About sewage treatment

plant
Origins of sewage
Sewage is created by residences,
institutions, and commercial and industrial
establishments. Raw influent (sewage)
includes household waste liquid from toilets,
baths, showers, kitchens, sinks, and so forth
that is disposed of via sewers. In many
areas, sewage also includes liquid waste
from industry and commerce. The separation
and draining of household waste into
greywater and blackwater is becoming more
common in the developed world, with
greywater being permitted to be used for
watering plants or recycled for flushing
toilets. A lot of sewage also includes some
surface water from roofs or hard-standing
areas. Municipal wastewater therefore
includes residential, commercial, and
industrial liquid waste discharges, and may
include stormwater runoff. Sewage systems
capable of handling stormwater are known
as combined systems or combined sewers.
Such systems are usually avoided since they
complicate and thereby reduce the efficiency
of sewage treatment plants owing to their
seasonality. The variability in flow also
leads to often larger than necessary, and
subsequently more expensive, treatment
facilities. In addition, heavy storms that
contribute more flows than the treatment
plant can handle may overwhelm the sewage
treatment system, causing a spill or
overflow. It is preferable to have a separate
storm drain system for stormwater in areas
that are developed with sewer systems.
As rainfall runs over the surface of roofs and
the ground, it may pick up various
contaminants including soil particles and
other sediment, heavy metals, organic
compounds, animal waste, and oil and
grease. Some jurisdictions require
stormwater to receive some level of
treatment before being discharged directly
into waterways. Examples of treatment
processes used for stormwater include
sedimentation basins, wetlands, buried
concrete vaults with various kinds of filters,
and vortex separators (to remove coarse
solids).

Process overview
Sewage can be treated close to where it is
created (in septic tanks, biofilters or aerobic
treatment systems), or collected and
transported via a network of pipes and pump
stations to a municipal treatment plant (see
sewerage and pipes and infrastructure).
Sewage collection and treatment is typically
subject to local, state and federal regulations
and standards. Industrial sources of
wastewater often require specialized
treatment processes (see Industrial
wastewater treatment).
Conventional sewage treatment may involve
three stages, called primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment. Primary treatment
consists of temporarily holding the sewage
in a quiescent basin where heavy solids can
settle to the bottom while oil, grease and
lighter solids float to the surface. The settled
and floating materials are removed and the
remaining liquid may be discharged or
subjected to secondary treatment. Secondary
treatment removes dissolved and suspended
biological matter. Secondary treatment is
typically performed by indigenous, water-
borne micro-organisms in a managed habitat.
Secondary treatment may require
a separation process to remove the micro-
organisms from the treated water prior to
discharge or tertiary treatment. Tertiary
treatment is sometimes defined as anything
more than primary and secondary treatment.
Treated water is sometimes disinfected
chemically or physically (for example by
lagoons and microfiltration) prior to
discharge into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or
wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation
of a golf course, green way or park. If it is
sufficiently clean, it can also be used for
groundwater recharge or agricultural
purposes.Process Flow Diagram for a
typical large scale treatment plant

Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment removes materials that can be
easily collected from the raw wastewater
before they damage or clog the pumps and
skimmers of primary treatment clarifiers
(trash, tree limbs, leaves, etc).

Screening
The influent sewage water is strained to
remove all large objects carried in the
sewage stream. This is most commonly done
with an automated mechanically raked bar
screen in modern plants serving large
populations, whilst in smaller or less modern
plants a manually cleaned screen may be
used. The raking action of a mechanical bar
screen is typically paced according to the
accumulation on the bar screens and/or flow
rate. The solids are collected and later
disposed in a landfill or incinerated.
Grit removal
Pre-treatment may include a sand or grit
channel or chamber where the velocity of
the incoming wastewater is carefully
controlled to allow sand, grit and stones to
settle.

