Technology

This article is about the use and knowledge of techniques riers to communication and allowed humans to interact
and processes for producing goods and services. For freely on a global scale. The steady progress of military
other uses, see Technology (disambiguation). technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing de-
structive power, from clubs to nuclear weapons.
Technology has many eects. It has helped develop more
advanced economies (including todays global economy)
and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many techno-
logical processes produce unwanted by-products known
as pollution and deplete natural resources to the detri-
ment of Earths environment. Various implementations
of technology inuence the values of a society and new
technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples
include the rise of the notion of eciency in terms of hu-
man productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of tech-
nology, with disagreements over whether technology
improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-
Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar reactionary
movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in
the modern world, arguing that it harms the environ-
ment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such
as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view contin-
ued technological progress as benecial to society and the
human condition.
Until recently, it was believed that the development of
technology was restricted only to human beings, but 21st
A steam turbine with the case opened. Most electricity is pro- century scientic studies indicate that other primates and
duced by thermal power stations with turbines like this one. Elec- certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools
tricity consumption and living standards are highly correlated.[1]
and passed their knowledge to other generations.
Electrication is believed to be the most important engineering
achievement of the 20th century.

Technology (science of craft, from Greek , 1 Denition and usage

techne, art, skill, cunning of hand"; and -, -
logia[2] ) is the collection of techniques, skills, methods The use of the term technology has changed signif-
and processes used in the production of goods or services icantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th cen-
or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientic tury, the term was uncommon in English, and usually re-
investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of tech- ferred to the description or study of the useful arts.[3] The
niques, processes, and the like, or it can be embedded in term was often connected to technical education, as in
machines which can be operated without detailed knowl- the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (chartered in
edge of their workings. 1861).[4]
The human species use of technology began with the The term technology rose to prominence in the 20th
conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The century in connection with the Second Industrial Rev-
prehistoric discovery of how to control re and the later olution. The terms meanings changed in the early
Neolithic Revolution increased the available sources of 20th century when American social scientists, beginning
food and the invention of the wheel helped humans with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the Ger-
to travel in and control their environment. Develop- man concept of Technik into technology. In German
ments in historic times, including the printing press, the and other European languages, a distinction exists be-
telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical bar- tween technik and technologie that is absent in English,

1
2 1 DEFINITION AND USAGE

things around here.[9] The term is often used to imply

a specic eld of technology, or to refer to high technol-
ogy or just consumer electronics, rather than technology
as a whole.[10] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time,
1, denes technology in two ways: as the pursuit of life
by means other than life, and as organized inorganic
matter.[11]
Technology can be most broadly dened as the entities,
both material and immaterial, created by the application
of mental and physical eort in order to achieve some
value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and ma-
chines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is
a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as
a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines,
such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and
machines need not be material; virtual technology, such
as computer software and business methods, fall under
this denition of technology.[12] W. Brian Arthur denes
technology in a similarly broad way as a means to fulll
a human purpose.[13]
The word technology can also be used to refer to a col-
lection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state
of humanitys knowledge of how to combine resources to
produce desired products, to solve problems, fulll needs,
or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, pro-
cesses, techniques, tools and raw materials. When com-
The spread of paper and printing to the West, as in this printing
bined with another term, such as medical technology or
press, helped scientists and politicians communicate their ideas space technology, it refers to the state of the respective
easily, leading to the Age of Enlightenment; an example of tech- elds knowledge and tools. "State-of-the-art technology
nology as cultural force. refers to the high technology available to humanity in any
eld.

