Biography

For other uses, see Biography (disambiguation). 1.1 Historical biography

Third Volume of a 1727 edition of Plutarch's Lives of the Noble

Greeks and Romans printed by Jacob Tonson

A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of

a persons life. It involves more than just the basic facts Einhard as scribe
like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays
a persons experience of these life events. Unlike a pro- One of the earliest of the biographers was Plutarch,
le or curriculum vitae (rsum), a biography presents a and his Parallel Lives, published about 80 A.D., cov-
ers prominent gures in the classical world. In 44 B.C.,
subjects life story, highlighting various aspects of his or
her life, including intimate details of experience, and mayCornelius Nepos published a biographical work, his Ex-
include an analysis of the subjects personality. cellentium Imperatorum Vitae (Lives of those capable of
commanding).[2] Perhaps the earliest extant biography
Biographical works are usually non-ction, but ction can that does not contain mythological material is The Lives
also be used to portray a persons life. One in-depth form of the Caesars by Suetonius.
of biographical coverage is called legacy writing. Works
in diverse media, from literature to lm, form the genre In the early Middle Ages (AD 400 to 1450), there was
known as biography. a decline in awareness of the classical culture in Europe.
During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and
An authorized biography is written with the permission, records of the early history in Europe were those of the
cooperation, and at times, participation of a subject or a Roman Catholic Church. Hermits, monks, and priests
subjects heirs. An autobiography is written by the per- used this historic period to write biographies. Their
son himself or herself, sometimes with the assistance of subjects were usually restricted to the church fathers,
a collaborator or ghostwriter. martyrs, popes, and saints. Their works were meant to
be inspirational to the people and vehicles for conversion
to Christianity (see Hagiography). One signicant secu-
1 History lar example of a biography from this period is the life of
Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.
At rst, biographical writings were regarded merely as a In Medieval Islamic Civilization (c. AD 750 to 1258),
subsection of history with a focus on a particular individ- similar traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad
ual of historical importance. The independent genre of and other important gures in the early history of Islam
biography as distinct from general history writing, began began to be written, beginning the Prophetic biography
to emerge in the 18th century and reached its contempo- tradition. Early biographical dictionaries were published
rary form at the turn of the 20th century.[1] as compendia of famous Islamic personalities from the

1
2 1 HISTORY

9th century onwards. They contained more social data ing the reign of Henry VIII. John Foxe's Actes and Monu-
for a large segment of the population than other works ments (1563), better known as Foxes Book of Martyrs,
of that period. The earliest biographical dictionaries ini- was essentially the rst dictionary of the biography in
tially focused on the lives of the prophets of Islam and Europe, followed by Thomas Fuller's The History of the
their companions, with one of these early examples being Worthies of England (1662), with a distinct focus on pub-
The Book of The Major Classes by Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi. lic life.
And then began the documentation of the lives of many Inuential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A
other historical gures (from rulers to scholars) who lived General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles John-
in the medieval Islamic world.[3]
son, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-
known pirates.[4]
The American biography followed the English model, in-
corporating Thomas Carlyle's view that biography was a
part of history. Carlyle asserted that the lives of great hu-
man beings were essential to understanding society and its
institutions. While the historical impulse would remain a
strong element in early American biography, American
writers carved out a distinct approach. What emerged
was a rather didactic form of biography, which sought to
shape the individual character of a reader in the process
of dening national character.[5][6]

1.2 Emergence of the genre

John Foxe's The Book of Martyrs, was one of the earliest

English-language biographies.

