Water Treatment Plant: 5.2.1 Slow Sand Filter-Plant 5.2.2 Rapid Sand Filter Plant
Water Treatment Plant: 5.2.1 Slow Sand Filter-Plant 5.2.2 Rapid Sand Filter Plant
Water Treatment Plant: 5.2.1 Slow Sand Filter-Plant 5.2.2 Rapid Sand Filter Plant
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Water to be supplied for public use must be potable i.e., satisfactory for drinking purposes
from the standpoint of its chemical, physical and biological characteristics. Drinking water
should, preferably, be obtained from a source free from pollution. The raw water normally
available from surface water sources is, however, not directly suitable for drinking purposes.
The objective of water treatment is to produce safe and potable drinking water.
Some of the common treatment processes used in the past include Plain sedimentation,
Slow Sand filtration, Rapid Sand filtration with Coagulation-flocculation units as essential
pretreatment units. Pressure filters and Diatomaceous filters have been used though very
rarely. Roughing filters are used, under certain circumstances, as pretreatment units for the
conventional filters.
The treatment processes may need pretreatment like pre-chlorination and aeration prior to
conventional treatment. The pretreatment processes comprising of Coagulation and Flocculation
have been discussed under the main title of Rapid Sand filters in para 5.4 of this chapter. Detailed
discussion on all such aspects as well as recommended unit operations, is given in the Manual
on Water Supply and Treatment (1999 Edition) Ministry of Urban Development.
Figure 5.1 shows typical flow patterns of a Conventional Treatment Plant.
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to reduce load on the treatment plants. Small streams of water in the catchment areas may
carry large particles and floating matter. Introduction of the roughing filters will ensure
entrapping of such undesirable material prior to the storage structures of the treatment units.
5.3.3 OPERATION
The operation of the filter is determined by the filtration rate, which is controlled at the effluent
outlet. Inflow, which may be by gravity from a constant level reservoir, or by a pump, is
adjusted so that the head of water in the supernatant reservoir remains constant at all times.
Excessive raw water delivery will cause overflow through the scum outlets, while a reduction
in the rate of inflow will cause the level in the supernatant water reservoir to drop; either
condition should alert the operator to a defect in the mechanism controlling the supply of
raw water.
The filtration rate is controlled by a single regulating valve on the effluent delivery. At the
beginning of the filter run this will be partially closed, the additional resistance thereby
provided being equal to that which will later build up within the filter bed. Day by day as
the run continues this valve must be checked and opened fractionally to compensate for the
choking of the filter and to maintain a constant filtration rate. In the early part of the filter
run the daily build up of resistance will be almost imperceptible, calling for very little valve
adjustment, but towards the end of the filter run the resistance will increase more rapidly,
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necessitating a more positive opening of the valve and signalling the impending need for filter
cleaning.
To enable the operator to regulate the valve precisely it is necessary to have some form of
measuring device on the effluent outlet.
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would continue to fall until level with the weir outlet, it would take a very long time to do
so. Consequently, after a few hours, the effluent delivery to the clear water well is closed,
and the supernatant water outlet is run to waste through the drain valve provided.
When the supernatant water has been drained off (leaving the water level at the surface
of the bed) it is necessary to lower the water within the bed still further, until it is some
100 mm or more below the surface .This is done by opening the waste valve on the effluent
outlet pipe. As soon as the Schmutzdecke is dry enough to handle, cleaning should start.
If the filter bed is left too long at this stage it is likely to attract scavenging birds that will
not only pollute the filter surface but also disturb the sand to a greater depth than will be
removed by scraping.
The cleaning of the bed may be carried out by hand or with mechanical equipment. Working
as rapidly as possible, they should strip off the Schmutzdecke and the surface sand adhering
to it, stack it into ridges or heaps, and then remove the waste material by barrow, hand cart,
basket, conveyor belt or other device.
After removal of the scrapings the bed should be smoothed to level surface. The quicker
the filter bed is cleaned the less will be the disturbance of the bacteria and shorter the period
of re-ripening. Provided they have not been completely dried out, the microorganisms
immediately below the surface will quickly recover from having been drained and will adjust
themselves to their position relative to the new bed level. In this event a day or two will be
sufficient for re-ripening.
Before the filter box is refilled, the exposed walls of the supernatant water reservoir should
be well swabbed down to discourage the growth of adhering slimes and algae, and the height
of the supernatant water drain and of the outlet weir must be adjusted to suit the new bed
level. The water level in the bed is then raised by charging from below with treated water
from the clear water well or from one of the other filters. As soon as the level has risen
sufficiently above the bed surface to provide a cushion, the raw water inlet is gradually turned
on. The effluent is run to waste until analysis shows that it satisfies the normal quality
standards. The regulating valves on the effluent line will be substantially closed to compensate
for the reduced resistance of the cleaned bed, and the filter will then be ready to start a new
run.