which usually translates both terms as technology. By

the 1930s, technology referred not only to the study of
the industrial arts but to the industrial arts themselves.[5]
In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote
that technology includes all tools, machines, utensils,
weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating
and transporting devices and the skills by which we pro-
duce and use them.[6] Bains denition remains common
The invention of integrated circuits and the microprocessor (here,
among scholars today, especially social scientists, but
an Intel 4004 chip from 1971) led to the modern computer rev-
equally prominent is the denition of technology as ap- olution.
plied science, especially among scientists and engineers,
although most social scientists who study technology re-
ject this denition.[7] More recently, scholars have bor- Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or
rowed from European philosophers of technique to ex- changes culture.[14] Additionally, technology is the ap-
tend the meaning of technology to various forms of in- plication of math, science, and the arts for the benet
strumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise of
of the self (techniques de soi). communication technology, which has lessened barriers
Dictionaries and scholars have oered a variety of deni- to human interaction and as a result has helped spawn new
tions. The Merriam-Webster Learners Dictionary oers subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has at its basis the
a denition of the term: the use of science in industry, development of the Internet and the computer.[15] Not all
engineering, etc., to invent useful things or to solve prob- technology enhances culture in a creative way; technol-
lems and a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc., ogy can also help facilitate political oppression and war
that is created by technology.[8] Ursula Franklin, in her via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology
1989 Real World of Technology lecture, gave another predates both science and engineering, each of which for-
denition of the concept; it is practice, the way we do malize some aspects of technological endeavor.
 3

2 Science, engineering and technol- policy, Science The Endless Frontier: New products,
new industries, and more jobs require continuous addi-
ogy tions to knowledge of the laws of nature ... This essen-
tial new knowledge can be obtained only through basic
scientic research.[18] In the late-1960s, however, this
view came under direct attack, leading towards initia-
tives to fund science for specic tasks (initiatives resisted
by the scientic community). The issue remains con-
tentious, though most analysts resist the model that tech-
nology simply is a result of scientic research.[19][20]

3 History
Main articles: History of technology, Timeline of his-
toric inventions, and Timeline of electrical and electronic
engineering

Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment with combustion

generated by amplied sun light
3.1 Paleolithic (2.5 Ma 10 ka)
The distinction between science, engineering, and tech-
nology is not always clear. Science is systematic knowl-
edge of the physical or material world gained through ob-
servation and experimentation.[16] Technologies are not
usually exclusively products of science, because they
have to satisfy requirements such as utility, usability, and
safety.
Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and
making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena
for practical human means, often (but not always) using
results and techniques from science. The development of A primitive chopper
technology may draw upon many elds of knowledge, in-
cluding scientic, engineering, mathematical, linguistic, Further information: Outline of prehistoric technology
and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical re-
sult.
The use of tools by early humans was partly a process
Technology is often a consequence of science and en- of discovery and of evolution. Early humans evolved
gineering, although technology as a human activity pre- from a species of foraging hominids which were already
cedes the two elds. For example, science might study the bipedal,[21] with a brain mass approximately one third
ow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already- of modern humans.[22] Tool use remained relatively un-
existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge changed for most of early human history. Approximately
may then be used by engineers to create new tools and 50,000 years ago, the use of tools and complex set of be-
machines such as semiconductors, computers, and other haviors emerged, believed by many archaeologists to be
forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists connected to the emergence of fully modern language.[23]
and engineers may both be considered technologists; the
three elds are often considered as one for the purposes
of research and reference.[17] 3.1.1 Stone tools

The exact relations between science and technology in Hominids started using primitive stone tools millions of
particular have been debated by scientists, historians, and years ago. The earliest stone tools were little more than
policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because a fractured rock, but approximately 75,000 years ago,[24]
the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied pressure aking provided a way to make much ner work.
science. In the immediate wake of World War II, for
example, it was widely considered in the United States
that technology was simply applied science and that to 3.1.2 Fire
fund basic science was to reap technological results in due
time. An articulation of this philosophy could be found Main article: Control of re by early humans
explicitly in Vannevar Bush's treatise on postwar science
4 3 HISTORY

and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to

increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and
broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.[29]

3.1.3 Clothing and shelter

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic

era were clothing and shelter; the adoption of both tech-
nologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to
humanitys progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed,
dwellings became more sophisticated and more elabo-
rate; as early as 380 ka, humans were constructing tempo-
rary wood huts.[30][31] Clothing, adapted from the fur and
hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into
colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa by
200 ka and into other continents such as Eurasia.[32]

Hand axes from the Acheulian period 3.2 Neolithic through classical antiquity
(10 ka 300 CE)