By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-

oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and
tyrants began to appear. The most famous of such biogra-
phies was Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The
book was an account of the life of the fabled King Arthur
and his Knights of the Round Table. Following Malory,
the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance James Boswell wrote what many consider to be the rst modern
promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson, in 1791.
poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.
The rst modern biography, and a work which exerted
Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (1550) was the land- considerable inuence on the evolution of the genre, was
mark biography focusing on secular lives. Vasari made James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson, a biography
celebrities of his subjects, as the Lives became an early of lexicographer and man-of-letters Samuel Johnson pub-
bestseller. Two other developments are noteworthy: lished in 1791.[7] While Boswells personal acquaintance
the development of the printing press in the 15th century with his subject only began in 1763, when Johnson was
and the gradual increase in literacy. 54 years old, Boswell covered the entirety of Johnsons
Biographies in the English language began appearing dur- life by means of additional research. Itself an important
1.3 Modern biography 3

stage in the development of the modern genre of biogra-

phy, it has been claimed to be the greatest biography writ-
ten in the English language. Boswells work was unique in
its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-
witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive
narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of John-
sons life and character - a formula which serves as the
basis of biographical literature to this day.[8]
Biographical writing generally stagnated during the 19th
century - in many cases there was a reversal to the more
familiar hagiographical method of eulogizing the dead,
similar to the biographies of saints produced in Medieval
times. A distinction between mass biography and literary
biography began to form by the middle of the century,
reecting a breach between high culture and middle-class
culture. However, the number of biographies in print ex-
perienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading
public. This revolution in publishing made books avail-
able to a larger audience of readers. In addition, aord-
able paperback editions of popular biographies were pub-
lished for the rst time. Periodicals began publishing a
sequence of biographical sketches.[5]
Autobiographies became more popular, as with the rise
of education and cheap printing, modern concepts of
fame and celebrity began to develop. Autobiographies
were written by authors, such as Charles Dickens (who in-
corporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and
Anthony Trollope, (his Autobiography appeared posthu-
mously, quickly becoming a bestseller in London[9] ), Eminent Victorians set the standard for 20th century biograph-
philosophers, such as John Stuart Mill, churchmen John ical writing, when it was published in 1918.
Henry Newman and entertainers P. T. Barnum.

gale, Thomas Arnold, and General Gordon.[10] Strachey

1.3 Modern biography set out to breathe life into the Victorian era for future gen-
erations to read. Up until this point, as Strachey remarked
The sciences of psychology and sociology were ascen- in the preface, Victorian biographies had been as famil-
dant at the turn of the 20th century and would heavily iar as the cortge of the undertaker, and wore the same
inuence the new centurys biographies.[6] The demise of air of slow, funereal barbarism. Strachey deed the tra-
the great man theory of history was indicative of the dition of two fat volumes....of undigested masses of ma-
emerging mindset. Human behavior would be explained terial and took aim at the four iconic gures. His narra-
through Darwinian theories. Sociological biographies tive demolished the myths that had built up around these
conceived of their subjects actions as the result of the cherished national heroes, whom he regarded as no bet-
environment, and tended to downplay individuality. The ter than a set of mouth bungled hypocrites. The book
development of psychoanalysis led to a more penetrat- achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty
ing and comprehensive understanding of the biographical style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its
subject, and induced biographers to give more emphasis artistic prose.[11]
to childhood and adolescence. Clearly these psycholog- In the 1920s and '30s, biographical writers sought to
ical ideas were changing the way biographies were writ- capitalize on Stracheys popularity by imitating his style.
ten, as a culture of autobiography developed, in which This new school featured iconoclasts, scientic analysts,
the telling of ones own story became a form of therapy.[5] and ctional biographers and included Gamaliel Brad-
The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of suc- ford, Andr Maurois, and Emil Ludwig, among others.
cess disappeared in the obsession with psychological ex- Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those
plorations of personality. following Stracheys model of debunking biographies.
British critic Lytton Strachey revolutionized the art of bi- The trend in literary biography was accompanied in pop-
ographical writing with his 1918 work Eminent Victori- ular biography by a sort of celebrity voyeurism, in the
ans, consisting of biographies of four leading gures from early decades of the century. This latter forms appeal to
the Victorian era: Cardinal Manning, Florence Nightin- readers was based on curiosity more than morality or pa-
4 4 REFERENCES