During the cleaning operations precautions must be taken to minimize the chances of
pollution of the filter bed surface by the labourers themselves. Such measures as the provision
of boots that can be disinfected in a tray of bleaching solution should be taken. Hygienic
personal behaviour must be rigidly imposed, and no labourers with symptoms that might be
attributable to water borne or parasitic diseases should be permitted to come into direct or
indirect contact with the filter medium.
5.3.8 RESANDING
After several years’ operation and, say, twenty or thirty scrapings the depth of filtering
material will have dropped to its minimum designed level (usually 0.5 to 0.8 m above the
supporting gravel, according to the grain size of the medium). In the original construction,
a marker, such as a concrete block or a step in the filter box wall, is sometimes set in the
structure to serve as an indication that this level has been reached and that resanding has
become due.
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During the long period of the filter use/run some of the raw water impurities and some
products of biochemical degradation will have been carried into the sand-bed to a depth of
some 0.3 to 0.5 m according to the grain size of the sand. To prevent cumulative fouling and
increased resistance this depth of sand should be removed before resanding takes place, but
it is neither necessary nor desirable that it should be discarded. Instead it is moved to one
side, the new sand is added, and the old sand replaced on the top of the new, thus retaining
much of the active material to enable the resanded filter to become operational with the
minimum re-ripening.
This process (of replacing old sand on the top of the new) known as “throwing over” is
carried out in strips. Excavation is carried out on each strip in turn, making sure that it is
not dug so deeply as to disturb the supporting gravel layers below. The removed material from
the first strip is stacked to one side in a long ridge, the excavated trench is filled with new
sand, and the adjacent strip is excavated, throwing the removed material from the second
trench to cover the new sand in the first. The operation is illustrated in Fig. 5.2. When the
whole of the bed has been resanded, the material in the ridge from the first trench is used
to cover the new sand in the last strip.
In areas where sand is expensive or difficult to obtain, the surface scrapings may be
washed, stored and used for resanding at some future date. These scrapings must be washed
as soon as they are taken from the filter, otherwise, being full of organic matter, the material
will continue to consume oxygen, quickly become anaerobic, and putrefy, yielding taste and
odour producing substances that are virtually impossible to remove during any washing
process.
Sand Washing Machines should be provided for the bigger plants. Wherever provided, these
should be operated regularly to prevent accumulation of sand and also to keep the machine
in working condition.
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suggested that wherever possible the old Slow sand Filtration plants may be retained on
account of the following reasons:
i) Slow sand filter is less likely to go wrong under inexperienced operation.
ii) It does not require skilled attendance.
iii) Head consumed is less.
iv) It provides greater reliability of the removal of bacteria.
v) Operating costs may be less.
It is, however, adapted to waters low in colour, turbidity and bacterial count. Under such
circumstances, provision of a roughing filter as a pretreatment unit gives good results.
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5.4.1 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
5.4.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to remove particulate impurities, especially non-
settleable solids (particularly colloids) and colour from the water being treated. Non-settleable
particles in water are removed by the use of coagulating chemicals.
The most commonly used coagulant is ferric alum. However, Poly Aluminium Chloride
(PAC) is also used as a coagulant. The advantages of PAC are i) it gets properly dispersed,
ii) it does not have any insoluble residue, iii) it does not affect the settling tanks, iv) it is more
effective than alum v) it requires less space (may be about 50%). The disadvantage of PAC
is that it is less effective in removal of colour.
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In addition, the turbidity, colour and alkalinity of the raw and treated water should be
measured for evaluation of the treatment.
Date Flocculation Settling Jar no. pH Turbidity Colour Alkalinity Time for Remarks
& period with period CaCO3 first floc.
Time RPM Form-
ation
Control
5.4.1.5 Mixing
The main requirement of the mix is that all the coagulant be rapidly mixed with all the water
instantly so as to achieve complete homogenization of a coagulant chemical in the stream to
be treated. The reason is that the chemical reaction is extremely rapid, practically
instantaneous, especially in waters with high alkalinity. Since this is not physically possible
although desirable, it is important to approximate as nearly as possible to instant and complete
dispersion.
To accomplish the mixing of the chemicals with the water to be treated, several methods
can be used.
