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Potable Water

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Potable

Water Distribution


Potable Water Distribution 2013

Table of Contents

The Institutional framework 3

Water Resources in Mauritius 3

Central Water Authority (CWA) 4

Mare Aux Vacoas Water supply system 5

Water Treatment Process 6

Water Quality Criteria 13

Water Distribution 15

Water Consumption 16

Water Conservation 16

Referencing 19


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The Institutional framework
The main institution responsible for the provision of clean water and sanitation in Mauritius are
as follows:

• The Water Resources Unit


• The Central Water Authority
• The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life
• The Waste Water Management Authority
• The Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development.

Water Resources in Mauritius


The only source of water is rain.

• 25 major river basins, 21 minor river basins


• Perennial rivers, originating from the central plateau, and flowing radially to the sea.
• 5 main aquifers, 11 reservoirs and 350 boreholes
• Average depth of boreholes = 40-60 m; maximum depth = 173 m
• Discharge to the sea = 0.5 km3/year.
• Total renewable water resources = 2.751 km3/year.
• Total exploitable water resources = 1.083 km3/year.
• North and west of the island are driest (annual precipitation 1,200 mm and 900 mm
respectively).
• The Central Plateau (altitude 500 meters) receives an annual average of 4,000 mm.
• Owing to its topography, hydro-geological conditions and tropical location, Mauritius
experiences high levels of rapid run off.
• Only 10 % of the precipitation goes as ground water recharge, while evapotranspiration
and surface runoff represent 30 % and 60 % respectively.
• Part of the surface runoff is conveyed to the impounding reservoirs, abstracted from
rivers for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses and the remaining flows to the sea.
• 6 main storage reservoirs namely Mare aux Vacoas, La Ferme, Mare Longue, La
Nicoliere, Piton du Milieu and the Midlands Dam.
• 3 Minor reservoirs for hydropower are Tamarin, Eau Bleue, and Diamamouve.
• 2 in-field minor storage reservoirs at Valetta and Dagotière, which regulate water for
irrigation.
• Total dam capacity is 93 Mm3, of which Mare aux Vacoas alone has 26Mm3,and supplies
1/3rd of the population.


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Central Water Authority (CWA)
The CWA is responsible for the mobilisation, treatment, quality control and distribution of potable water
on mainland Mauritius. The CWA has set as mission:-

“To secure and provide an excellent sustainable water supply service, of appropriate quality, at
a reasonable price, which meets the growing needs of the people and to support the Economic
Development of the Country”.

Piped potable water is universal in Mainland Mauritius. 98.6% of households have access to
piped potable water within their premises.

The CWA ensures service delivery through some 3,985 km of distribution pipeline drawing from
106 service reservoirs, totalling storage capacity of 237,970 m 3/d.

Throughput in the distribution network, currently, averages 545,000 m 3/day. 51% of resources
are derived from ground water sources, airlifted through 112 boreholes pumping stations. The
balance is from surface sources, mobilised from the following impounding reservoirs:-

Mare Aux Vacoas, Piton du Milieu, La Nicoliere, supplemental water from Midlands Dam
through La Nicoliere, Port Louis Municipal Dyke Dam and Riviere du Poste.

The CWA operates 2 slow sand filtration plants and five rapid gravity filtration plants, totalling
installed capacity of 315,800 m 3 for the treatment and purification of water from surface
services. Because of its excellent quality, water from ground water sources is only chlorinated
prior to being injected in the distribution network.

For administrative convenience and service delivery purposes, the CWA has divided the island
into six autonomous operational water supply systems/districts.

1) Port Louis Water Supply System


2) District Water Supply System (North)
3) District Water Supply System (East)
4) District Water Supply System (South)
5) MAV (Upper) Water Supply System
6) MAV (Lower) Water Supply System


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Mare aux Vacoas Water Supply System - Upper
Being a resident of La Caverne, Vacoas, I am hereby concerned with the MAV (Upper) Water
Supply System.
This system caters to the potable water supply for the central part of the island covering the
following regions: Forest Side, Curepipe, Floreal, Vacoas, Mesnil, up to Highlands, Moka, St.
Pierre Nouvelle Decouverte, Alma, Quartier Militaire.