triotism. By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had 1.5 Biographical research
become popular. The decades of the 1920s witnessed a
biographical boom. Biographical research is dened by Miller as a research
method that collects and analyses a persons whole life,
The feminist scholar Carolyn Heilbrun observed that
or portion of a life, through the in-depth and unstructured
womens biographies and autobiographies began to
interview, or sometimes reinforced by semi-structured in-
change character during the second wave of feminist ac-
terview or personal documents.[17] It is a way of viewing
tivism. She cited Nancy Milfords 1970 biography Zelda,
social life in procedural terms, rather than static terms.
as the beginning of a new period of womens biography,
The information can come from oral history, personal
because "[only] in 1970 were we ready to read not that
narrative, biography and autobiography or diaries, let-
Zelda had destroyed Fitzgerald, but Fitzgerald her: he had
ters, memoranda and other materials.[18] The central aim
usurped her narrative. Heilbrun named 1973 as the turn-
of biographical research is producing rich descriptions
ing point in womens autobiography, with the publication
of persons or conceptualise structural types of actions
of May Sartons Journal of a Solitude, for that was the rst
which means to understand the action logics or how per-
instance where a woman told her life story, not as nding
sons and structures are interlinked.[19] And this method
beauty even in pain and transforming rage into spiri-
can be used to understand an individuals life within its
tual acceptance, but acknowledging what had previously
social context or understand the cultural phenomena.
been forbidden to women: their pain, their rage, and their
open admission of the desire for power and control over
ones life.[12]
2 Book awards
Several countries oer an annual prize for writing a biog-
raphy such as the:

Drainie-Taylor Biography Prize Canada

1.4 Recent years National Biography Award Australia
Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography
In recent years, multimedia biography has become more United States
popular than traditional literary forms. Along with docu-
mentary biographical lms, Hollywood produced numer- Whitbread Prize for Best Biography United King-
ous commercial lms based on the lives of famous peo- dom
ple. The popularity of these forms of biography have led J. R. Ackerley Prize for Autobiography United
to the proliferation of TV channels dedicated to biogra- Kingdom
phy, including A&E, The Biography Channel, and The
History Channel. Prix Goncourt de la Biographie France.
CD-ROM and online biographies have also appeared.
Unlike books and lms, they often do not tell a chronolog-
ical narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete 3 See also
media elements related to an individual person, including
video clips, photographs, and text articles. Biography- Legal biography
Portraits were created in 2001, by the German artist
Ralph Ueltzhoeer. Media scholar Lev Manovich says Psychobiography
that such archives exemplify the database form, allowing
users to navigate the materials in many ways.[13] Gen-
eral life writing techniques are a subject of scholarly 4 References
study.[14]
In recent years, debates have arisen as to whether all bi- 4.1 Citations
ographies are ction, especially when authors are writing
about gures from the past. President of Wolfson Col- [1] Kendall.
lege at Oxford University, Hermione Lee argues that all [2] Rines 1918, p. 719.
history is seen through a perspective that is the product
of our contemporary society and as a result biographical [3] Nawas 2006, p. 110.
truths are constantly shifting. So the history biographers [4] A General History of the Robberies & Murders of the
write about will not be the way that it happened; it will be most Notorious Pirates, by Charles Johnson. Introduction
the way they remembered it.[15] Debates have also arisen and commentary by David Cordingly. Conway Maritime
concerning the importance of space in life-writing.[16] Press (2002).
4.2 Sources 5