An empty sedimentation tank at the

treatment plant in Merchtem, Belgium.
Primary treatment
In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage
flows through large tanks, commonly called
"primary clarifiers" or "primary
sedimentation tanks". The tanks are large
enough that sludge can settle and floating
material such as grease and oils can rise to
the surface and be skimmed off. The main
purpose of the primary sedimentation stage
is to produce both a generally homogeneous
liquid capable of being treated biologically
and a sludge that can be separately treated or
processed. Primary settling tanks are usually
equipped with mechanically driven scrapers
that continually drive the collected sludge
towards a hopper in the base of the tank
from where it can be pumped to further
sludge treatment stages. Grease and oil from
the floating material can sometimes be
recovered for saponification.
Secondary treatment
Secondary treatment is designed to
substantially degrade the biological content
of the sewage which are derived from
human waste, food waste, soaps and
detergent. The majority of municipal plants
treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic
biological processes. For this to be effective,
the biota require both oxygen and a substrate
on which to live. There are a number of
ways in which this is done. In all these
methods, the bacteria and protozoa consume
biodegradable soluble organic contaminants
(e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon
molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less
soluble fractions into floc. Secondary
treatment systems are classified as
• fixed-film or
• suspended-growth.
Fixed-film OR attached growth system
treatment process including trickling filter
and rotating biological contactors where the
biomass grows on media and the sewage
passes over its surface.In suspended-
growth systems, such as activated sludge,
the biomass is well mixed with the sewage
and can be operated in a smaller space than
fixed-film systems that treat the same
amount of water. However, fixed-film
systems are more able to cope with drastic
changes in the amount of biological material
and can provide higher removal rates for
organic material and suspended solids than
suspended growth systems.Roughing filters
are intended to treat particularly strong or
variable organic loads, typically industrial,
to allow them to then be treated by
conventional secondary treatment processes.
Characteristics include typically tall, circular
filters filled with open synthetic filter media
to which wastewater is applied at a
relatively high rate. They are designed to
allow high hydraulic loading and a high
flow-through of air. On larger installations,
air is forced through the media using
blowers. The resultant wastewater is usually
within the normal range for conventional
treatment processes.A generalized,
schematic diagram of an activated sludge
process.

Activated sludge
In general, activated sludge plants
encompass a variety of mechanisms and
processes that use dissolved oxygen to
promote the growth of biological floc that
substantially removes organic material.
The process traps particulate material and
can, under ideal conditions, convert
ammonia to nitrite and nitrate and ultimately
to nitrogen gas, (see also denitrification).

Surface-aerated basins
A Typical Surface-Aerated Basin (using
motor-driven floating aerators)
Most biological oxidation processes for
treating industrial wastewaters have in
common the use of oxygen (or air) and
microbial action. Surface-aerated basins
achieve 80 to 90% removal of Biochemical
Oxygen Demand with retention times of 1 to
10 days.[2] The basins may range in depth
from 1.5 to 5.0 metres and use motor-driven
aerators floating on the surface of the
wastewater.[2]
In an aerated basin system, the aerators
provide two functions: they transfer air into
the basins required by the biological
oxidation reactions, and they provide the
mixing required for dispersing the air and
for contacting the reactants (that is, oxygen,
wastewater and microbes). Typically, the
floating surface aerators are rated to deliver
the amount of air equivalent to 1.8 to 2.7 kg
O2/kW·h. However, they do not provide as
good mixing as is normally achieved in
activated sludge systems and therefore
aerated basins do not achieve the same
performance level as activated sludge units.
[2]