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads,

chisels, and polishing tools

Mans technological ascent began in earnest in what is

known as the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age). The
invention of polished stone axes was a major advance that
allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.
Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to
sedentism allowed simultaneously raising more children,
as infants no longer needed to be carried, as nomadic ones
must. Additionally, children could contribute labor to
the raising of crops more readily than they could to the
A Clovis point, made via pressure aking hunter-gatherer economy.[33][34]
With this increase in population and availability of labor
came an increase in labor specialization.[35] What trig-
The discovery and utilization of re, a simple energy gered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the
source with many profound uses, was a turning point in rst cities, such as Uruk, and the rst civilizations, such
the technological evolution of humankind.[25] The exact as Sumer, is not specically known; however, the emer-
date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt an- gence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and
imal bones at the Cradle of Humankind suggests that the specialized labor, of trade and war amongst adjacent cul-
domestication of re occurred before 1 Ma;[26] scholarly tures, and the need for collective action to overcome en-
consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled re vironmental challenges such as irrigation, are all thought
by between 500 and 400 ka.[27][28] Fire, fueled with wood to have played a role.[36]
3.3 Medieval and modern history (300 CE present) 5

3.2.1 Metal tools According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented

around 4000 BCE probably independently and nearly
Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq),
and provided the ability to smelt and forge native met- the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central
als (naturally occurring in relatively pure form).[37] Gold, Europe.[42] Estimates on when this may have occurred
copper, silver, and lead, were such early metals. The ad- range from 5500 to 3000 BCE with most experts putting
vantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden it closer to 4000 BCE.[43] The oldest artifacts with draw-
tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native ings that depict wheeled carts date from about 3500
copper was probably used from near the beginning of BCE;[44] however, the wheel may have been in use for
Neolithic times (about 10 ka).[38] Native copper does not millennia before these drawings were made. There is
naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite also evidence from the same period for the use of the
common and some of them produce metal easily when potters wheel. More recently, the oldest-known wooden
burned in wood or charcoal res. Eventually, the work- wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of
ing of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze Slovenia.[45]
and brass (about 4000 BCE). The rst uses of iron alloys The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war.
such as steel dates to around 1800 BCE.[39][40] It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could
be used to carry heavy loads. Fast (rotary) potters wheels
enabled early mass production of pottery, but it was the
3.2.2 Energy and transport
use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water
wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolution-
ized the application of nonhuman power sources.

3.3 Medieval and modern history (300 CE

present)

Main articles: Medieval technology, Renaissance

technology, Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial
Revolution, Information Technology, and Productivity
improving technologies (economic history)

Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with in-

novations such as silk, the horse collar and horseshoes in
the rst few hundred years after the fall of the Roman
Empire. Medieval technology saw the use of simple ma-
chines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) be-
ing combined to form more complicated tools, such as
the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks. The Renaissance
brought forth many of these innovations, including the
printing press (which facilitated the greater communica-
The wheel was invented circa 4000 BCE. tion of knowledge), and technology became increasingly
associated with science, beginning a cycle of mutual ad-
Main article: History of transport vancement. The advancements in technology in this era
allowed a more steady supply of food, followed by the
Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms wider availability of consumer goods.
of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the
the sailboat; the earliest record of a ship under sail is Industrial Revolution was a period of great technolog-
that of a Nile boat that dates back to the 8th millen- ical discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture,
nium BCE.[41] From prehistoric times, Egyptians prob- manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, driven
ably used the power of the annual ooding of the Nile to by the discovery of steam power. Technology took an-
irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of other step in a second industrial revolution with the har-
it through purposely built irrigation channels and catch nessing of electricity to create such innovations as the
basins. Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the electric motor, light bulb, and countless others. Scientic
Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers advancement and the discovery of new concepts later al-
for much the same purposes. However, more extensive lowed for powered ight and advancements in medicine,
use of wind and water (and even human) power required chemistry, physics, and engineering. The rise in technol-
another invention. ogy has led to skyscrapers and broad urban areas whose
6 4 PHILOSOPHY

lies on training and education their designers, builders,

maintainers, and users often require sophisticated gen-
eral and specic training. Moreover, these technologies
have become so complex that entire elds have been cre-
ated to support them, including engineering, medicine,
and computer science, and other elds have been made
more complex, such as construction, transportation and
architecture.