[5] Casper 1999. Manovich, Lev (2001). The Language of New Me-
dia. Leonardo Book Series. Cambridge, Mas-
[6] Stone 1982. sachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-63255-3.
[7] Butler, Paul (19 April 2012). James Boswells 'Life of Miller, Robert L. (2003). Biographical Method.
Johnson': The First Modern Biography. University of
In Miller, Robert L.; Brewer, John D. The AZ of
Mary Washington Libraries. Archived from the original
Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science
on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
Research Concepts. London: Sage Publications. pp.
[8] Brocklehurst, Steven (16 May 2013). James Boswell: 1517. ISBN 978-0-7619-7133-7.
The Man who Re-Invented Biography. BBC News. Re-
trieved 1 February 2016. Nawas, John A. (2006). Biography and Biograph-
ical Works. In Meri, Josef W. Medieval Islamic
[9] Literary Gossip. The Week. Toronto. 1 (1): 13. 6 De- Civilization: An Encyclopedia. 1. New York: Rout-
cember 1883. Retrieved 1 February 2016. ledge. pp. 110112. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7.
[10] Levy, Paul (20 July 2002). A String Quartet in Four Regard, Frdric, ed. (2003). Mapping the Self:
Movements. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 1 Febru- Space, Identity, Discourse in British Auto/Biography.
ary 2016. Saint-tienne, France: Publications de l'Universit
de Saint-tienne. ISBN 978-2-86272269-6.
[11] Jones, Malcolm (28 October 2009). Boswell, Johnson, &
the Birth of Modern Biography. Newsweek. New York. Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1918). "Biography".
ISSN 0028-9604. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
Encyclopedia Americana. 3. pp. 718719.
[12] Heilbrun 1988, pp. 12, 13. Roberts, Brian (2002). Biographical Research. Un-
[13] Manovich 2001, p. 220. derstanding Social Research. Buckingham, Eng-
land: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-
[14] Hughes 2009, p. 159. 20287-4.

[15] Frears, Stephen; Derham, Katie; Lee, Hermione; Monk, Stone, Albert E. (1982). Autobiographical Occa-
Ray. The Art of Life: Are Biographies Fiction?. Institute sions and Original Acts: Versions of American Iden-
of Arts and Ideas. Retrieved 1 February 2016. tity from Henry Adams to Nate Shaw. Philadel-
phia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-
[16] Regard 2003.
0-8122-7845-3.
[17] Miller 2003, p. 15.
Zinn, Jens O. (2004). Introduction to Biographi-
[18] Roberts 2002. cal Research (Working paper 2004/4). Canterbury,
England: Social Contexts and Responses to Risk
[19] Zinn 2004, p. 3. Network, University of Kent.

4.2 Sources
Casper, Scott E. (1999). Constructing American
Lives: Biography and Culture in Nineteenth-Century
America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4765-7.

Heilbrun, Carolyn G. (1988). Writing a Womans

Life. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-
02601-6.

Hughes, Kathryn (2009). Review of Teaching Life

Writing Texts, ed. Miriam Fuchs and Craig Howes
(PDF). Journal of Historical Biography. 5: 159
163. ISSN 1911-8538. Retrieved 1 February 2016.

Kendall, Paul Murray. Biography. Encyclopdia

Britannica. (subscription required (help)).

Lee, Hermione (2009). Biography: A Very Short

Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-953354-1.
6 5 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