Biological oxidation processes are sensitive

to temperature and, between 0 °C and 40 °C,
the rate of biological reactions increase with
temperature. Most surface aerated vessels
operate at between 4 °C and 32 °C.[2]
Filter beds (oxidizing beds)
Main article: Trickling filter
In older plants and plants receiving more
variable loads, trickling filter beds are used
where the settled sewage liquor is spread
onto the surface of a deep bed made up of
coke (carbonized coal), limestone chips or
specially fabricated plastic media. Such
media must have high surface areas to
support the biofilms that form. The liquor is
distributed through perforated rotating arms
radiating from a central pivot. The
distributed liquor trickles through this bed
and is collected in drains at the base. These
drains also provide a source of air which
percolates up through the bed, keeping it
aerobic. Biological films of bacteria,
protozoa and fungi form on the media’s
surfaces and eat or otherwise reduce the
organic content. This biofilm is grazed by
insect larvae and worms which help
maintain an optimal thickness. Overloading
of beds increases the thickness of the film
leading to clogging of the filter media and
ponding on the surface.
Biological aerated filters
Biological Aerated (or Anoxic) Filter (BAF)
or Biofilters combine filtration with
biological carbon reduction, nitrification or
denitrification. BAF usually includes a
reactor filled with a filter media. The media
is either in suspension or supported by a
gravel layer at the foot of the filter. The dual
purpose of this media is to support highly
active biomass that is attached to it and to
filter suspended solids. Carbon reduction
and ammonia conversion occurs in aerobic
mode and sometime achieved in a single
reactor while nitrate conversion occurs in
anoxic mode. BAF is operated either in up
flow or down flow configuration depending
on design specified by manufacturer.

Secondary Sedimentation tank at a rural

treatment plant.
Membrane bioreactors
Membrane bioreactors (MBR) combine
activated sludge treatment with a membrane
liquid-solid separation process. The
membrane component uses low pressure
micro filtration or ultra filtration membranes
and eliminates the need for clarification and
tertiary filtration. The membranes are
typically immersed in the aeration tank;
however, some applications utilize a
separate membrane tank. One of the key
benefits of an MBR system is that it
effectively overcomes the limitations
associated with poor settling of sludge in
conventional activated sludge (CAS)
processes. The technology permits
bioreactor operation with considerably
higher mixed liquor suspended solids
(MLSS) concentration than CAS systems,
which are limited by sludge settling. The
process is typically operated at MLSS in the
range of 8,000–12,000 mg/L, while CAS are
operated in the range of 2,000–3,000 mg/L.
The elevated biomass concentration in the
MBR process allows for very effective
removal of both soluble and particulate
biodegradable materials at higher loading
rates. Thus increased Sludge Retention
Times (SRTs) — usually exceeding 15 days
— ensure complete nitrification even in
extremely cold weather.
The cost of building and operating an MBR
is usually higher than conventional
wastewater treatment. Membrane filters can
be blinded with grease or abraded by
suspended grit and lack a clarifier's
flexibility to pass peak flows. The
technology has become increasingly popular
for reliably pretreated waste streams and has
gained wider acceptance where infiltration
and inflow have been controlled, however,
and the life-cycle costs have been steadily
decreasing. The small footprint of MBR
systems, and the high quality effluent
produced, make them particularly useful for
water reuse applications.
There are MBR plants being built
throughout the world, including North
Librty, Iowa [1], Georgia, and Canada.
Secondary sedimentation
The final step in the secondary treatment
stage is to settle out the biological floc or
filter material and produce sewage water
containing very low levels of organic
material and suspended matter.
Rotating biological contactors
Schematic diagram of a typical rotating
biological contactor (RBC). The treated
effluent clarifier/settler is not included in the
diagram.
Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are
mechanical secondary treatment systems,
which are robust and capable of
withstanding surges in organic load. RBCs
were first installed in Germany in 1960 and
have since been developed and refined into a
reliable operating unit. The rotating disks
support the growth of bacteria and micro-
organisms present in the sewage, which
breakdown and stabilise organic pollutants.
To be successful, micro-organisms need
both oxygen to live and food to grow.
Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere as
the disks rotate. As the micro-organisms
grow, they build up on the media until they
are sloughed off due to shear forces
provided by the rotating discs in the sewage.
Effluent from the RBC is then passed
through final clarifiers where the micro-
organisms in suspension settle as a sludge.
The sludge is withdrawn from the clarifier
for further treatment.
A functionally similar biological filtering
system has become popular as part of home
aquarium filtration and purification. The
aquarium water is drawn up out of the tank
and then cascaded over a freely spinning
corrugated fiber-mesh wheel before passing
through a media filter and back into the
aquarium. The spinning mesh wheel
develops a biofilm coating of
microorganisms that feed on the suspended
wastes in the aquarium water and are also
exposed to the atmosphere as the wheel
rotates. This is especially good at removing
waste urea and ammonia urinated into the
aquarium water by the fish and other
animals.
Tertiary treatment
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to
provide a final treatment stage to raise the
effluent quality before it is discharged to the
receiving environment (sea, river, lake,
ground, etc.). More than one tertiary
treatment process may be used at any
treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced,
it is always the final process. It is also called
"effluent polishing".