System area: 220 km²

Population served: 220,000

Number of Accounts: 52,091

Main Water Sources

• Mare aux Vacoas Reservoir

• Ground water abstraction

Normal production = 114,000 m³/day


• Surface water = 77%

• Groundwater = 23%


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Water Treatment Process
1. Preliminary Treatment

Preliminary treatment or pretreatment is any physical, chemical or mechanical process used


on water before it undergoes the main treatment process. During preliminary treatment:

• screens may be used to remove rocks, sticks, leaves and other debris;
• chemicals may be added to control the growth of algae; and
• apresedimentation stage can settle out sand, grit and gravel from raw water.

2. Coagulation

After preliminary treatment, the next step is coagulation. Coagulation removes small
particles that are made up of microbes, silt and other suspended material in the water.
Treatment chemicals such as alum are added to the water and mixed rapidly in a large basin.
The chemicals cause small particles to clump together (coagulate). Gentle mixing brings
smaller clumps of particles together to form larger groups called "floc". Some of the floc
begins to settle during this stage.

3. Flocculation

During the flocculation stage, the heavy, dense floc settles to the bottom of the water in large
tanks. Thisis a slow process! Once the floc settles, the water is ready for the next stage of
treatment.

4. Sedimentation

Sedimentation occurs in a large basin where water is again allowed to flow very slowly.
Sludge, a residue of solids and water, accumulates at the basin's bottom and is pumped or
scraped out for eventual disposal. Sedimentation is also sometimes called Clarification.

Decrease
Reservoir Period Area Previous Current in Sediment Sediment
Years Km2 Volume Volume Volume Rate Rate
Mm3 Mm3 Mm3 Mm3/Yr m3/km2/yr
Mare Aux
Vacoas 108 19.5 26.4 25.9 0.54 0.005 256.4

5. Softening and stabilization

When water is too "hard" (i.e. contains too much calcium, magnesium or other minerals), it
forms scale and causes a variety of problems in pipes. Hard water can also result in


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laundering and washing problems, because it reduces the effectiveness of soaps and
detergents.

Conversely, when too many of these minerals are removed, water can become too "soft".
Soft water can cause corrosion in pipes.

Drinking water plants attempt to maintain a desirable balance between hardness and softness.
This is accomplished by adding minerals to soft water and removing them from hard water.

6. Filtration

Turbidity is a physical characteristic that makes water appear cloudy when suspended matter
is present. The filtration process removes suspended matter, which can consist of floc,
microorganisms (including protozoan cysts such as Giardia and Cyrptosporidium), algae,
silt, iron, and manganese precipitates from ground-water sources, as well as precipitants
which remain after the softening process.

These suspended materials are filtered out when water passes through beds of granular
material, usually composed of layers of sand and gravel.

At La Marie Filter bed there are 2 treatment plant:

One slow sand treatment plant: 60,000 m3

One rapid gravity treatment plant: 70,000 m3

Average daily throughput : 90,000 m3/d

Rapid Gravity Treatment Plant

The rapid sand filter or rapid gravity filter is a type of filter used in water purification.

Rapid sand filters use relatively coarse sand and other granular media to remove particles and
impurities that have been trapped in a floc through the use of flocculation chemicals--
typically salts of aluminium or iron. Water and flocs flows through the filter medium under
gravity or under pumped pressure and the flocculated material is trapped in the sand matrix.

Mixing, flocculation and sedimentation processes are typical treatment stages that precede
filtration. Chemical additives, such as coagulants, are often used in conjunction with the
filtration system

A disinfection system (typically using chlorine or ozone) is commonly used following


filtration.Rapid sand filtration has very little effect on taste and smell and dissolved
impurities of drinking water, unless activated carbon is included in the filter medium.


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Rapid sand filters must be cleaned frequently, often several times a day, by backwashing,
which involves reversing the direction of the water and adding compressed air. During
backwashing, the bed is fluidized and care must be taken not to wash away the media.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages include:

• Much higher flow rate than a slow sand filter; about 150 to 200 million gallons of water
per acre per day
• Requires relatively small land area
• Less sensitive to changes in raw water quality, e.g. turbidity
• Requires less quantity of sand

Disadvantages include:

• Large pore size will not without coagulant or flocculent remove pathogens like
Crytosporidium smaller than 20 microns
• Requires greater maintenance than a slow sand filter. For this reason, it is not usually
classed as an "appropriate technology," as the term is applied in less-developed countries.
• Generally ineffective against taste and odor problems.
• Produces large volumes of sludge for disposal.
• Requires ongoing investment in costly flocculation reagents.
• Treatment of raw water with chemicals is essential.
• Skilled supervision is essential.
• Cost of maintenance is higher.
• It cannot remove bacteria.

