagination
and reality.

___________________________________________________________

___________5. War on drugs alleviate crimes and make a peaceful country.

____________________________________________________________

Task 3

Identify each statement below as a claim of fact, value or policy. Briefly explain your
choice.
1. The government should not revive death penalty.

________________________________________________________________________

2. Giving death sentence to criminals is wrong.

________________________________________________________________________

3. Death penalty as a punishment is not effective, as it does not deter crime.

________________________________________________________________________

4. Death penalty is immoral.

________________________________________________________________________

5. There should be a restoration of death penalty on war on drugs.

________________________________________________________________________

Task 4

Imagine that you are writing an essay in response to the news article, develop the
following claim below. Which of the given statements support the claim? Place a check
(/)on the blank beside the number if the statement is acceptable evidence. Otherwise,
decide how it can be improved by labeling it as irrelevant (IR), inaccurate (IA), or too
general (TG). Then rewrite the evidence to improve it.

Claim: Prevention is better than cure.

_________1. Health is valuable present for human life.

________________________________________________________________________

_________ 2. People should know how to protect themselves from diseases through
health education.

________________________________________________________________________

_________ 3. One person just has one life

________________________________________________________________________

_________ 4. Troubles or problem cannot be corrected by prevention but foolishness

rules the intelligence of right thinking and pleases us to adopt false advice.

________________________________________________________________________

_________ 5. The government does need to educate teenagers on health lifestyle.

________________________________________________________________________

CONTEXT IN TEXT DEVELOPMENT

Intertextuality as a Literary Device

It is a fact that many readers are influenced by the texts that they read. They even
sort through their archives while reading a new one. Intertextuality is a powerful writing
tool in which a text gain layers of meaning through citation and referencing of other texts.
In this strategy, the author borrows a prior text from another and integrates it in his
writing. This way, the readers are able to see the interrelationship among texts and are
able to generate a deeper understanding about the topic being discussed.

Intertext is literally a discourse strategy used by many writers, poets and even
playwrights. The use of this device shapes the meaning of a text in the light of another
text, thus, creating a new meaning, influence and interpretation. The Bible is a classic
example of intertextuality in which authors of the New Testament quote passages from
the Old Testament. However, aside from merely referencing words and phrases, this
device may also involve drawing upon a certain concept and ideology from another text.

Ernest Hemingways novel entitled For Whom the Bell Tolls, published in 1940,
shows another example of the use of intertext. It is a story of a young American named
Robert Jordan who was attached to a republican guerrilla unit during the Spanish Civil
War. The books title was actually taken from Meditation XVII (Devotions upon
Emergent Occasions) of the renowned poet John Donne. In his books epigraph,
Hemingway quoted part of John Donnes meditation:

Example
No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the
main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory
were, as well as if a manor of thy friends or of thine own were: any mans death
diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for
whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.

Hypertext and Hypermedia

Hypertext is a non-linear way to present information and is usually accomplished

using links. Such links help the readers navigate further information about the topic
being discussed and may also lead to other links that can direct the readers to various
options. Thus, instead of merely reading things in the other dictated by the writer of the
text, the readers are able to move freely at their own pace and follow their own path as
they investigate the topic. Hypertext also allows the readers to create their own meaning
out of the material given to them and learn better associatively.

Today, links are just limited to text or documents but may also incorporate other
forms of multimedia such as pictures, sounds and videos that could stimulate more
senses. This is called hypermedia.

Because hypertext and hypermedia take away full control of the author over the
direction that a reader must take, an environment of independent and critical thinking is
then created. In a way, the readers become co-authors of the material by creating
connections and meanings for themselves.

Task 1

Directions: Read the intertext used by the author in her article , Losing Your Privacy
Online.