5.1 Text
Biography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography?oldid=764829083 Contributors: Ap, Andre Engels, Christian List, Deb, Mjb,
JakeVortex, Sam Francis, Ixfd64, Zanimum, Minesweeper, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Docu, Jll, Samw, BRG, Dcoetzee, Itai, Chl,
Secretlondon, Riddley, Robbot, RedWolf, Altenmann, Yosri, Fosterd2, Ojigiri~enwiki, Lupin, Muke, Everyking, Yekrats, Mboverload,
Gadum, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Phe, MistToys, Scottperry, Mamizou, PDH, Jossi, Americamba, Gerald Farinas, MakeRocketGoNow,
Hillel, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Paula Me, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Nep, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Rich Farm-
brough, Guanabot, John FitzGerald, Cnyborg, YUL89YYZ, Halfacat, Ivan Bajlo, Mani1, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Robert P. O'Shea, Joan-
joc~enwiki, Hayabusa future, Shanes, Rimshot, JRM, Bobo192, 23skidoo, Smalljim, Flxmghvgvk, Shenme, R. S. Shaw, Richi, Tomgally,
HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, SnowFire, Borisblue, Andrewpmk, Ricky81682, Burn, Lee S. Svo-
boda, Wtmitchell, Txn, Yuckfoo, Harej, TenOfAllTrades, AN(Ger), Kusma, Netkinetic, Ceyockey, Brookie, Michael Gbler, Feezo,
Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Camw, Mazca, WadeSimMiser, Exxolon, MrDarcy, Cryp-
toStorm, Wikiklrsc, I64s, HappyApple, Sengkang, D0t, Doric Loon, DESiegel, Stefanomione, PeregrineAY, Ted Wilkes, FreplySpang,
, Moviedream, KasTeT, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Bubuka, , Commander, Quiddity, Josiah Rowe, Bruce1ee, Vegaswikian,
Tomtheman5, The wub, Bhadani, DoubleBlue, GregAsche, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Crazycomputers, Gurch, TeaDrinker, Alphachimp,
Chobot, Metropolitan90, Banaticus, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sceptre, Huw Powell, JarrahTree, Literaryfairy, DanMS,
MrCheshire, Morphh, EngineerScotty, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, RattleMan, 1freethinker, Silver149, Irishguy, Jpbowen, Danlaycock, Zwobot,
Syrthiss, JHCaueld, Zirland, Samir, Addps4cat, Jakking, Haemo, Jusyc, Tetracube, AnnaKucsma, Zzuuzz, Dwhardee, Nikkimaria, E
Wing, JoanneB, Fram, Kennylucius, Allens, DVD R W, Luk, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Looper5920, Moeron, Prodego, Knowl-
edgeOfSelf, Unyoyega, C.Fred, AndyZ, Blue520, Bomac, Jacek Kendysz, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Onebravemonkey, HalfShadow,
Yopie, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Betacommand, Skizzik, Rmosler2100, Chris the speller, Philosopher, Fplay, Sadads, Ikiroid, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Addshore, Flubbit, RedHillian, Flyguy649, Nakon, Savidan, Valenciano, Nessup, DMacks,
Barry m, Nishkid64, Acris Bibliophile, Kuru, John, Gobonobo, Draconins, Soumyasch, Hemmingsen, NongBot~enwiki, 16@r, Stwalk-
erster, Ardnivar, Neddyseagoon, Matatigre36, RichardF, Cusoon959, DabMachine, Ginkgo100, Kalas Grengar, Iridescent, Marcngin,