Filtration
Sand filtration removes much of the residual
suspended matter. Filtration over activated
carbon removes residual toxins.
Lagooning

A sewage treatment plant and lagoon in

Everett, Washington, United States.
Lagooning provides settlement and further
biological improvement through storage in
large man-made ponds or lagoons. These
lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization
by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is
often encouraged. Small filter feeding
invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of
Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by
removing fine particulates.

Constructed wetlands
Constructed wetlands include engineered
reedbeds and a range of similar
methodologies, all of which provide a high
degree of aerobic biological improvement
and can often be used instead of secondary
treatment for small communities, also see
phytoremediation. One example is a small
reedbed used to clean the drainage from the
elephants' enclosure at Chester Zoo in
England.
Nutrient removal
Wastewater may contain high levels of the
nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus.
Excessive release to the environment can
lead to a build up of nutrients, called
eutrophication, which can in turn encourage
the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may
cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the
population of algae. The algae numbers are
unsustainable and eventually most of them
die. The decomposition of the algae by
bacteria uses up so much of oxygen in the
water that most or all of the animals die,
which creates more organic matter for the
bacteria to decompose. In addition to
causing deoxygenation, some algal species
produce toxins that contaminate drinking
water supplies. Different treatment
processes are required to remove nitrogen
and phosphorus.
Nitrogen removal
The removal of nitrogen is effected through
the biological oxidation of nitrogen from
ammonia (nitrification) to nitrate, followed
by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to
nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the
atmosphere and thus removed from the
water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic
process, each step facilitated by a different
type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia
(NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often
facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp. (nitroso
referring to the formation of a nitroso
functional group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate
(NO3−), though traditionally believed to be
facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro
referring the formation of a nitro functional
group), is now known to be facilitated in the
environment almost exclusively by
Nitrospira spp.
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to
encourage the appropriate biological
communities to form. It is facilitated by a
wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters,
lagooning and reed beds can all be used to
reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge
process (if designed well) can do the job the
most easily. Since denitrification is the
reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an
electron donor is needed. This can be,
depending on the wastewater, organic matter
(from faeces), sulfide, or an added donor
like methanol.
Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia
to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary
treatment.
Many sewage treatment plants use axial
flow pumps to transfer the nitrified mixed
liquor from the aeration zone to the anoxic
zone for denitrification. These pumps are
often referred to as Internal Mixed Liquor
Recycle pumps (IMLR pumps).