Slow Sand Treatment Plant

Slow sand filters have a number of unique qualities:

a. Unlike other filtration methods, slow sand filters use biological processes to clean the
water, and are non-pressurized systems. Slow sand filters do not require chemicals or
electricity to operate.
b. Cleaning is traditionally done by use of a mechanical scraper, which is usually driven
into the filter bed once the bed has been dried out. However, some slow sand filter
operators use a method called "wet harrowing", where the sand is scraped while still
under water, and the water used for cleaning is drained to waste.
c. For municipal systems there usually is a certain degree of redundancy, since it is
desirable for the maximum required throughput of water to be achievable with one or
more beds out of service.
d. Slow sand filters require relatively low turbidity levels to operate efficiently. In summer
conditions and in conditions when the raw water is turbid, blinding of the filters occurs
more quickly and pre-treatment is recommended.


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e. Unlike other water filtration technologies that produce water on demand, slow sand filters
produce water at a slow, constant flow rate and are usually used in conjunction with a
storage tank for peak usage. This slow rate is necessary for healthy development of the
biological processes in the filter.

Advantages

• As they require little or no mechanical power, chemicals or replaceable parts, and they
require minimal operator training and only periodic maintenance, they are often an
appropriate technology for poor and isolated areas.
• Slow sand filters are recognized by the World Health Organization as being superior
technology for the treatment of surface water sources. According to the World Health
Organization, "Under suitable circumstances, slow sand filtration may be not only the
cheapest and simplest but also the most efficient method of water treatment."

Disadvantages

• Due to the low filtration rate, slow sand filters require extensive land area for a large
population.

7. Fluoridation and Disinfection

Fluoride (F-) is added to water to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridation is an effective, economical
process endorsed by many public health groups worldwide. Fluoride is fed into the water
system as either a dry powder or in solution. (A Hach fluoride test detects fluoride levels in
the water.)

During disinfection, disease-causing organisms are destroyed or disabled. Chlorine (Cl2) is


the most common disinfectant used in the United States because it is practical, effective and
economical.

Because chlorine dissipates rapidly, it is important to add the right amount of chlorine at the
distribution system.

8. Service Reservoirs

The reservoirs provide a water reserve to meet the changing water demands of the
communities they serve.


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Water Quality Criteria


Potable water supplied by the Authority is treated to standards set for drinking water by the
Ministry of Environment. Moreover, to ensure CWA’s compliance with the existing standards,
independent test conducted by the Ministry of Health & Quality of Life.
To ensure that water supplied conforms to the World Health Organization’s guidelines for
drinking water, the Water Quality Laboratory of the Authority pursues a standard monitoring
programme which consists of sampling and testing for Chemical and Bacteriological parameters.
Water samples from all over the island are collected on a daily basis and analysis performed
onboth raw water sources and potable water supplied to the public. In fact, the Laboratory
performs tests (physico-chemical and microbiological testing) on potable water, surface and
ground water sources as well as on effluents (physic - chemical testing).

Physical and Chemical Tests

Colour Phosphate
Turbidity Sulphate
pH Aluminium
Electrical Conductivity Ammonia (as N)
Temperature Chloride
Free Carbon Dioxide Total Dissolved Solids
Acidity Total Suspended Solids
Alkanity Total Zinc
Total Hardness Sodium
Calcium Hardness Potassium
Magnesium Hardness Chemical Oxygen Demand
Carbonate Hardness Biological Oxygen Demand
Non-Carbonate Hardness Iron
Chloride Calcium
Nitrate (as N) Silica


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Nitrite (as N) Magnesium

Water Distribution


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In house


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Two external taps, two kitchen taps, one wash basin tap, one spigot, bathroom shower and tap
and 1000L water tank all interconnected together with 12mm diameter rigid pipe. The plumbing
system works as follows:

Direct water available in the kitchen, wash basin and the external taps. The others are connected
to the tank. In case of direct water interruption all taps uses the water from the water tank.

For gardening, car washing and floor washing, rain water is used. Water from roof is stored in
drums.

Water Consumption


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Mauritius is classified as a water-stressed country. Usable freshwater potential estimated at 1300
Mm3 per year equivalent to 1083 m3/person/year, which puts Mauritius in the water-stressed
category.

Mauritians, with an average consumption of 166 liters of water per person per day (data from
Statistics Mauritius), use much more water than people in other parts of the World. According to
the UN, each person needs 20 to 50 liters of water a day to ensure their basic needs for drinking,
cooking and cleaning.

