1083ch7 0015 PDF
1083ch7 0015 PDF
1083ch7 0015 PDF
of Required Capacity
Flow Sheet Symbol
W. F. SCHLEGEL (1969, 1982) R. V. BOYD AND B. P. GUPTA (1995)
B. G. LIPTK (2003)*
*B. P. Gupta and W. Y. Wong should also be credited for work on this section.
973
2003 by Bla Liptk
974 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors
(a) the relief devices are capable of preventing the pres- UG-133(b)Protective devices as permitted in UG-125(c)(2),
sure from rising more than 20% above the maximum as protection against excessive pressure caused by exposure
allowable working pressure of the vessels; to fire or other sources of external heat, shall have a relieving
(b) the set pressure of these devices shall not exceed the capacity sufficient to prevent the pressure from rising more
maximum allowable working pressure of the vessels; than 21% above the maximum allowable working pressure
(c) the vessels have sufficient ullage to avoid a liquid full of the vessel when all pressure-relieving devices are blowing.
condition;
(d) the maximum allowable working pressure of the UG-134(d)(1)The set pressure tolerance for pressure relief
vessels on which these devices are installed is valves shall not exceed 2 psi for pressures up to and includ-
greater than the vapor pressure of the stored lique- ing 70 psi and 3% for pressures above 70 psi [4.8 bars],
fied compressed gas at the maximum anticipated except as covered in (d)(2).
temperature that the gas will reach under atmo-
spheric conditions; and UG-134(d)(2)The set pressure tolerance of pressure relief
(e) pressure relief valves used to satisfy these provisions valves which comply with UG-125(c)(3) shall be within 0%,
also comply with the requirements of UG-129(a)(5), +10%.
UG-131(c)(2), and UG-134(e)(2).
API Standards and Recommended Practices
UG-126(b)Pilot-operated pressure relief valves may be used,
provided that the pilot is self-actuated and the main valve In general, oil refineries tend to base their pressure relief
will open automatically at not over the set pressure and will system designs on the API standards and recommended prac-
discharge its full rated capacity if some essential part of the tices (RPs). The most widely used API documents are as
pilot should fail. follows:
UG-126(d)The set pressure tolerances, plus or minus, of The API 2000 standard is also widely used in other indus-
pressure relief valves shall not exceed 2 psi for pressures up tries beyond refineries to set the pressure relief requirements
to and including 70 psi [4.8 bars] and 3% for pressures above for storage vessels, which are designed for pressures under
70 psi [4.8 bars]. 15 PSIG. Some of the other API standards and recommended
practices that are relevant to PRV system design include the
UG-131(d)(1)A capacity certification test is required on a following:
set of three valves for each combination of size, design, and
pressure setting. The stamped capacity rating for each com- API Standard 526, Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves
bination of design, size, and test pressure shall not exceed API Standard 527, Seat Tightness of Pressure
90% of the average capacity of the three valves tested. The API Recommended Practice 550, Manual on Installa-
capacity for each set of three valves shall fall within a range tion of Refinery Instruments and Control Systems
of 5% of the average capacity. Failure to meet this require- API PR 576, Inspection of Pressure-Relieving Devices
ment shall be cause to refuse certification of that particular
safety valve design.
NFPA Codes
UG-133(a)As permitted in (b), the aggregate capacity of the For determining the required relieving capacity from tanks
pressure-relieving devices connected to any vessel or system and storage vessels, when exposed to external fire, both the
of vessels for the release of a liquid, air, steam, or other vapor API and the NFPA codes can be used. The most often used
shall be sufficient to carry off the maximum quantity that can NFPA codes are the following:
be generated or supplied to the attached equipment without
permitting a rise in pressure within the vessel of more than NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
16% above the maximum allowable working pressure when NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gases, Storage and
the pressure-relieving devices are blowing. Handling
OSHA Codes been sized to handle the largest of overpressure causes from
among fire, run-away chemical reaction, loss of utilities, etc.,
The OSHA codes that relate to the design of pressure safety that is sufficient. It is not necessary to consider their simul-
systems are the following: taneous occurrence and size the PRV for the sum of two or
more of these causes.