Answer the questions that follow. Identify the intertext used in the following text
and how it was used.
 Losing Your Privacy Online

By Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang

In 2012, Mike Conrad of the United States Federal Beureau of Investigation

(FBI) warned the public about a disturbing trend nowadays, wherein people use social
media to look for infants to kidnap. According to Conrad, such incident happens about
three to five times a week nationwide in the United States. But cases of kidnapping
infants through information acquired from social media do not just happen in the US, but
they also happen in other parts of the world. Thus, the public has always been warned to
make sure that photos uploaded in social networking sites such as Facebook, must be
kept in private. Mothers too must be cautious on what kind of information and how much
information they can share online (CBS 5, Kidnappers Using Social Media to Find
Infants)

Meanwhile, in the Philippines, Anti-Kidnapping Group chief of staff Rene Aspera

said that some kidnapping syndicates have turned to Facebook and other social networks
to scout for their next victims. After receiving about 43 kidnap-for-ransom cases, he had
warned the public to limit the content they post on the Facebook and the Twitter,
especially about their wealth and material possessions. (Aurelio, Kidnappers Scanning
Social Networks for Potential Victims)

The two cases mentioned above are just among hundreds of crimes and dangers
happening globally today because of disclosure of information from online sites. Thus, as
online users, it is important to know how private information is disclosed online and that
reducing the amount of information you share in the internet can lessen such risk.

How private Information is Disclose Online

It is important to understand that seemingly harmless applications such as games

and Facebook quizzes may actually be collecting a large amount of data about a person
his name, gender, residential address, email address, phone number, relationships
status, affiliations, interest, names of family members, vacation destinations, past
experiences, and many more. By simply clicking about your friends click allow, they
are also sharing information about you, even without your permission. (Raicu, Loss of
online Privacy: Whats the Harm?)

Moreover, various online entities insert small bits of data called cookies into your
computer, which allow companies to track your actions across the Web. They are then
able to note which sites you visit, what you buy online, and even what advertisements you
click. In addition, when you click keep me connected in sites such as the Facebook,
you are also allowing such sites to ride with you as you browse the net. Even the social
plugin buttons that you on different web pages, such as Googles +1 and Facebooks
like also send information to those sites, making it known that you have actually
visited those pages. Thus, all the contents of your emails can now be stored for future use
by data miners. (Raicu, Loss of Online Privacy: Whats the harm?)

Also if you search for particular information online or even download certain
songs, variounline entities will know and will make conclusions about you based on those
searches. Later on, you may finf certain ads popping on your screen which reflect the
subjects that you have previously searched for. Search engines present your search results
in a customized manner in such a way that it would match your preferences. In fact,
Jonathan Shaws article entitled cheap, people can collect data and never throw
anything away. If you are for example, under the age of 30 and you indicate your place
of birth, eight or nine digits of your Social Security number can b correctly predicted.
This is because certain data are linked to other data.

To add, if you are not cautious enough in sharing posts and photos about your life
to the public, strangers can use such information to rob you or do other harmful things
such as the incidents mentioned at the beginning of this essay.

How to Avoid Disclosure of Private Information

To avoid disclosing information online, one must make it a habit to adjust privacy setting
all the time. The public does not have to know everything that is happening in your life.
Sharing your exact birthday, your residential address and even posting detailed pictures
of your home are very risky. Moreover, a person should be cautious on what he clicks
online because one simple click can allow online entities to access data about you.
 In his article, Plenty to Hide, Jan Stanley, a Senior Policy Analyst for the
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) writes:

Ultimately the fullest resort to the nothing to hide impulse is a richer philosophical
defense of privacy that articulates its importance to human life- the human need for a
refuge from the eye of the community, and from the self monitoring that living with others
entails; the need for space in which to play and to try out new, identities, and behaviors,
without lasting consequences.

In conclusion, people must remember that the internet today is not anymore on its
infant stage. It has grown and developed so rapidly that it has not quite set the rues yet.
New privacy challenges arise online every now and then. At present, there are still no
fixed laws and regulations online that people can truly depend on. This is because the
legal system worldwide has not been able to keep up with the speedy changes of
technology yet. Thus, online users must be more cautious and reduce the amount of
information they share online. Better yet, reduce the time they spend online, and focus
more on ganuine face to face relationships.

Works Cited :Aurelio, Julie. Kidnappers Scanning Social Networks for Potential
Victims. Philippine Daily Inquirer, Nov. 23, 2014
FBI: Kidnappers Using Social Media to Find Infants CBS 5 Action Button , 2013
Shaw, Jonathan. Exposed: The Erosion of Privacy in the internet. Harvard Magazine,
2009.
Raicu, Irina. Loss of Online Privacy: Whats the Harm? Santa Clara University, June
2012
Stanley, Jay. Plenty to Hide. American civil Liberties Union

Answer these questions.