Hydraulic mixing
Mechanical mixing
Diffusers and grid system
Pumped blenders.
Mixing of the chemical coagulant can be satisfactorily accomplished in a special coagulant
tank with mixing devices. Mixing may also occur in the influent channel or a pipeline to the
flocculation basin if the flow velocity is high enough to produce the necessary turbulence. The
shape of the basin is part of the flash mix design.
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Short Circuiting
An important factor that determines the functioning of a flocculator is the short circuiting.
In such a basin, against a predetermined 30 minutes agitation, a large portion may get only
10 minutes while another sizeable amount may get 60 minutes. Under such circumstances
very inferior settled water is produced.
Short circuiting in flocculation basins is characterized by currents which move rapidly
through and continue into the settling tanks .The floc removal problem is compounded then
with flocculation which is incomplete and currents introduced into the settling process which
further inhibit removal. Properly operated entrance, curtain baffles and exit weirs and
launders can significantly improve settling.
The flocculators may be circular, square or rectangular. The best flocculation is usually
achieved in a compartmentalized basin. The compartments (most often three) are separated
by baffles to prevent short circuiting of the water being treated. The turbulence can be
reduced gradually by reducing the speed of the mixers in each succeeding tank or by
reducing the surface area of the paddles. This is called tapered-energy mixing. The reason
for reducing the speed of the stirrers is to prevent breaking apart the larger floc particles,
which have already formed. If the floc is broken up nothing is accomplished and the filter
gets overloaded.
Dosing of the coagulant at a spot of maximum turbulence
Rapid mix of coagulant at a spot of maximum turbulence, followed by tapered flocculation
in three compartmentalized units allows a maximum of mixing, (reduced short circuiting)
followed by a period of agglomeration intended to build larger fast settling floc particles. The
velocity gradient is gradually reduced from the first to the third unit. The concepts of velocity
gradient and tapered flocculation have been discussed in the Manual of Water supply and
Treatment (1999 edition).
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Fig. 5.3 shows the overall plan view of the coagulation-flocculation process of a typical
plant.
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5.4.1.10 Record keeping
Records of the following items should be maintained:
• Source water quality (pH, turbidity, temperature, alkalinity, chlorine demand and colour.
• Process water quality (pH, turbidity, and alkalinity).
• Process production inventories (chemicals used, chemical feed rates, amount of water
processed, and amount of chemicals in storage).
• Process equipment performance (types of equipment in operation, maintenance
procedures performed, equipment calibration and adjustments).
• A plot of key process variables should be maintained. A plot of source water turbidity
vs. coagulant dosage should be maintained. If other process variables such as alkalinity
or pH vary significantly, these should also be plotted.
Note: All major problems should be reported to the authorities and response duly followed up.
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5.4.1.11 Safety Considerations
In the coagulation-flocculation processes, the operator will be exposed to a number of hazards
such as:
Electrical equipment,
Rotating mechanical equipment,
Water treatment chemicals,
Laboratory reagents (chemicals),
Slippery surfaces caused by certain chemicals
Flooding.
Confined spaces and underground structures such as valve or pump vaults (toxic and
explosives gases, insufficient oxygen).
Strict and constant attention must be given to safety procedures. The operator must be
familiar with general first aid practices such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, treatment of
common physical injuries, and first aid for chemical exposure (chlorine).
For more details, a reference may be made to “Safety Practices” in Chapter 19.
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9 . Start the flocculators as soon as the first basin is full of water.
10. Inspect mixing chamber and flocculation basin. Observe formation of floc and make
necessary changes.
11. Remove any debris floating on the water surface.
12. Perform water quality analysis and make process adjustments as necessary.
13. Calibrate chemical feeders.
Note: Do not allow any untreated water to flow through the plant.
(c) Shut down Procedures
1. Close raw water gate to flash-mix chamber or channel.
2. Shut down the chemical feed systems.
Turn off chemical feeders.
Shut off appropriate valves.
Flush or clean chemical feed lines if necessary.
3. Shut down flash mixer and flocculators as water leaves each process.
4. Shut down sample pumps before water leaves sampling location.
5. Waste any water that has not been properly treated.
6. Lock out and tag appropriate electrical switches.
7. Dewater basins if necessary. Waste any water that has not been properly treated.
Note : Do not dewater below-ground basins without checking groundwater levels.
Close basin isolation gates or install stop-logs.
Open basin drain valves
Be careful that the basin may float or collapse depending on ground water, soil or other
conditions.
Good records of actions taken during start/shutdown operations will assist the operator
in conducting future shutdowns.