4 Philosophy

4.1 Technicism

Generally, technicism is the belief in the utility of tech-

nology for improving human societies.[46] Taken to an ex-
The automobile revolutionized personal transportation. treme, technicism reects a fundamental attitude which
seeks to control reality, to resolve all problems with the
use of scientic-technological methods and tools.[47] In
inhabitants rely on motors to transport them and their
other words, human beings will someday be able to mas-
food supply. Communication was also greatly improved
ter all problems and possibly even control the future using
with the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio and
technology. Some, such as Stephen V. Monsma,[48] con-
television. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw
nect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher
a revolution in transportation with the invention of the
moral authority.
airplane and automobile.

4.2 Optimism

See also: Extropianism

Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ide-

ologies such as transhumanism and singularitarianism,
which view technological development as generally hav-
ing benecial eects for the society and the human con-
dition. In these ideologies, technological development is
morally good.
Transhumanists generally believe that the point of tech-
F-15 and F-16 ying over Kuwaiti oil res during the Gulf War nology is to overcome barriers, and that what we com-
in 1991. monly refer to as the human condition is just another bar-
rier to be surpassed.
The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In
physics, the discovery of nuclear ssion has led to both Singularitarians believe in some sort of "accelerating
nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were change"; that the rate of technological progress accel-
also invented and later miniaturized utilizing transistors erates as we obtain more technology, and that this will
and integrated circuits. Information technology subse- culminate in a "Singularity" after articial general intel-
quently led to the creation of the Internet, which ush- ligence is invented in which progress is nearly innite;
ered in the current Information Age. Humans have also hence the term. Estimates for the date of this Singularity
been able to explore space with satellites (later used for vary,[49] but prominent futurist Ray Kurzweil estimates
telecommunication) and in manned missions going all the the Singularity will occur in 2045.
way to the moon. In medicine, this era brought innova- Kurzweil is also known for his history of the universe
tions such as open-heart surgery and later stem cell ther- in six epochs: (1) the physical/chemical epoch, (2) the
apy along with new medications and treatments. life epoch, (3) the human/brain epoch, (4) the technol-
Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and ogy epoch, (5) the articial intelligence epoch, and (6)
organizations are needed to make and maintain these new the universal colonization epoch. Going from one epoch
technologies, and entire industries have arisen to sup- to the next is a Singularity in its own right, and a period
port and develop succeeding generations of increasingly of speeding up precedes it. Each epoch takes a shorter
more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly re- time, which means the whole history of the universe is
4.4 Appropriate technology 7