Wjejskenewr, Asevich~enwiki, The bilbo, Tawkerbot2, LessHeard vanU, JForget, CmdrObot, Woudloper, THF, Shandris, Lazulilasher,
Moreschi, AndrewHowse, Jac16888, Cydebot, Cahk, Aristophanes68, Gogo Dodo, Anonymi, Flowerpotman, Vezhlys, HitroMilanese,
Christian75, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, FastLizard4, Nol888, JohnInDC, Thijs!bot, Gurl4words, Epbr123, Knakts, Yukichigai, Mojo Hand,
Oliver202, Marek69, Moulder, John254, RickinBaltimore, Sinn, Porthos3, Eleuther, Mentisto, Cyclonenim, AntiVandalBot, Chaleyer61,
Luna Santin, RogueNinja, Silver seren, Ienthekorean, Myanw, Ajitsen, Jahanzeb01, Mkhadem61, Leuko, The Transhumanist, Nthep,
Arachnocapitalist, Wlmh65, Robin Goodfellow, Andonic, Dcooper, Usernames, Doctorhawkes, Yahel Guhan, Marginalia, Bongwar-
rior, VoABot II, Chevinki, JamesBWatson, Think outside the box, Ling.Nut, Animum, Cgingold, Chemical Engineer, Bevo873, Fang
23, Vssun, DerHexer, Hbent, Calltech, ClubOranje, Hdt83, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, Mschel, Kostisl, R'n'B,
Ombudswiki, Adenike, Yas, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Piercetheorganist, BryghtShadow, Eliz81, Xamar, Geonarva, Icseatur-
tles, Wandering Ghost, Kizworth, Floateruss, Free Bird 26, Marrilpet, Biglovinb, Jamesontai, 50abr, Bonadea, CardinalDan, RJASE1,
Wikieditor06, ABF, DarkArcher, Gpohara, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Zidonuke, Vipinhari, Technopat, Mamadekamara,
Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Rico305, Qxz, Someguy1221, Melsaran, DennyColt, Martin451, Slysplace, Jackfork, Mannafredo, R.
C. Watson, Jr., Ilyushka88, Suraj Rana, NodnarbLlad, Kerikane, Enigmaman, Karlheinz.agsteiner, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Turgan, Sylent,
Kesmekes~enwiki, Insanity Incarnate, Flatboy14, Onceonthisisland, AlleborgoBot, Munci, FlyingLeopard2014, EmxBot, Al.Glitch, The-
HoosierState89, Redona99, Solehbro, SieBot, John.n-irl, Sassy Joanna, Dawn Bard, Rameshwar M Paswan, Nite-Sirk, Flyer22 Reborn,
Tiptoety, Radon210, Qst, Knicka, Byrialbot, Lightmouse, Hobartimus, Manway, Sokoldomniku, Quisquillian, BenoniBot~enwiki, Heather-
ReMix, Ilovejakeybo, N96, Dweeks09, Mygerardromance, Grizleonmar, Ascidian, Illinois2011, Pianette7, Mx. Granger, ClueBot, LAX,
Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, MIDI, Shir-El too, Supertouch, Drmies, Axe27, Kush2, Uncle Milty, CounterVandalism-
Bot, Accordion Noir, Basketball17, Southnepara07, Carlos2005, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Joeyfjj, Anonymous101, Dcd139, Estirabot,
Lartoven, Cenarium, Iohannes Animosus, Razorame, Fattyjwoods, Elizium23, Noxia, CoreyBlake9000, Joeawfjdls453, Thingg, Aitias,
Versus22, Jmanigold, XLinkBot, Meenarasa, Rror, Prayer for the wild at heart, Deathfalls, OpuNAsir, Xxfartnokkerxx, Airplaneman, That-
guyint, Chantal4you, Addbot, Willking1979, Pressbox1, Guoguo12, DougsTech, Taylor1215, Fluernutter, Gingerpuebes, NjardarBot,
Cst17, MrOllie, Shaker is icey, Glass Sword, Chzz, Debresser, Themummy20032003, Peridon, Evansodogwu, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Krano,