Typical water use at home

• Bath
• Teeth brushing
• Hands/ face wash
• Shaving
• Dishwashing
• Washing of clothes
• Toilet flush
• Drinking water
• Outdoor watering

Minimum Water Charges – Rs 45.00

First 10m3 Next 10m3 Next 30m3 Every additional m3


Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
6.00 8.00 17.00 32.00

Average water consumed per month = 16m3

Cost of water = Rs. 118.00 per month

Water Conservation
In the home

1. Check faucets and pipes for leaks. A small drip from a worn faucet washer can waste 20
gallons of water per day. Larger leaks can waste hundreds of gallons.
2. Don't use the toilet as an ashtray or wastebasket. Every time you flush a cigarette butt,
facial tissue or other small bit of trash, five to seven gallons of water is wasted.
3. Check your toilets for leaks. Put a little food coloring in your toilet tank. If, without
flushing, the color begins to appear in the bowl within 30 minutes, you have a leak that


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should be repaired immediately. Most replacement parts are inexpensive and easy to
install.
4. Use your water meter to check for hidden water leaks. Read the house water meter before
and after a two-hour period when no water is being used. If the meter does not read
exactly the same, there is a leak.
5. Install water-saving showerheads and low-flow faucet aerators Inexpensive water-saving
low-flow showerheads or restrictors are easy for the homeowner to install. Also, long, hot
showers can use five to ten gallons every unneeded minute. Limit your showers to the
time it takes to soap up, wash down and rinse off. "Low-flow" means it uses less than 2.5
gallons per minute. You can easily install a Shower Start showerhead, or add a Shower
Start converter to existing showerheads, which automatically pauses a running shower
once it gets warm. Also, all household faucets should be fit with aerators. This single best
home water conservation method is also the cheapest.
6. Put plastic bottles or float booster in your toilet tank. To cut down on water waste, put an
inch or two of sand or pebbles inside each of two plastic bottles to weigh them down. Fill
the bottles with water, screw the lids on, and put them in your toilet tank, safely away
from the operating mechanisms. Or, buy an inexpensive tank bankor float booster. This
may save ten or more gallons of water per day. Be sure at least 3 gallons of water remain
in the tank so it will flush properly. If there is not enough water to get a proper flush, users
will hold the lever down too long or do multiple flushes to get rid of waste. Two flushings
at 1.4 gallons is worse than a single 2.0 gallon flush. A better suggestion would be to buy
an adjustable toilet flapper that allow for adjustment of their per flush use. Then the user
can adjust the flush rate to the minimum per flush setting that achieves a single good flush
each time. For new installations, consider buying "low flush" toilets, which use 1 to 2
gallons per flush instead of the usual 3 to 5 gallons.
7. Insulate your water pipes. It's easy and inexpensive toinsulate your water pipes with pre-
slit foam pipe insulation. You'll get hot water faster plus avoid wasting water while it
heats up.
8. Take shorter showers. One way to cut down on water use is to turn off the shower after
soaping up, then turn it back on to rinse. A four-minute shower uses approximately 20 to
40 gallons of water.
9. Turn off the water after you wet your toothbrush. There is no need to keep the water
running while brushing your teeth. Just wet your brush and fill a glass for mouth rinsing.
10. Rinse your razor in the sink. Fill the sink with a few inches of warm water. This will rinse
your razor just as well as running water, with far less waste of water.
11. Use your dishwasher and clothes washer for only full loads. Automatic dishwashers and
clothes washers should be fully loaded for optimum water conservation. Most makers of
dishwashing soap recommend not pre-rinsing dishes, which is a big water savings. With
clothes washers, avoid the permanent press cycle, which uses an added 20 liters (5
gallons) for the extra rinse. For partial loads, adjust water levels to match the size of the


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load. Replace old clothes washers. New Energy Star rated washers use 35 - 50% less
water and 50% less energy per load. If you're in the market for a new clothes washer,
consider buying a water-saving frontload washer.
12. Minimize use of kitchen sink garbage disposal units. In-sink 'garburators' require lots of
water to operate properly, and also add considerably to the volume of solids in a septic
tank which can lead to maintenance problems. Start a compost pileas an alternate method
of disposing food waste.
13. When washing dishes by hand, don't leave the water running for rinsing. If your have a
double-basin, fill one with soapy water and one with rinse water. If you have a single-
basin sink, gather washed dishes in a dish rack and rinse them with a spray device or a
panful of hot water. Dual-swivel aerators are available to make this easier. If using a
dishwasher, there is usually no need to pre-rinse the dishes.
14. Don't let the faucet run while you clean vegetables. Just rinse them in a stoppered sink or a
pan of clean water. Use a dual-setting aerator.
15. Keep a bottle of drinking water in the fridge. Running tap water to cool it off for drinking
water is wasteful. Store drinking water in the fridge in a safe drinking bottle. If you are
filling water bottles to bring along on outdoor hikes, consider buying a Life Straw
personal water filter, which enables users to drink water safely from rivers or lakes or any
available body of water.