one giant Singularity event.[50] ing his soul to the devil in return for power over the phys-
Some critics see these ideologies as examples of scientism ical world is also often interpreted as a metaphor for the
and techno-utopianism and fear the notion of human en- adoption of industrial technology. More recently, mod-
hancement and technological singularity which they sup- ern works of science ction such as those by Philip K.
port. Some have described Karl Marx as a techno- Dick and William Gibson and lms such as Blade Run-
optimist.[51] ner and Ghost in the Shell project highly ambivalent or
cautionary attitudes toward technologys impact on hu-
man society and identity.
4.3 Skepticism and critics The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-
using societies from technological societies and from
See also: Luddite, Neo-Luddism, Anarcho-primitivism, what he called technopolies, societies that are dom-
and Bioconservatism inated by the ideology of technological and scientic
On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural prac-
tices, values and world-views.[55]
Darin Barney has written about technologys impact on
practices of citizenship and democratic culture, suggest-
ing that technology can be construed as (1) an object of
political debate, (2) a means or medium of discussion,
and (3) a setting for democratic deliberation and citizen-
ship. As a setting for democratic culture, Barney suggests
that technology tends to make ethical questions, including
the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impos-
sible, because they already give an answer to the question:
a good life is one that includes the use of more and more
technology.[56]
Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dan-
gers of new technology, such as genetic engineering,
nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and robotics. He
warns that these technologies introduce unprecedented
new challenges to human beings, including the possibil-
Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812
ity of the permanent alteration of our biological nature.
These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scien-
like Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan, who believe that
tists and public intellectuals who have written about sim-
technological societies are inherently awed. They sug-
ilar issues (e.g. Francis Fukuyama, Jrgen Habermas,
gest that the inevitable result of such a society is to be-
William Joy, and Michael Sandel).[57]
come evermore technological at the cost of freedom and
psychological health. Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Drey-
fus, who has published books such as On the Internet and
Many, such as the Luddites and prominent philosopher
What Computers Still Can't Do.
Martin Heidegger, hold serious, although not entirely,
deterministic reservations about technology (see "The A more infamous anti-technological treatise is Industrial
Question Concerning Technology"[52] ). According to Society and Its Future, written by the Unabomber Ted
Heidegger scholars Hubert Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa, Kaczynski and printed in several major newspapers (and
Heidegger does not oppose technology. He hopes to re- later books) as part of an eort to end his bombing cam-
veal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way paign of the techno-industrial infrastructure.
connes us to a stultied compulsion to push on blindly
with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel
helplessly against it.' Indeed, he promises that 'when we 4.4 Appropriate technology
once open ourselves expressly to the essence of technol-
ogy, we nd ourselves unexpectedly taken into a freeing See also: Technocriticism and Technorealism
claim.'[53] What this entails is a more complex relation-
ship to technology than either techno-optimists or techno- The notion of appropriate technology was developed in
pessimists tend to allow.[54] the 20th century by thinkers such as E. F. Schumacher
Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are and Jacques Ellul to describe situations where it was not
found in what are now considered to be dystopian liter- desirable to use very new technologies or those that re-
ary classics such as Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, quired access to some centralized infrastructure or parts
Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Or- or skills imported from elsewhere. The ecovillage move-
well's Nineteen Eighty-Four. In Goethes Faust, Faust sell- ment emerged in part due to this concern.
8 5 COMPETITIVENESS

4.5 Optimism and skepticism in the 21st to Hughes, Technology is a creative process involving
century human ingenuity.[61] This denitions emphasis on cre-
ativity avoids unbounded denitions that may mistakenly
This section mainly focuses on American concerns even if include cooking technologies, but it also highlights the
it can reasonably be generalized to other Western coun- prominent role of humans and therefore their responsibil-
tries. ities for the use of complex technological systems.
Yet, because technology is everywhere and has dramat-
The inadequate quantity and quality of ically changed landscapes and societies, Hughes argues
American jobs is one of the most fundamental that engineers, scientists, and managers have often be-
economic challenges we face. [...] Whats lieved that they can use technology to shape the world
the linkage between technology and this as they want. They have often supposed that technol-
fundamental problem? ogy is easily controllable and this assumption has to be
Bernstein, Jared, Its Not a Skills Gap thoroughly questioned.[60] For instance, Evgeny Morozov
Thats Holding Wages Down: Its the Weak particularly challenges two concepts: Internet-centrism
Economy, Among Other Things, in The and solutionism.[62] Internet-centrism refers to the idea
American Prospect, October 2014 that our society is convinced that the Internet is one of the
most stable and coherent forces. Solutionism is the ideol-
ogy that every social issue can be solved thanks to tech-
In his article, Jared Bernstein, a Senior Fellow at the nology and especially thanks to the internet. In fact, tech-
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities,[58] questions the nology intrinsically contains uncertainties and limitations.
widespread idea that automation, and more broadly, tech- According to Alexis Madrigal's review of Morozovs the-
nological advances, have mainly contributed to this grow- ory, to ignore it will lead to unexpected consequences
ing labor market problem. His thesis appears to be a third that could eventually cause more damage than the prob-
way between optimism and skepticism. Essentially, he lems they seek to address.[63] Benjamin R. Cohen and
stands for a neutral approach of the linkage between tech- Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent eects of
nology and American issues concerning unemployment technology.[64]
and declining wages. Therefore, recognition of the limitations of technology,
He uses two main arguments to defend his point. First, and more broadly, scientic knowledge, is needed es-
because of recent technological advances, an increasing pecially in cases dealing with environmental justice and
number of workers are losing their jobs. Yet, scientic health issues. Ottinger continues this reasoning and ar-
evidence fails to clearly demonstrate that technology has gues that the ongoing recognition of the limitations of
displaced so many workers that it has created more prob- scientic knowledge goes hand in hand with scientists
lems than it has solved. Indeed, automation threatens and engineers new comprehension of their role. Such an
repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary be- approach of technology and science "[require] technical
cause they complement technology and manual jobs that professionals to conceive of their roles in the process dif-
requires exibility judgment and common sense[59] re- ferently. [They have to consider themselves as] collabo-
main hard to replace with machines. Second, studies have rators in research and problem solving rather than simply
not shown clear links between recent technology advances providers of information and technical solutions.[65]
and the wage trends of the last decades.
Therefore, according to Bernstein, instead of focusing
on technology and its hypothetical inuences on cur-
rent American increasing unemployment and declining
wages, one needs to worry more about bad policy that
fails to oset the imbalances in demand, trade, income
and opportunity.[59] 5 Competitiveness