Phosphorus removal
Phosphorus removal is important as it is a
limiting nutrient for algae growth in many
fresh water systems (for negative effects of
algae see Nutrient removal). It is also
particularly important for water reuse
systems where high phosphorus
concentrations may lead to fouling of
downstream equipment such as reverse
osmosis.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a
process called enhanced biological
phosphorus removal. In this process,
specific bacteria, called polyphosphate
accumulating organisms (PAOs), are
selectively enriched and accumulate large
quantities of phosphorus within their cells
(up to 20% of their mass). When the
biomass enriched in these bacteria is
separated from the treated water, these
biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by
chemical precipitation, usually with salts of
iron (e.g. ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g.
alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive
sludge productions as hydroxides
precipitates and the added chemicals can be
expensive. Chemical phosphorus removal
requires significantly smaller equipment
footprint than biological removal, is easier
to operate and is often more reliable than
biological phosphorus removal.
Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a
phosphate rich sludge, may be stored in a
land fill or resold for use in fertilizer.
Disinfection
The purpose of disinfection in the treatment
of wastewater is to substantially reduce the
number of microorganisms in the water to
be discharged back into the environment.
The effectiveness of disinfection depends on
the quality of the water being treated (e.g.,
cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection
being used, the disinfectant dosage
(concentration and time), and other
environmental variables. Cloudy water will
be treated less successfully since solid
matter can shield organisms, especially from
ultraviolet light or if contact times are low.
Generally, short contact times, low doses
and high flows all militate against effective
disinfection. Common methods of
disinfection include ozone, chlorine,
ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite.
Chloramine, which is used for drinking
water, is not used in wastewater treatment
because of its persistence.
Chlorination remains the most common
form of wastewater disinfection in North
America due to its low cost and long-term
history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is
that chlorination of residual organic material
can generate chlorinated-organic compounds
that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the
environment. Residual chlorine or
chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural
aquatic environment. Further, because
residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species,
the treated effluent must also be chemically
dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and
cost of treatment.
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of
chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals. Because
no chemicals are used, the treated water has
no adverse effect on organisms that later
consume it, as may be the case with other
methods. UV radiation causes damage to the
genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and
other pathogens, making them incapable of
reproduction. The key disadvantages of UV
disinfection are the need for frequent lamp
maintenance and replacement and the need
for a highly treated effluent to ensure that
the target microorganisms are not shielded
from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids
present in the treated effluent may protect
microorganisms from the UV light). In the
United Kingdom, light is becoming the most
common means of disinfection because of
the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in
chlorinating residual organics in the
wastewater and in chlorinating organics in
the receiving water. Edmonton and Calgary,
Alberta, Canada also use UV light for their
effluent water disinfection.
Ozone O3 is generated by passing oxygen O2
through a high voltage potential resulting in
a third oxygen atom becoming attached and
forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and
reactive and oxidizes most organic material
it comes in contact with, thereby destroying
many pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is
considered to be safer than chlorine because,
unlike chlorine which has to be stored on
site (highly poisonous in the event of an
accidental release), ozone is generated onsite
as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer
disinfection by-products than chlorination.
A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the
high cost of the ozone generation equipment
and the requirements for special operators.
Odour removal
Early stages of processing will tend to
produce smelly gasses, hydrogen sulfide
being most common in generating
complaints from nearby areas. Large process
plants in urban areas will often contain a
foul air removal tower, comprised of air
circulators, a contact media with bio-slimes,
and circulating fluids to biologically capture
and metabolize the obnoxious gasses
previously contained by reactor enclosures.
[3]

Package plants and batch reactors

In order to use less space, treat difficult
waste, deal with intermittent flow or achieve
higher environmental standards, a number of
designs of hybrid treatment plants have been
produced. Such plants often combine all or
at least two stages of the three main
treatment stages into one combined stage. In
the UK, where a large number of sewage
treatment plants serve small populations,
package plants are a viable alternative to
building discrete structures for each process
stage.
One type of system that combines secondary
treatment and settlement is the sequencing
batch reactor (SBR). Typically, activated
sludge is mixed with raw incoming sewage
and mixed and aerated. The resultant
mixture is then allowed to settle producing a
high quality effluent. The settled sludge is
run off and re-aerated before a proportion is
returned to the headworks. SBR plants are
now being deployed in many parts of the
world including Llanasa, North Wales,
Southwestern United Kingdom.
The disadvantage of such processes is that
precise control of timing, mixing and
aeration is required. This precision is usually
achieved by computer controls linked to
many sensors in the plant. Such a complex,
fragile system is unsuited to places where
such controls may be unreliable, or poorly
maintained, or where the power supply may
be intermittent.
For regions where power supply is
unreliable or absent, stone fibre filter plants
may be considered. These systems utilise
natural air current ventilation without the
need for any electrical supply. They are a
recent sewage treatment development and
have an almost zero carbon footprint.
Package plants may be referred to as high
charged or low charged. This refers to the
way the biological load is processed. In high
charged systems, the biological stage is
presented with a high organic load and the
combined floc and organic material is then
oxygenated for a few hours before being
charged again with a new load. In the low
charged system the biological stage contains
a low organic load and is combined with
flocculate for a relatively long time.