In the yard

16. Plant drought-resistant lawns, shrubs and plants. If you are planting a new lawn, or
overseeding an existing lawn, use drought-resistant grasses such as the new "Eco-
Lawn".Many beautiful shrubs and plants thrive with far less watering than other species.
Replace herbaceous perennial borders with native plants. Native plants will use less water
and be more resistant to local plant diseases. Consider applying the principles of xeriscape
for a low-maintenance, drought resistant yard.Plant slopes with plants that will retain
water and help reduce runoff. Group plants according to their watering needs.
17. Put a layer of mulch around trees and plants Mulch will slow evaporation of moisture
while discouraging weed growth. Adding 2 - 4 inches of organic material such as compost
or bark mulch will increase the ability of the soil to retain moisture. Press the mulch down
around the dripline of each plant to form a slight depression, which will prevent or
minimize water runoff. For information about different mulch materials and their best use.
18. Don't water the gutter. Position your sprinklers so water lands on the lawn or garden, not
on paved areas. Also, avoid watering on windy days
19. Water your lawn only when it needs it. A good way to see if your lawn needs watering is
to step on the grass. If it springs back up when you move, it doesn't need water. If it stays
flat, the lawn is ready for watering. Letting the grass grow taller (to 3") will also promote
water retention in the soil.Most lawns only need about 1" of water each week. During dry
spells, you can stop watering altogether and the lawn will go brown and dormant. Once


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cooler weather arrives, the morning dew and rainfall will bring the lawn back to its usual
vigor. This may result in a brown summer lawn, but it saves a lot of water.
20. Water during the early parts of the day; avoid watering when it's windy. Early morning is
generally better than dusk since it helps prevent the growth of fungus. Early watering, and
late watering, also reduce water loss to evaporation. Watering early in the day is also the
best defence against slugs and other garden pests. Try not to water when it's windy - wind
can blow sprinklers off target and speed evaporation
21. Add organic matter and use efficient watering systems for shrubs, flower beds and lawns.
Adding organic material to your soil will help increase its absorption and water retention.
Areas which are already planted can be 'top dressed' with compost or organic matter.You
can greatly reduce the amount of water used for shrubs, beds and lawns by:- the strategic
placement of soaker hoses- installing a rain barrel water catchment system- installing a
simple drip-irrigation system. Avoid over-watering plants and shrubs, as this can actually
diminish plant health and cause yellowing of the leaves. When hand watering, use a
variable spray nozzle for targeted watering
22. Don't run the hose while washing your car. Clean the car using a pail of soapy water. Use
the hose only for rinsing - this simple practice can save as much as 150 gallons when
washing a car. Use a spray nozzle when rinsing for more efficient use of water. Better yet,
use a waterless car washing system.
23. Check for leaks in pipes, hoses, faucets and couplings. Leaks outside the house may not
seem as bad since they're not as visible. But they can be just as wasteful as leaks indoors.
Check frequently to keep them drip-free. Use hose washers at spigots and hose
connections to eliminate leaks.Water conservation comes naturally when everyone in the
family is aware of its importance, and parents take the time to teach children some of the
simple water-saving methods around the home which can make a big difference.

Referencing

• Le Mauricien, Water Crisis - Real or Mauritian Made Problem? (2013). Available at


http://www.lemauricien.com/article/water-crisis-real-or-mauritian-made-
problem%C2%A0
• Central Water Authority – Customer Charter (2012) – Available at
http://cwa.gov.mu/English//DOCUMENTS/PK10%20CUSTOMER%20CHARTER%20
AMENDED_E.PDF
• National Programme on Sustainable Consumption and Production for Mauritius,
‘Achieving More with Less’ (2008)- Available at
http://www.unep.org/roa/docs/pdf/SCPProgramme-Mauritius.pdf
• MACKENZIE L.Davis, 2010, Water and Wastewater Engineering. McGraw Hill


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