5.4.2 SEDIMENTATION
5.4.2.1 Sedimentation Basins
The Basin can be divided into four zones.
Inlet zone
Settling zone
Sludge zone
Outlet zone
For more details a reference may be made to the Manual on “Water Supply and Treatment”
published by Ministry of Urban Development. (1999 edition).
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5.4.2.2 Basin Types
The basins may be of the following types:
Rectangular basins.
Circular and square basins.
High Rate Settlers (Tube Settlers).
Solid Contact Units (Up-flow solid-contact clarification and up-flow sludge blanket
clarification).
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Circular or square basins are usually equipped with rotating sludge rakes. Basin floors are
sloped towards the centre and the sludge rakes progressively push the sludge toward a centre
outlet. In rectangular basins, the simplest sludge removal mechanism is the chain and flight
system.
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• Visual checks of the sedimentation process should include observation of floc settling
characteristics, distribution of floc at the basin inlet and clarity of settled water spilling
over the launder weirs. An uneven distribution of floc, or poorly settling floc may
indicate that a raw water quality change has occurred or that the operational problems
may develop.
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TABLE 5.4: SUMMARY OF ROUTINE SEDIMENTATION PROCESS ACTIONS
1. Monitor Process
Performance and Evaluate
Water Quality Conditions Location Frequency Possible Operator Actions
Turbidity Influent/ At least once 1. Increase sampling frequency
Effluent every 8-hour when process water quality is
shift variable.
2. Perform jar tests.
3. Make necessary process changes:
Temperature Influent Occasionally a) Change coagulant dosage.
b) Adjust flash mixer/flocculator
mixing intensity.
c) Change frequency of sludge
removal.
d) Change coagulant
2. Make Visual
Observations Possible Operator Actions
Floc settling characteristics First half At least once 1. Perform jar tests.
of basin per 8-hour shift 2. Make necessary process changes:
Floc distribution Inlet At least once a) Change coagulant dosage.
per 8-hour shift b) Adjust flash mixer/flocculator
mixing Intensity.
c) Change frequency of sludge
Turbidity (clarity) of Launders At least once removal.
settled water of settled per 8-hour shift d) Change coagulant
water Note-Depends
conduit on size of plant
3. Check Sludge
Removal Equipment Possible Operator Actions
Noise, Vibration, Various Once per 8-hour 1. Correct minor problems.
Leakage, Overheating shift 2. Notify others of major problems.
4. Operate Sludge
Removal Equipment Possible Operator Actions
Perform normal operations Depends on 1. Change frequency of operation:
sequence process conditions a. If sludge is too watery, decrease
(may vary from frequency of operation and/or
Sed. Basin once per day pumping rate.
to several b. If sludge is too dense, bulks,
days or more) or clogs discharge lines,
increase frequency of operation
and/or pumping rate.
Observe conditions of c. If sludge is septic, increase
sludge being removed frequency of operation and/or
pumping rate.
5. Inspect Facilities Possible Operator Actions
Check sedimentation basins Various Once every 8- 1. Report abnormal conditions.
Observe basin water over hour shift 2. Make flow changes or adjust
launder weirs. Various Once per 8- launder weirs.
Observe basin water surface hour shift 3. Remove debris from basin water
Check for algae buildup on Various Once per 8- surface.
basin walls and launders hour shift
Various Occasionally
Note: All major problems should be reported to the competent authorities and response duly followed.
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TABLE 5.5: SEDIMENTATION PROCESS TROUBLESHOOTING
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5.4.2.8 Start Up and Shut Down Procedures
In the event of requirement for shut down or start up of processes on account of maintenance
or a major equipment failure, proper procedures must be followed as per recommendations
of the manufacturer of the plant and equipment. The procedures, in general, are given below:
(a) Start up Procedure
1. Check operational status and mode of operation of equipment and physical facilities.
Check that basin valves are closed.
Check that basin isolation gates are closed.
Check that launder weir plates are set at equal elevations.
Check to ensure that all trash, debris and tools have been removed from basin.
2. Test sludge removal equipment.
Check that mechanical equipment is properly lubricated and ready for operation.
Observe operation of sludge removal equipment.
3. Fill sedimentation basin with water.
Observe proper depth of water in basin.
Remove floating debris from basin water surface.
4. Start sample pumps.
5. Perform water quality analyses.
6. Operate sludge removal equipment. Be sure that all valves are in the proper position.
5.4.2.9 Equipment
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Flow meters and gauges.
Valves.
Control Systems.
Water Quality monitors such as turbiditimeters.
Sludge removal equipment.