Sludge treatment and disposal

Main article: Sewage sludge treatment
The sludges accumulated in a wastewater
treatment process must be treated and
disposed of in a safe and effective manner.
The purpose of digestion is to reduce the
amount of organic matter and the number of
disease-causing microorganisms present in
the solids. The most common treatment
options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic
digestion, and composting. Incineration is
also used albeit to a much lesser degree.
Choice of a wastewater solid treatment
method depends on the amount of solids
generated and other site-specific conditions.
However, in general, composting is most
often applied to smaller-scale applications
followed by aerobic digestion and then lastly
anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale
municipal applications.
Anaerobic digestion
Main article: Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial process
that is carried out in the absence of oxygen.
The process can either be thermophilic
digestion, in which sludge is fermented in
tanks at a temperature of 55°C, or
mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36°C.
Though allowing shorter retention time (and
thus smaller tanks), thermophilic digestion is
more expensive in terms of energy
consumption for heating the sludge.
Anaerobic Digestion is the most common
(mesophilic) treatment of Domestic Sewage
in Septic Tanks, which normally retain the
sewage, from one day to two days, reducing
the B.O.D. by about 35 to 40%. This
reduction can be increased by a combination
of anaerobic and aerobic by installing
'[Aerobic Treatment Units][2]' (ATUs) in
the Septic Tank.
One major feature of anaerobic digestion is
the production of biogas (with the most
useful component being methane), which
can be used in generators for electricity
production and/or in boilers for heating
purposes.

Aerobic digestion
Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process
occurring in the presence of oxygen. Under
aerobic conditions, bacteria rapidly consume
organic matter and convert it into carbon
dioxide. The operating costs used to be
characteristically much greater for aerobic
digestion because of the energy used by the
blowers, pumps and motors needed to add
oxygen to the process. However, since the
recent advent of stone fibre filter technology
which uses natural air currents for
oxygenation, this no longer applies.
Aerobic digestion can also be achieved by
using jet aerators to oxidize the sludge.
Composting
Composting is also an aerobic process that
involves mixing the sludge with sources of
carbon such as sawdust, straw or wood
chips. In the presence of oxygen, bacteria
digest both the wastewater solids and the
added carbon source and, in doing so,
produce a large amount of heat.

Incineration
Incineration of sludge is less common due to
air emissions concerns and the supplemental
fuel (typically natural gas or fuel oil)
required to burn the low calorific value
sludge and vaporize residual water. Stepped
multiple hearth incinerators with high
residence time as well as fluidized bed
incinerators are the most common systems
used to combust wastewater sludge. Co-
firing in municipal waste-to-energy plants is
occasionally done, this option being less
expensive assuming the facilities already
exist for solid waste as well as no need for
auxiliary fuel.
Sludge disposal
When a liquid sludge is produced, further
treatment may be required to make it
suitable for final disposal. Typically, sludges
are thickened (dewatered) to reduce the
volumes transported off-site for disposal.
There is no process which completely
eliminates the need to dispose of biosolids.
There is, however, an additional step some
cities are taking to superheat the wastewater
sludge and convert it into small pelletized
granules that are high in nitrogen and other
organic materials. In New York City, for
example, several sewage treatment plants
have dewatering facilities that use large
centrifuges along with the addition of
chemicals such as polymer to further remove
liquid from the sludge. The removed fluid,
called centrate, is typically reintroduced into
the wastewater process. The product which
is left is called "cake" and that is picked up
by companies which turn it into fertilizer
pellets. This product is then sold to local
farmers and turf farms as a soil amendment
or fertilizer, reducing the amount of space
required to dispose of sludge in landfills[3].
Treatment in the receiving environment