4.6 Complex technological systems Technology is properly dened as any application of sci-
ence to accomplish a function. The science can be lead-
Thomas P. Hughes stated that because technology has ing edge or well established and the function can have
been considered as a key way to solve problems, we need high visibility or be signicantly more mundane, but it is
to be aware of its complex and varied characters to use all technology, and its exploitation is the foundation of all
it more eciently.[60] What is the dierence between a competitive advantage.
wheel or a compass and cooking machines such as an oven Technology-based planning is what was used to build the
or a gas stove? Can we consider all of them, only a part US industrial giants before WWII (e.g., Dow, DuPont,
of them, or none of them as technologies? GM) and it is what was used to transform the US into a
Technology is often considered too narrowly; according superpower. It was not economic-based planning.
 9

5.1 Project Socrates

In 1983 Project Socrates was initiated in the US intel-

ligence community to determine the source of declin-
ing US economic and military competitiveness. Project
Socrates concluded that technology exploitation is the
foundation of all competitive advantage and that declin-
ing US competitiveness was from decision-making in
the private and public sectors switching from technology
exploitation (technology-based planning) to money ex-
ploitation (economic-based planning) at the end of World
War II.
Project Socrates determined that to rebuild US competi- This adult gorilla uses a branch as a walking stick to gauge the
tiveness, decision making throughout the US had to read- waters depth, an example of technology usage by non-human
opt technology-based planning. Project Socrates also de- primates.
termined that countries like China and India had contin-
ued executing technology-based (while the US took its
detour into economic-based) planning, and as a result had ample, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees util-
considerably advanced the process and were using it to ising tools for foraging: some of the tools used include
build themselves into superpowers. To rebuild US com- leaf sponges, termite shing probes, pestles and levers.[74]
petitiveness the US decision-makers needed to adopt a West African chimpanzees also use stone hammers and
form of technology-based planning that was far more ad- anvils for cracking nuts,[75] as do capuchin monkeys of
vanced than that used by China and India. Boa Vista, Brazil.[76]

Project Socrates determined that technology-based plan-

ning makes an evolutionary leap forward every few hun-
dred years and the next evolutionary leap, the Automated
7 Future technology
Innovation Revolution, was poised to occur. In the Au-
tomated Innovation Revolution the process for determin- Main article: Emerging technologies
ing how to acquire and utilize technology for a competi-
tive advantage (which includes R&D) is automated so that
Theories of technology often attempt to predict the future
it can be executed with unprecedented speed, eciencyof technology based on the high technology and science
and agility. of the time. As with all predictions of the future, how-
Project Socrates developed the means for automated ever, technologys is uncertain.
innovation so that the US could lead the Automated Futurist Ray Kurzweil predicts that the future of technol-
Innovation Revolution in order to rebuild and main- ogy will be mainly consist of an overlapping GNR Revo-
tain the countrys economic competitiveness for many lution of Genetics, Nanotechnology, and Robotics, with
generations.[66][67][68] robotics being the most important of the three.[77]