Sludge pumps.
Sump pumps.
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5.4.2.11 Corrosion Control
All metallic parts which are liable to corrosion must be protected. Please refer to Chapter 9
of Manual on “Water Supply and Treatment” (1999 edition) for detailed discussion on
Corrosion Control.
5.4.3.2 Operation
Filter Operation: A filter is usually operated until just before clogging or breakthrough occurs
or a specified time period has passed (generally 24 hours).
Backwashing: After a filter clogs or breakthrough occurs or a specified time has passed,
the filtration process is stopped and the filter is taken out of service for cleaning or
backwashing.
Surface Wash: In order to produce optimum cleaning of the filter media during backwashing
and to prevent mud balls, surface wash (supplemental scouring) is usually required. Surface
wash systems provide additional scrubbing action to remove attached floc and other
suspended solids from the filter media.
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5.4.3.3 Operational Procedures
(a) The indicators of Normal Operating Conditions
The filter influent and effluent turbidities should be closely watched with a turbidimeter.
Filter Influent turbidity levels (settled turbidity) can be checked on a periodic basis at the
filter or from the laboratory sample tap. However, the filter effluent turbidity is best
monitored and recorded on a continuous basis by an on-line turbiditimeter.
(b) Process Actions
Follow the steps as indicated below:
Monitor process performance.
Evaluate turbidity and make appropriate process changes.
Check and adjust process equipment (change chemical feed rates).
Backwash filters.
Evaluate filter media condition (media loss, mud balls, cracking).
Visually inspect facilities.
(c) Important process activities and Precautions.
1. Monitoring process performance is an ongoing activity. You should look for and
attempt to anticipate any treatment process changes or other problems that might
affect filtered water quality, such as a chemical feed system failure.
2. Measurement of head loss built up (Fig.5.7) in the filter media will give you a good
indication of how well the solids removal process is performing. The total designed
head loss from the filter influent to the effluent in a gravity filter is usually about
3 meters. At the beginning of the filtration cycle the actual measured head loss due
to clean media and other hydraulic losses is about 0.9m. This would permit an
additional head loss of about 2.1m due to solid accumulation in the filter.
3. The rate of head loss build up is an important indication of process performance.
Sudden increase in head loss might be an indication of surface sealing of the filter
media (lack of depth penetration). Early detection of this condition may permit you
to make appropriate process changes such as adjustment of chemical filter aid feed
rate or adjustment of filtration rate.
4. Monitoring of filter turbidity on a continuous basis with an on-line turbiditimeter
is highly recommended. This will provide you with continuous feed back on the
performance of the filtration process. In most instances it is desirable to cut off
(terminate) filter at a predetermined effluent turbidity level. Preset the filter cutoff
control at a point where you experience and tests show that breakthrough will soon
occur. (Fig. 5.8).
5. In the normal operation of the filter process, it is best to calculate when the filter
cycle will be completed on the basis of the following guidelines:
Head loss.
Effluent turbidity level.
Elapsed run time.
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A predetermined value is established for each guideline as a cut off point for filter
operation. When any of these levels is reached, the filter is removed from service
and backwashed.
6 . At least once a year one must examine the filter media and evaluate its overall
condition. Measure the filter media thickness for an indication of media loss during
the backwashing process. Measure mud ball accumulation in the filter media to
evaluate the effectiveness of the overall backwashing operation.
7 . Routinely observe the backwash process to qualitatively assess process performance.
Watch for media boils (uneven flow distribution) during backwashing, media carry
over into the wash water trough, and clarity of the waste wash-water near the
end of the backwash cycle.
8 . Upon completion of the backwash cycle, observe the condition of the media surface
and check for filter sidewall or media surface cracks. You should routinely inspect
physical facilities and equipment as part of good housekeeping and maintenance
practice. Correct or report the abnormal equipment conditions to the appropriate
maintenance personnel.
9 . Never bump up a filter to avoid backwashing. Bumping is the act of opening the
backwash valve during the course of a filter run to dislodge the trapped solids and
increase the length of filter run. This is not a good practice.
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10. Shortened filter runs can occur because of air bound filters. Air binding will occur
more frequently when large head losses are allowed to develop in the filter. Precautions
should be taken to minimize air binding to avoid damage to the filter media.
A summary of routine filtration process action is given in Table 5.6.
Table 5.7 gives Filtration process trouble shooting problems.