1. Why is disclosure of private information online dangerous?

2. What do you think is the best way to protect your private information online?
3. In using social media, how can you protect your online friends from unwanted
disclosure of their private information?
4. In your opinion, does the internet do more harm than good? Justify your answer?
Task

Directions:

In what way is the authors use of the intertexts helpful to the readers in the article Losing
Your Privacy Online by Anne Gelene Tobias-Domagsang.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Task 3

The article written by Irina Raicu: Less More of Online Privacy! Whats the
Harm? was mentioned by the author. This article was retrieved from this webpage:
http://www. Scu.edu/ethics-center/privacy/harm. Search for this article online and
examine the links used in the page to acquire more information about the topic. What
new insights have you gained by exploring the information found on these link?

Lesson 2

Critical Reading as Reasoning

Lesson Outcomes

After this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain critical reading as reasoning

2. Formulate evaluative statements about a text read
3. Formulate assertions about the content and properties of a text read
4. Formulate meaningful counterclaims in response to claims made in a text read
Critical Reading Leads to Critical Thinking

When we read a text critically, we try to discover new ideas, new insights, or new
information from the text. We are on guard for new concepts that we will be able to
gather from what we are reading. When we react, either by agreeing or disagreeing with
the presented information, we are actually doing critical reading by reasoning.

While critical reading refers to a careful, active, reflective, and analytic reading,
critical thinking involves reflecting on the validity of what we have read in the light of
our prior experiences and understanding. We react to the claims of facts, of values, or of
policies in the text by presenting our own counterclaims. Backed up by our own reason
and proofs.

Features of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking includes a combination of skills.

1. Reasoning To be able to evaluate critically, the reader should rely on reason rather
than on emotions or popular opinions. Like an impartial judge, the reader should search
for evidences and ask questions seeking for best explanations.

2. Self-awareness

The reader should recognize his own assumptions, biases, and points of review. He
should not be swayed by the authors opinions, but rather should be able to state what he
believes in, and to stand for what he says.

3. Open-mindedness

While a critical reader/thinker is expected to state firmly what he believes in, he is

expected, at the same time, to be open to alternative interpretations as the situations call
for them.
Task 1

Read the news article.

School Uniforms

School uniforms are becoming a popular trend amongst schools. Students and
even most parents dont agree with the enforcement with school uniforms; stating that
uniforms take away the right of self-expression. School uniforms are not a negative thing
to have. Yes, uniforms limit what the students have to choose to wear to school every day,
but it doesnt limit them from learning; the only reason they are in school. Student treat
school as a fashion show, so eliminating that puts the students full focus on schoolwork.
Although requiring students to wear school uniforms may violate their self-expression in
some ways, a uniform are supposed to be looked upon as a positive thing, because they
eliminate bullying, combine social classes and gives the school campus a professional
look.

The most common argument against school uniforms is that they take away the
students right to self- expression. Yes, school uniforms limit what the students have to
wear, but he/she can still have their own ways of self-expression. Students can still
express their style of choice by the way he/she styles their hair and what accessories they
choose to wear. Their shoe choice is also a form of self-expression. Students can make
the uniforms their own style without breaking the dress code. Just because a student cant
wear the most fashionable jeans to school doesnt mean that his/her rights are taken away.
School is a place to learn. Outside of school, kids can wear and express themselves any
way they please.

Requiring school uniforms eliminates the chances of bullying. Bullies usually

pick on kids based on what they wear. What happens when they are wearing the same
thing? Everyone will be dressed the same, leaving less room to get picked on. Bullies
wont have the need to pick on someone as much as he/she would if uniforms were not
required, because everyone would pretty much look the same, including the bullies.
When people all look the same, there is really nothing for other kids to point out and
make fun of. Uniforms provide a more bully- free environment for the students.

Having uniforms in schools also erase the defined line of the social classes.
Usually, popular kids in the higher social classes would only be wearing the trendiest
clothing. The poor, lower social classes would only be wearing the latest shipment from
the nearest Wal-Mart. School uniforms bring the social classes together. Everyone would
be wearing the same brand of clothes from the same few stores that sell school uniforms.
Nobody would be able to determine what social class a person is in just by looking at
what the other person is wearing. Everyone would all blend together and be at the same
level; no upper or lower classes dividing the students.