6 Other animal species 8 See also

See also: Tool use by animals, Structures built by ani- Main article: Outline of technology
mals, and Ecosystem engineer
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other an-
imal species apart from humans. These include primates Architectural technology
such as chimpanzees,[69] some dolphin communities,[70]
and crows.[71][72] Considering a more generic perspective Critique of technology
of technology as ethology of active environmental condi-
Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th
tioning and control, we can also refer to animal examples
Century
such as beavers and their dams, or bees and their honey-
combs. History of science and technology
The ability to make and use tools was once considered
Knowledge economy
a dening characteristic of the genus Homo.[73] How-
ever, the discovery of tool construction among chim- Law of the instrument Golden hammer
panzees and related primates has discarded the notion
of the use of technology as unique to humans. For ex- Lewis Mumford
10 9 REFERENCES

List of years in science Energy accounting

Niche construction Nanosocialism
Science and technology in Argentina Post-scarcity economy
Technological convergence Productivity improving technologies (economic his-
Technology and society tory)

Technology assessment Technocracy

Technology tree Technocapitalism

-logy Technological diusion

Superpower Possible factors Technology acceptance model

Technology lifecycle
Theories and concepts in technology
Technology transfer
Appropriate technology
Diusion of innovations Technology journalism

Human enhancement Engadget

Instrumental conception of technology
TechCrunch
Jacques Ellul
The Verge (website)
Paradigm
Wired (magazine)
Philosophy of technology
Posthumanism Other

Precautionary principle STEM elds

Singularitarianism
Strategy of Technology 9 References
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10 Further reading
Ambrose, Stanley H. (2 March 2001).
Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolu-
tion (PDF). Science. Science. 291 (5509):
174853. Bibcode:2001Sci...291.1748A.
doi:10.1126/science.1059487. PMID 11249821.
Retrieved 10 March 2007.
Huesemann, M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011).
Technox: Why Technology Wont Save Us or
the Environment, New Society Publishers, ISBN
0865717044.
Kremer, Michael (1993). Population Growth and
Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990.
Quarterly Journal of Economics. The MIT Press.
108 (3): 681716. doi:10.2307/2118405. JSTOR
2118405..
Kevin Kelly. What Technology Wants. New York,
Viking Press, 14 October 2010, hardcover, 416
pages. ISBN 978-0-670-02215-1
Mumford, Lewis. (2010). Technics and Civilization.
University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226550273.
Rhodes, Richard. (2000). Visions of Technology:
A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems,
and the Human World. Simon & Schuster, ISBN
0684863111.
Teich, A.H. (2008). Technology and the Fu-
ture. Wadsworth Publishing, 11th edition, ISBN
0495570524.
Wright, R.T. (2008). Technology. Goodheart-
Wilcox Company, 5th edition, ISBN 1590707184.
14 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
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Derksen, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ap, Mirwin, Brovnik, XJaM, RAD~enwiki, Aldie, Toby Bartels, William Av-
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Cameron Dewe, Karada, Delirium, Dori, Bon d'une cythare, Tiles, Alo, Kosebamse, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Mac, Docu,
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Carau, Farkle96, Jotterbot, Chinaja, Jscoeld55, Singhalawap, Sublime5891, Aitias, Mattlabarge, PotentialDanger, Bernmarj, Indopug,
Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Devnullvoid, XLinkBot, Pichpich, Nathan Johnson, Wakawaka1, Ash773, Mitch Ames, Kal-El-Bot,
MustafaeneS, MystBot, FireBrandon, Airplaneman, RyanCross, DOI bot, Fyrael, Fgnievinski, Splatterpaintballer, TutterMouse, Kgang-
ster, Babydoll8286, CanadianLinuxUser, Raj4web, Pmp11, The Small Lebowski, Warry21, Ld100, Favonian, Granitethighs, Numbo3-
bot, Norbit22, Lightbot, ImaginaryGnosis, Meisam, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Christopedia, Taxisfolder, KamikazeBot, MrBurns,
11.2 Images 15