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TABLE 5.6: SUMMARY OF ROUTINE FILTRATION PROCESS ACTION
Monitor Process
Performance and evaluate
Water Quality Conditions Location Frequency Possible Operator Actions
Put filter into service. Filter Depends on See Operating Procedures (para 5.4.3.3)
Change filtration rate. module process
Remove filter from service. conditions
Backwash filter.
Change backwash rate.
Check for media boils and Filter At least once Change backwash rate.
media expansion. module per day or Change backwash cycle time.
Check for media carryover whenever Adjust surface wash rate or cycle time.
into washwater trough. backwashing Inspect filter media and support gravel for
Observe clarity of occurs. disturbance.
wastewater.
Inspect Facilities
Check physical facilities Various Once a day. 1. Remove debris from filter media surfaces
and algae on sidewalls 2. Adjust chlorine dosage to control algae.
and troughs.
Note: All major problem should be reported to the competent authorities and response duly followed up.
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TABLE 5.7: FILTRATION PROCESS TROUBLE SHOOTING
Sedimentation
Process Effluent
Quality Changes
Turbidity or floc 1. Assess overall process performance. Same as source water quality changes.
carryover 2. Perform Jar tests.
3. Make appropriate process changes.
Filtration Process
Changes/Problems
Filter Effluent
Quality Changes
Note: All major problems should be reported to the competent authorities and response duly followed up.
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TABLE 5.8: FILTER DAILY OPERATING RECORD
FILTERS DAILY OPERATING RECORD
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Shift
Operator
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(b) Implementation of Startup and Shutdown Procedures
1. Filter checkout procedures
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(c) Filter Startup Procedures
Start filter
Slowly open influent valve.
When proper elevation of water is reached on top of filter, filter effluent valve should
be gradually opened. This effluent control valve should be adjusted itself to maintain
a constant level of water over the filter media.
Waste some of the initial filtered water if such a provision exists.
Perform turbidity analysis of filtered water and make process adjustments as necessary.
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5.4.3.6 Support Equipment
The operator must be familiar with the operation and maintenance instructions for each
specific equipment item or control system.
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5.4.3.8 Safety Considerations
(a) Electrical Equipment
1. Avoid electric shock (use preventive gloves).
2. Avoid grounding yourself in water or on pipes.
3. Ground all electric tools.
4. Lock out and tag electrical switches and panels when servicing equipment.
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5.5.2 OPERATION
The filter is operated similar to a gravity- type filter except that the coagulated water is applied
directly to the filter without mixing, flocculation, or conditioning. Automatic filters are
available in which the valves are manipulated automatically to backwash at a predetermined
time or head loss. It is to be noted that the head loss through the filter is approximately the
same as through a gravity filter. The term “pressure filter” does not imply that water is
pumped through the filter under a high pressure loss.
The coagulant, normally, is applied under pressure in the influent line to the filter, the
influent water dissolving the alum as it enters the filter.
Following drawbacks have been noticed in the working of the Pressure filters. Efforts should
be made during their maintenance to avoid the same.
• There is no scope for proper formation of the flocs, the entrapment of the unsettleable
and colloidal particles and independent settlement of the settleable solids.
• The filter media becomes mixed up due to the water pressure. Cracks develop within
the filter sand media and serious piping develops within the entire media.
• Due to intermixing of the media the under-drainage system gets damaged.
• The behaviour of the filter operation cannot be examined properly.
5.7.1.2 Intake
i. Location. ii. Pollution Source iii. Gates and Valves iv. Structural details.
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4. Aeration.
5. Coagulation and Flocculation.
(a) Mixing tank or Mixing channel,
(b) Chemicals: lime, alum, or others
Conventional or tapered flocculation.
Independent tank or in the form of a clarifier.
6. Sedimentation.
Tanks (circular or rectangular)
If circular, as independent tanks or as clariflocculators
with or without Scrapers.
Other important features.
7. Filters
Slow, Rapid or Others.
Filter box
Filter media
Desludging.
Backwashing with water only or both with and air.
8. Clear Water Tanks.
i) Capacity ii) Number iii) Size
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5.7.2.3 Flocculator
i) Observing floc formation.
ii) Checking speeds of paddles.
iii) Checking short circuiting.
iv) Sludge collection, if any, and to take remedial measures to stop it.
v) Lubrication of mechanical devices.
vi) Dosing lines
vii) Valves and pipes.