Schools the require uniforms look more formal and well put together. Schools
that dont require uniforms have those few kids who dont care how they dress, or dress
sloppy. There are kids walking around with pants sagging to the ground and underwear
showing. Some kids will even be wearing inappropriate logos on shirts or jackets. That
gives the school a bad look and reputation. Schools with uniforms have all the students
dressed nicely in the assigned uniforms. The school looks well put together and well
maintained. Students who dont have to focus on what to wear to school are going to
focus more on academics, which leads to improved grades. The school will look better
presentation wise and academically.

Overall, school uniforms are a great thing to have. Even though this argument
whether or not school uniforms violates the students right to self- expression will be
never ending. There seems to be more positive outlooks than negative on schools that
require school uniforms. Having school uniforms be required for the students to wear gets
rid of the bullies who pick on other students based on what they are wearing. Uniforms
eliminate the separation of social classes, especially when that is mainly determined by
what brands of clothing a person wears. Last but not least, school districts that require
their students to wear school uniform have more of a formal look to the school.

School uniforms are a positive thing, because they take away bullying
opportunities, judging of social class and make the school look more professional.
http://wightargumentativeuniforms.weebly.com/essay.html

Battle of You and Me

Is wearing school uniform acceptable or not? Prepare a debate having

affirmative and negative side in the wearing of school uniform. Be guided in the debate
proper.

Task 2

Directions: Read the following text from the New International Version of 1 Corinthian
13 which is about St. Pauls letter to the Corinthians. This epistle talks about love.

Write an essay about your own thoughts concerning this text.

13 If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a
resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all
mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but do not
have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and give over my body to
hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain nothing.

Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not
dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of
wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects,
always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres.

Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are
tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in
part and we prophecy in part, but when completeness comes, what is in part disappears.
When I was a child, I talked like a child; I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child.
When I became a man, I put the ways of childhood behind me. For now we see only a
reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall
know fully, even as I am fully known.

And know these three main: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.
 1 Corinthians 13, New International Version (NIV)

Task 3

You are a segment producer of a documentary news program. You are tasked to create a
presentation report for a segment about addiction issues among the Filipino youth. You
are to gather at least three different articles. In your presentation report, be guided by the
following questions:

1. Which social issue do I want to focus on?

2. What is the central message of each research title?
3. What strategy did I use to process the articles I read?
4. What message do I want to address in my report
5. What message do I want my viewers to remember?
6. What reasons can I present to convince my viewers about my message?
7. What better way can I express my ideas?
8. What is the appropriate title for my report?
9. What questions do I want to ask my viewers to ponder on?

EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS

Writing an Evaluative Statement

The use of evaluative language enables the writers of self-assessment reports to present
opinions, judgments and points of view in a clear concise manner. Evaluative language
helps turn fact into key judgments. Writing a realistic evaluative statement is not difficult
if you adhere to these helpful guidelines set out below.

Prepare

1. Work with colleagues who are knowledgeable about the subject and look carefully at
the key criteria you are being asked to evaluate yourself against.

2. Always utilize reliable evidence to support your evaluation, such as; achievement data,
learner numbers, stakeholder views, colleagues experience etc., etc.
3. Making notes in bullet format will help you plan what you want to say and will
crystallize your thinking.

Organize your bullet notes into;

Strengths
Areas for improvement

This will help you weigh up how effective you are.

4. Avoid trying to cancel out areas for improvement with strengths and vice versa; zone
does not cancel out the other. You are simply looking to compare and well organized
notes will help you develop a balanced view.

Develop

When writing an evaluative statement you are explaining why a strength, is a strength or
an area for improvement needs improving. The judgment is best developed by:

1. Looking at all your notes for your subject and ask yourself, how well is this activity
being done? All learners benefit from very well prepared program of vocationally
relevant work experience

2. Then use the notes to help the reader understand your opinion There is a high level of
employer engagement at the beginning of the program, enabling optional units to be
selected according to the employers business needs as well as the learners skills
needs. 80% of learners undergoing work program in the past 12 months have secured
permanent employment as a result of their program

3. Asking yourself, so what, what impact is this having? These early discussions
encourage all parties to select more challenging units that greatly enhancing learners
employment opportunities

4. Now putting it all together All learners benefit from very well prepared programs of
vocationally relevant work experience. There is a high level of employer engagement
at the beginning of the program, enabling optional units to be selected according to
the employers business needs as well as the learners skills needs. 80% of learners
 undergoing work programs in the past 12 months have secured permanent
employment as a result of their program. These early discussions encourage all parties
to select more challenging units that greatly enhancing learners employment
opportunities.