Neurovelho, MuZemike, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Block Bang Gang, Julia W, AmeliorationBot, Carla sakkab,
IW.HG, AnomieBOT, Quangbao, 1exec1, Jim1138, IRP, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Promd33, Kalamkaar, James500,
Fezlets, Bob Burkhardt, Swagger125, Xqbot, NelsonHouseBaldEagle, Sionus, Urmom978642, JimVC3, Nasnema, Frankuwakwe, Jmundo,
Rp2161, Turk olan, Gap9551, Mathewsuriyan, J04n, Omnipaedista, SuzanneZacharia, Amaury, Dr Michael Bruce-de-Rouche, N419BH,
Info music38, Captain-n00dle, K2 Aldair Filja, FrescoBot, Spamspam95, Tobby72, Wikipe-tan, JoshuaSlanders, Haeinous, HJ Mitchell,
Kloratshit, Dculanag, Boxplot, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, DefaultsortBot, Luke.williams89, Kathy kubik, Calmer Waters, Shreedhar1985,
Chachita1, Rayyward, Reconsider the static, Ellius vonn, SaginawG, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Climax Video Productions, FFM784, Edi-
valdo Santos, Lotje, Vrenator, Vancouver Outlaw, Carlccasanova, Georgeberidze, January, Dtruong4, Alan.woodward, Tbhotch, Putnamk,
Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Rkkceo, Ulbrichdj, Mean as custard, Labombarde, Hadaa Sendoo, TjBot, Bento00, Helmoony, Vertexone,
DRAGON BOOSTER, Dr gaber, Wintonian, Jafartke, DASHBot, Preppy boi93, EmausBot, Acather96, JayCoop, Immunize, Never give in,
Ggggguuuuuuus, Dewritech, RA0808, Surdofox, RenamedUser01302013, Chazz1295, DireAussie, Illogicalpie, Mad women40, Outriggr,
Wikipelli, K6ka, Mz7, HiW-Bot, PBS-AWB, LeslieBerryGranada, Shuipzv3, Kebenei, ElationAviation, Empty Buer, HugoLoris, Alpha
Quadrant (alt), Bamyers99, Stephenca, MoochieKodak, EWikist, Rameshkumar.chegondi143, GrindtXX, Makecat, Wayne Slam, Snaevar,
Divrajsingh, Thine Antique Pen, Isarra, TheSoftwareManiac, Chaudire, Nu Jerzey Hitman, L Kensington, Noodleki, Donner60, Bonnie
Montgomery, Lefthanbassman, Thunderzky, Sailsbystars, Chewings72, Prim.Dr.DurmishCelina, Clementina, Oskhiurach, Wakebrdkid,
GrayFullbuster, Voiceofadman, Littlesh597, Rocketrod1960, Dannyk4, ClueBot NG, NYaneGyllenkhairalebajoa, Peter James, Gabriel
Homem, Nitinsingh82, Satellizer, Aftab ahmad Lyricist, Evans Ochieng, Baseball Watcher, EbzScrooge, ScreamingEmu, TruPepitoM,
Sporty82799, Cntras, Mattaulis, Mileybookcyrus, O.Koslowski, Ara sassoonian, Widr, Albahiphop, LAURENA.O.DAVIS, Chan84, Bi-
ographic, Jass Kalkat, Helpful Pixie Bot, Charlesjshields, HMSSolent, Vikasdrockstar, Forceamongevil, Johncabingan, Kinaro, Sport-
spsych, Mergimrama1995, BG19bot, Mithoshetty, Arnavchaudhary, TCN7JM, Sunkhan, The Mark of the Beast, Northamerica1000, Lok-
endrabhatt, Hasonraja1854, Graham11, Imaginations80, MusikAnimal, Donell50, AvocatoBot, Vincent Liu, Emadix, Harilanto, Filmwrite,
Snow Blizzard, Pendright, J.singh.Jitz, Sportstrainer1, Kalilgyn, Ashok a kumar, Ramara321, Marlodamartian, Deutchegroup, Geniuus,
Klilidiplomus, Achowat, Conifer, Wannabemodel, Chip123456, Samein50, He to Hecuba, Pratyya Ghosh, MegaShigger, Jerrywayneshirley,
Cyberbot II, Mps product, Nasirferoz, Accleary5, Segun oseni, Freelance International, Mayar harsh, Charles098, Kary Arora, Punkarabia,
5.2 Images 7