AnomieBOT, Stears81, Valueyou, Dwayne, Newsoxy, Materialscientist, Rcombs, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Timir2, Intelati, Grim23,
Locos epraix, Srich32977, Almabot, Crzer07, J04n, GrouchoBot, Nayvik, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Traord09, Jibbideejib-
bish, GliderMaven, Nagualdesign, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Archaeodontosaurus, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Metricmike,
HRoestBot, Joebigwheel, LittleWink, Tom.Reding, MastiBot, Gamewizard71, FoxBot, TobeBot, SchreyP, Histotech, Vrenator, Ansumang,
Aoidh, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, IANVS, Bhawani Gautam, Walkinxyz, Tesseract2, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Wiki-
tanvirBot, Faolin42, Dcirovic, Hhhippo, Caseybutt, AvicAWB, H3llBot, Ocaasi, Mcmatter, Christophe Krief, L Kensington, Hvkhvk, Her-
bert Chang, Colourfully, Chessygo, Aligo2010, Segun awosanya, Zaspino, Rememberway, Michaelmas1957, Astrocog, Floatjon, Singhma-
hendra20, Tideat, Q Ramona, Antiqueight, Raoulis, MerlIwBot, Diyar se, Smmgeek, Helpful Pixie Bot, Faus, Wbm1058, Bibcode
Bot, Nashhinton, BG19bot, Coordinacio.artau, Dinoxxxx, Cadiomals, Page Fold, YVSREDDY, Polmandc, Ferdaw, Bharu12, Kenixkil,
Cwobeel, AndiPersti, MeteMetheus, Reatlas, Lomicmenes, Inniti4, Vedmidiv, Biomedicinal, UWRishi, Peweiss, Praemonitus, Back-
endgaming, Alpha Sigma 111, Thevideodrome, Sebfamo, , Finnusertop, Acalycine, Publiceditz, Symphero, Lakun.patra, Monkbot,
TastierSpeech, Welcome1To1The1Jungle, ChamithN, Editor abcdef, , Queerly Bohemian, Rctillinghast, KasparBot, UtopianGar-
dener, Ermahgerd9, Chenthil Vel, Takemetoapark, Hawkeye75, Reason is Immortal, Aidiknowseverything, Eugene450, Heididoerr061
and Anonymous: 767

11.2 Images
File:Biface_de_St_Acheul_MHNT.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Biface_de_St_Acheul_MHNT.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Didier Descouens, 13 April 2011 Original artist: ?
File:C4004_(Intel).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/C4004_%28Intel%29.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: en.wikipedia.org Original artist: Photo by John Pilge.
File:Chopper_of_Dmanisi.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Chopper_of_Dmanisi.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jos-Manuel Benito
File:Clovis_Point.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Clovis_Point.jpg License: Attribution Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Dampfturbine_Montage01.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.siemens.com/index.jsp?sdc_p=cfi1075924l0mno1130262ps5uz3&sdc_bcpath=
1327899.s_5%2C%3A1176453.s_5%2C&sdc_sid=31880989447& Original artist: Siemens Pressebild
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:FrameBreaking-1812.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/FrameBreaking-1812.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Original unknown, this version from http://www.learnhistory.org.uk/cpp/luddites.htm (archive) Original artist:
Chris Sunde; original uploader was Christopher Sunde at en.wikipedia.
File:Gorilla_tool_use.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Gorilla_tool_use.png License: CC BY 2.5
Contributors: Gorille utilisant un bton pour sonder la profondeur d'un cours d'eau. Original artist: See Source
File:Handtiegelpresse_von_1811.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Handtiegelpresse_von_1811.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Late_model_Ford_Model_T.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Late_model_Ford_Model_T.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Rmhermen
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Nolithique_0001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Telecom-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Vectorized by User:Booyabazooka from original small PD raster image File:Telecom-icon.jpg Original artist: Vectorized by
User:Booyabazooka from original small PD raster image File:Telecom-icon.jpg
File:USAF_F-16A_F-15C_F-15E_Desert_Storm_edit2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/USAF_
F-16A_F-15C_F-15E_Desert_Storm_edit2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source Original artist: US Air Force
File:Wheel_Iran.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Wheel_Iran.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
File:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

11.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0