5.7.2.5 Filters
i) Checking turbidity at start and end
ii) Adequate depth of water
iii) Rate of filtration
iv) Head loss at different important stages
v) Negative head
vi) Filter run
vii) Filter media surface cracks.
mud balls
slime growth
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intermixing of media
uplifting of under drain nozzles.
filter media carry over.
viii) Backwashing
time and quantity of water used in backwashing.
uniform washing of filter media.
thickness of filter media before and after washing.
ix) Water quantity
received; wasted; consumed for backwashing; produced
x) Operation of Valves.
xi) Performance of blowers.
xii) Status of functioning of Instruments
xiii) Corrosion of Underwater equipment.
5.7.2.6 Records
(a) Coagulation and Flocculation
1. Source water quality (pH, turbidity, temperature, alkalinity, chlorine demand and
colour).
2. Process water quality (pH, turbidity, and alkalinity).
3. Process production inventories (chemicals used, chemical feed rates, amount of
water processed, and amount of chemicals in storage).
4. Process equipment performance (types of equipment in operation, maintenance
procedures performed, equipment calibration and adjustments).
(b) Sedimentation
1. Influent and effluent turbidity and influent temperature.
2. Process production inventory (amount of water processed and volume of sludge
produced.)
3. Process equipment performance (type of equipment in operation, maintenance
procedures performed and equipment calibration).
(c) Filtration
1. Process water quality (turbidity and colour).
2. Process operation (filters in service, filtration rates, loss of head, length of filter runs,
frequency of backwash, backwash rates, and UFRV).
3. Process water production (water processed, amount of backwash water used, and
chemicals used).
4. Percentage of water production used to backwash filters.
5. Process equipment performance (types of equipment in operation, equipment
adjustments, maintenance procedures performed, and equipment calibration).
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5.8 ALGAL CONTROL
Note : Only a brief description of removal of algae is being given in order to help the operator
to understand and take effective steps in operating and maintaining such plant processes.
For more details a reference may be made to the Manual of Water Supply and Treatment
(Chapter 9).
5.8.1 INTRODUCTION
Algae are unicellular or multicellular chlorophyll bearing plants without any true root, stem
or leaves. They may be microscopic unicellular colonial or dense mat forming filamentous
forms commonly inhabiting surface waters. Their growth is influenced by a number of factors,
such as mineral nutrients, availability of sunlight, temperature and type of reservoir. During
certain climatic conditions there is an algal bloom which creates acute problems for treatment
and production of potable water.
The algae encountered in water purification plants are Diatoms, Green Algae, Blue Green
Algae and Algal Flagellates. Algae may be seen floating (plankton) in the form of blooms.
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Algicide dose used should be harmless to humans, have no effect on water quality, should
be inexpensive and easy to apply. The most commonly used algaecides are copper sulphate
and chlorine.
5.8.4.2 Points to be taken into Account while Formulating Copper Sulphate Dosage
The dose of copper sulphate, to be added to unknown water depth, has to be calculated by
considering 4.5 metres depth of water as algae congregate in the upper zone only.
For alkaline water (alkalinity above 50mg./l as calcium carbonate) the dose should be based
on surface area rather than volume of water as algaecide will be precipitated as copper
bicarbonate before it can diffuse to lower depths. This difficulty can be overcome by scattering
fine granular copper sulphate over the water surface. Water of intermediate alkalinity may
be treated on volume basis.
Copper Sulphate is not effective at pH 8.5, hence before copper sulphate treatment pH
should be adjusted to maximise result.
Laboratory tests should be performed ensuring that copper content is within permissible
limit in water supplied (i.e. 0.05 mg/l).
Depletion of dissolved oxygen due to decomposition of dead algae and clogging of gills of
fish by dead algae clusters can be avoided by starting application of copper sulphate at the
dams or reservoirs, which gives ample time to fishes to get away from treatment sites.
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water level. Copper sulphate crystals are dissolved by water flowing through the box.
Dose of copper sulphate can be controlled by raising or lowering the box.
4. Spray Method: 0.5-1% copper sulphate solution may be sprayed over the surface of
water by conventional spraying equipment.
5. Blower Method: Large quantities of copper sulphate may be distributed over large
reservoirs or lakes by using blower fitted motor boats. Finely granulated copper
sulphate is fed into air entering the blower from a hopper fitted with a control
valve.
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4. Death and decay of algae imparts taste and odour to water. It also results in increase
of organic matter, which supports proliferation of saprophytes (organisms growing on
dead organic matter) resulting in lowering of oxygen content of water. Breakpoint pre-
chlorination helps in removal of taste and odour, also assists in coagulation and
controls growth of saprophytes.