Victoriaaardhav, Newsoundsupdates, FoCuSandLeArN, Mogism, Danny saand, Kikisire, Asarewilliam, Sars77, JiesaG, Samsam2211,
Lugia2453, Nathanmagarsa, Frosty, Sriharsh1234, Dakingstar, Ajboss, Khusheeraj, Athomeinkobe, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Brenzii, Ruwanrmrk,
Xcasieexlynnx, Nikhil.P.A, Ajayjha01, JaveedAhmedMD, Juliver Tomas, Mario cehic, Asha negi, Amirparvez, Abditah Ahmed Haabiil,
Tentinator, Sanjaysingh2006, Universalsunrise, Hoppeduppeanut, Legeneral kstor, Rusty1995, Raicarlosdurans, Eronahmay, YOUNG
CIABU, NottNott, Babaspain, PapiDimmi, Sureshsayz, Smirtaza, Leakswitch, Taimur Shahid, Ezequiel Montalt, Felixnari, Jiyaji, Pisher
Fighter, Mediator ram, Erochukwu, AahaanAgarwal, Kidum Kibido, Michael Johnson 2k, Quetzalayotl, ASGHAR RAZA RUDRA-
PUR, RJ Rakesh Kaintura, Datkindtin, Prateek3492, Chrondle, Mathilda Legitimus-Schleicher, Aparna.devikmind, Everton Oral Smith,
Ykkothari, Mr. Smart LION, Monkbot, PeterDuro, Ckrug10, Fric2014, Abusz, Samuel.otobotekere, Kksinghm, JoeHebda, Jayprakash
Patel, Umkan, Deepali banerjee, Obial ali, TerryAlex, Texas tee, Adam global1, HMSLavender, Jmebrown101, , KBH96,
Soumia Das ( SANAYA ), Lawrencek017, KeveromarioWorld, Littleauthor84, Ms.Talent, Azadalam64, Dhinzstar, Eurodyne, CAH-phd
in MI, John bodi, Ojnax, Abdullahi Abdulkader, Pierre Claver Nyandwi Uzarukira, Jessica lovemehh12345, Hg76b, Likeface123, Richard-
pratamaanugrah, Icestar890401, Dedonex, Bobthebuilder76830, Sudhir kumar chauhan, Princealsina17, Chamilainfo, Barniecadd, Nation
Brothers, Kalawatkl, Rajansrivadtava85, Stefanie K Barboza, HImanshu257, AbdulGhaarKhanNiazi, Mckenzierae0515, Showkat Ah-
mad Beigh, KasparBot, Koneru.sreedhar, Estefayo do Swegg, Firoz5674, Adam9007, JJMC89, Bejoy p mukkathu, Ergo Sum, Kenneth
Dave Paraan, Ajaking2019, AK Mishra Art of Success, SK ABAIDULLA, Freddy kabuya, KINchan, CAPTAIN RAJU, ShAdoW jhb,
Keborshalom666, MoeXin A Life Inspiration, Philipex Olatunde, Jlawrence12, Lass0092000, Kingshuk.H.Pathak, Varunshar, Singers56,
Tony Lyas, Dick705, Geo thomas 26, Simplexity22, Johkalec, Sourabh Shah, ALI ikram445, Syedumairzameer, Im minhaz, Qzd, Spol-
glans, Iamsuper tee, Ar hazarvi, Alenoy, Lykins14, Bethchaka, Majid Emmason, ADians7, Youlton, BigPapa69696969696969, Mari-
anna251, HORLARMIEDEY, Nino.palezos, JordanLykins, Ybiola, SkyWarrior, Sudhamoy Bhattacharjee, Mharapara, Bappa hasan, Md-
Shahiduzzaman1996, Bhim Singh Rawat, RunnyAmiga, OromianMedian, MordeKyle, Sandipkaleyin1, Rabbit j Dollars, Maestrosmii,
Prajapati.1995, MoneyBagEddy, Geo377, Vincentclark001, Sainath12345, Osmanmisri, BAPI 1972, Josefarmerio1, Vikas569, Roxdip
roy, Bender the Bot, Amar malipeddi, Triptothecottage, TDStrange, Miner Master PVP, RABIULSK, Mohit Panwar, Lilfazer2, Sulaiman
Ali Talba, Jacobbix and Anonymous: 690

5.2 Images
File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/105859/booksajsvg-aj-ashton-01 Original artist: AJ on openclipart.org
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
File:Einhard.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Einhard.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Eminent_Victorians_title_page.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Eminent_Victorians_title_
page.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: Frontispiece of Eminent Victorians, published by Chatto & Windus
Immediate source: https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6610838M/Eminent_Victorians Original artist: Chatto & Windus
(Life time: NA)
File:Foxe{}s_Book_of_Martyrs_-_Frontispiece_(1761).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Foxe%
27s_Book_of_Martyrs_-_Frontispiece_%281761%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Foxes Book of Martyrs (16th Century
woodcut) Original artist: John Foxe
File:James_Boswell_of_Auchinleck.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/James_Boswell_of_
Auchinleck.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/use-this-image.php?mkey=mw00687
Original artist: Joshua Reynolds
File:P_vip.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_the_Third_1727.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Plutarchs_Lives_Vol_
the_Third_1727.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Private Collection of S. Whitehead Original artist: Plutarch, M. Dacier, Jacob
Tonson, et al.
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)
File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester

5.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0