The outlet of a wastewater treating plant

flows into a small river
Many processes in a wastewater treatment
plant are designed to mimic the natural
treatment processes that occur in the
environment, whether that environment is a
natural water body or the ground. If not
overloaded, bacteria in the environment will
consume organic contaminants, although
this will reduce the levels of oxygen in the
water and may significantly change the
overall ecology of the receiving water.
Native bacterial populations feed on the
organic contaminants, and the numbers of
disease-causing microorganisms are reduced
by natural environmental conditions such as
predation or exposure to ultraviolet
radiation. Consequently, in cases where the
receiving environment provides a high level
of dilution, a high degree of wastewater
treatment may not be required. However,
recent evidence has demonstrated that very
low levels of specific contaminants in
wastewater, including hormones (from
animal husbandry and residue from human
hormonal contraception methods) and
synthetic materials such as phthalates that
mimic hormones in their action, can have an
unpredictable adverse impact on the natural
biota and potentially on humans if the water
is re-used for drinking water[4]. In the US
and EU, uncontrolled discharges of
wastewater to the environment are not
permitted under law, and strict water quality
requirements are to be met. A significant
threat in the coming decades will be the
increasing uncontrolled discharges of
wastewater within rapidly developing
countries.
Sewage treatment in developing countries
Few reliable figures on the share of the
wastewater collected in sewers that is being
treated in the world exist. In many
developing countries the bulk of domestic
and industrial wastewater is discharged
without any treatment or after primary
treatment only. In Latin America about 15%
of collected wastewater passes through
treatment plants (with varying levels of
actual treatment). In Venezuela, a below
average country in South America with
respect to wastewater treatment, 97 percent
of the country’s sewage is discharged raw
into the environment.[4] In a relatively
developed Middle Eastern country such as
Iran, Tehran's majority of population has
totally untreated sewage injected to the
city’s groundwater.[5]
In Israel, about 50 percent of agricultural
water usage (total use was 1 billion cubic
metres in 2008) is provided through
reclaimed sewer water. Future plans call for
increased use of treated sewer water as well
as more desalination plants.[6]
Most of sub-Saharan Africa is without
wastewater treatment.
This section does not cite any references
or sources.
 Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed.
(August 2008)
Water utilities in developing countries are
chronically underfunded because of low
water tariffs, the inexistence of sanitation
tariffs in many cases, low billing efficiency
(i.e. many users that are billed do not pay)
and low quality operational efficiency (i.e.
there are overly high levels of staff, there are
high physical losses, and many users have
illegal connections and are thus not being
billed). In addition, wastewater treatment
typically is the process within the utility that
receives the least attention, partly because
enforcement of environmental standards is
poor.[citation needed] As a result of all these
factors, operation and maintenance of many
wastewater treatment plants is poor. This is
evidenced by the frequent breakdown of
equipment, shutdown of electrically
operated equipment due to power outages or
to reduce costs, and sedimentation due to
lack of sludge removal.
Developing countries as diverse as Egypt,
Algeria, China or Colombia have invested
substantial sums in wastewater treatment
without achieving a significant impact in
terms of environmental improvement.[citation
needed]
Even if wastewater treatment plants are
not properly operated, it can be argued that
the environmental impact is limited in cases
where the assimilative capacity of the
receiving waters (ocean with strong currents
or large rivers) is high, as it is often the case.
Residential Area
Waste water

Sewage treatment
Plant

Treated Water

Pumped storage
Chamber
Turbine Chamber

Collected Water is
purified

Supplied towards
urban water supply
Advantages
Water conservation
1.

2. Pollution control
Generation of power to
3.

be to operate public
electricity works such as
street lighting.