5. Certain algae are resistant to copper sulphate treatment.
5.8.6 MICROSTRAINER
Algae can be removed from water by using microstrainer. The infested water can be passed
through stainless steel drums with cloths of mesh size ranging from 15-45 µm. Microstraining
is a useful process for the removal of filaments and colonial algae, but it does not remove smaller
species or reproductive forms which can multiply later on, creating problems. Microstraining
cannot constitute a complete treatment for effective disposal of algae, but it can be used as a
part of treatment line. Moreover, this procedure requires frequent cleaning of strainer.
5.9.1 INTRODUCTION
Minerals like iron and manganese generally make their way into ground water from shale,
sand stone and other rocks. These minerals dissolve in water containing carbon dioxide in
absence of oxygen; the insoluble oxides of these elements being reduced and transformed into
their soluble bicarbonates. These soluble bicarbonates when exposed to air by pumping lead
to the formation of brown coloured oxides of iron and manganese which creates unaesthetic
condition giving characteristic metallic taste and colour from brownish to blackish. It also
stains plumbing fixtures and laundered material.
5.9.2 IRON
5.9.2.1 Occurrence
Iron exists as reduced ferrous and chelated forms dissolved in ground water or in deeper layers
of some water reservoirs lacking oxygen. In surface water, iron is generally found in its
precipitated ferric form. Reduced iron in water promotes the growth of autotrophic bacteria
in distribution mains creating serious nuisance. The problem is further aggravated when water
also contains sulphates, as reduction of iron and sulphate compounds leads to the formation
of disagreeable odour and black deposits of iron sulphide.
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TABLE 5.9: APPROXIMATE AMOUNT OF COPPER SULPHATE &
CHLORINE REQUIRED AS A LETHAL DOSE FOR VARIOUS ALGAE*
(Suggested- to be adjusted according to alkalinity and temperature)
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The most common method for iron removal from water is oxidation followed by
sedimentation and filtration. In certain types of water treatment like pH correction and
chemical oxidation can be carried out in addition to above mentioned processes.
5.9.2.3 O&M problems and remedial measures of typical IRP (Iron Removal Plants)
Two types of such plants are described below:
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ii) Trickling of aerated water through a contact catalytic media viz., limestone of 20 mm
size or a combination of MnO2 (Manganese dioxide) and lime; or hard coke, MnO2
and limestone.
iii) Sedimentation.
iv) Filtration through Rapid Gravity Filter.
v) Disinfection.
The structure consists of ordinary masonry or concrete. The aerator with contact media
may be placed at the top of the sedimentation tank. Sedimentation tank may be rectangular
with a length to breadth ratio of 3:1. The detention time may be around 3-5 hours. The surface
loading may be around 25 m3/d/m2. Filter media shall consist of sand with effective size
0.5-0.7 mm and a depth of 750-1000 mm over a 450-600 mm deep gravel 3 to 50 mm size.
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iii) Thorough mixing of raw water, sodium aluminate and compressed air for proper
dispersion in a mixing chamber of M.S. welded cylindrical shell equipped with one
M.S perforated plate fitted inside through which the mixture flows upward.
iv) Passing the mixture through an oxidation chamber of M.S. shell, in which a catalytical
media of MnO2 (Manganese dioxide) is sandwiched between two M.S. perforated
circular plates. (through which the mixture flows).
v) Passing the above mixture in to a M.S. welded cylindrical shell type of filter in which
dual media comprising of Anthracite Coal or high graded bituminous coal, 3-6 mm size,
is placed at the top and finer sand of 0.5-1.00 mm size with 98% silica content is placed
at the bottom, over a gravel supported bed. At the bottom is the under drainage system.
Backwashing is done by air agitation followed by backwash with water.
vi) Disinfection.
5.10 MANGANESE
5.10.1 OCCURRENCE
In water manganese is usually present in soluble ionized form- manganese ion and manganese
hydroxide. It can form complexes with bicarbonates, sulphates, silicates as well as with certain
organic matter. It is often associated with iron and ammonium.
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(a) By Aeration
Oxidation by aeration needs high pH of at least 8.5-10 with lime treatment to enhance the
oxidation of manganese on coke or sand beds coated with manganese oxide; however, high
removal is not assured.
(c) By Chlorination
Manganese is oxidized by free residual chlorine at pH 8.4-10. The dose of chlorine should
be selected to provide about 1.25 ppm free chlorine for each ppm manganese to be oxidized.
Oxidation is aided by the use of 0.2 ppm copper sulphate, the copper acting as catalytic agent.
d) By Potassium Permanganate
Potassium permanganate provides better oxidation than chlorine and the reaction is
independent of the pH in range above 7.0; so manganese may be oxidized without lime
treatment. The dose is about twice the content of manganese.
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