Including a well-thought-out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good

argumentative essay or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining
how it supports your thesis your readers may not make a connection between the two or
they may draw different conclusions.

Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a
counterclaim. Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own
argument. This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted,
arguments. Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of
your readers. It also makes you look more credible because you appear to be
knowledgeable about the entirety of the debate rather than just being biased or
uninformed. You may want to include several counterclaims to show that you have
thoroughly researched the topic.

Creating Assertions

Assertions are opinions that people may or may not agree with. They are not
general truths; instead, they are positions on an issue. For example, when it comes to the
issue of whether uniforms should be required in the school, the assertion is that the use of
uniforms promotes the ideals of equality in the school. This is a philosophical position
that one may or may not agree with.

An example of statement that is not an assertion is that all uniforms look the
same. One cannot possibly disagree with this, because this is a general truth, a statement
of fact, whereas an assertion is a statement of opinion. Nobody can contest that all
uniforms look the same, but others may disagree that this promotes the ideals of equality.

For example, uniforms may be made from different materials, of either inferior or
superior quality, and this is already an indicator of social inequality. There are different
kinds of lunchboxes, bags, and the meals themselves that may be subject to social
evaluation and inspection. In the end, because children are often cruel, these can be used
as a basis for ridicule and bullying, despite wearing the same uniform as their classmates.
In this manner, one can argue on principle that uniforms do not promote equality, even
though all uniforms superficially look the same.

Upon building arguments, one should write down several assertions. After reading
ones assertions, one should evaluate whether all of these assertions fit a particular theme
or main idea. This theme, main idea, or your thesis statement should be the controlling
idea of your position paper.

For example, in the position regarding the requirement of uniforms in the school,
one may write the following assertions:

Uniforms promote the ideals of equality.

Uniforms lessen distractions between the opposite sex.

Uniforms unite the student populace in having a common purpose and identity.

Uniforms make people feel that they are part of a larger institution than themselves.

Task 1

Directions: In a small group of four to five students, collect three advertisements that you
think are especially effective. Get from: (1) a print advertisement, (2) a radio
advertisement, and (3) a television commercial, with a total of three advertisements for
each medium. Discuss why you think each advertisement is persuasive and effective, and
break down the advertisement using the following worksheet.
 Claim Assumption Evidence
What makes the
(What is the (What is the logical (What does it present as
advertisement
advertisement construction of the proof to show that the
Effective?
trying to say? argument) claim is true?)

Advertisement 1:

Advertisement 2:

Advertisement 3:

Task 2

Directions: With your group, choose an editorial from a newspaper. Break down the
arguments of the editorial by filling in the worksheet below.

Assertion Evidence Explanation Is the Argument Valid?

Why or Why Not?
Task 3

Think of a problem in your community that you think your co-barangays are mostly
affected. Write an essay about it.

Final Task
Write a 1000- word critique of a selected text on the basis of its claim/s, context,
and properties as a written material.

References

Dumlao, MG. (1999). Communicaton for Progress. Quezon City: Christian Publishing.
Saqueton, G.M., Uychoco, MT. (2016). English for Academic and Professional
Purposes. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store.

Barlow, J., Claiborne, S., Burns, W., et.al. (2000). Pre-GedWriting.Texas: Steck-Vaughn
Company.

Almonte, L.R., Flandez, L.L., Malayo, DR.O., et.al. (2014) A Journey through Anglo-
American Literature- Grade 9 Learners Materials. Pasig City: Vibal Group,
Inc.

Tobias-Domagsang, AG. (2016). Exploring Literature and Grammar (Reading and

Writing Skills). Quezon City: Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.

Abelos, A.V., Basbas, R.T., Gamboa, S.P., et.al. (2008) Essentials of Writing in the
Discipline.

Tiongson, M.T.(2016). Reading and Writing Skills. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Bookstore
Inc.

Cidro, M.K., Gasulas-Montenegro, A., Eusica, F.G., et al. .(2016). Reading and Writing
Skills Senior High School. Quezon City: The Phoenix Publishing House Inc.