OSHA 1910.106, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
OSHA 1910.110, Liquefied Petroleum Gases
OSHA 1910.119, Process Safety Management
FIRE PROTECTION
CAUSES OF OVERPRESSURE The ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code requires that pres-
sure vessels covered by the code be adequately relieved.
Overpressure can be caused by fire and by nonfire process External fire is a potential overpressure source; therefore, for
causes. In the second category, there can be many potential fire conditions, the code requires that relief devices be sized
causes. These will be discussed after the treatment of fire such that, at maximum relieving conditions, the vessel pres-
protection that follows in the next paragraph. The potential sure does not exceed the vessel design pressure by more than
nonfire causes of overpressure include the following: 20%. This is referred to as 20% accumulation.
For vessels with adequate liquid inventory, the required
1. Utility failures, which can be the failure of electric relief capacity under fire conditions is a function of tank area
power, instrument air, steam, coolant, or fuel exposed to fire, of the heat flux per unit area of tank surface,
2. Thermal expansion and of the latent heat of the process fluid. These three factors
3. Blocked outlets will be separately discussed below. The first to be discussed
4. Valve or process control failure is the determination of the applicable heat flux.
5. Equipment failure
6. Runaway chemical reaction Gas-Filled Tanks
7. Human error
If the vessel does not have an adequate liquid inventory, stress
rupture can occur from overheated spots long before the inter-
It should be emphasized that part of the goal of a safe plant
nal pressure in the tank would reach the setting of the PRV.
design is the goal of minimizing the opportunities for human
Therefore, gas-filled tanks and vessels with low liquid inven-
error.
tory require different approaches for protection against over-
Substituting for Pressure Relief Devices pressure, and design engineers should consider API RP 521
for determining the PRV size required when the tank is exposed
In general it is not recommended to accept fail-safe instru- to fire and some or most of its inner surface is not wetted.
ments or the actions of automatic control loops as substitutes In most cases, PRVs sized in accordance with API RP
for PRVs. This is because the reliability of control systems 520 cannot give overpressure protection to gas-filled tanks.
has not advanced to the point where they are completely Therefore, when the installation of hydrogen or other flam-
reliable. Their reliability has increased substantially by the mable gas-filled vessels is being designed, the following
invention of high integrity protective systems (HIPSs), emer- options should also be considered:
gency power supplies (EPSs), uninterruptible power supplies
(UPSs), triple redundancy, and two out of three voting 1. Bury the tank under ground and cover it with earth.
systems. Yet, to date, there is no code or regulation that 2. Move the vessel away from the process area or sur-
accepts automatic process control as a substitute for the instal- round it by a dike or a firewall.
lation of PRVs. 3. Elevate the vessel over the fire height (API, 25 ft,
Similarly, the various safety oriented administrative pro- NFPA, 30 ft above grade).
cedures cannot be used as substitutes for PRVs. This is 4. Use a water deluge system or install fireproof insulation.
because human error can never be fully eliminated, and no 5. Provide automatic vapor depressurization.
matter what the administrative procedure says, (according to 6. Provide automatic fire monitoring and automatic fire
Murphys Law) if it is possible to forget to drain a pipeline fighting capability.
of its toxic or hazardous content, it will happen. One excep-
tion involves the use of car seals open (CSO) and car seals Heat Absorption Across Unwetted Surfaces The effective
locked (CSL) valves, which API RP 520 and 521 accept as discharge area of a relief valve required to protect a vessel that
means of guaranteeing that equipment will not be blocked in. is exposed to external fire and has unwetted surface area can
In the overpressure analysis of a plant, the design engi- be determined by Equations 7.15(1) and 7.15(2).
neer does not need to consider the possibility of the simul-
taneous occurrence of more than one cause of overpressure.
In other words, if, for example, a chemical reactor PRV has A = (FA)/ Pu 7.15(1)
TABLE 7.15a
Properties of Gases
Critical Flow Specific Condensation
Specific Heat Pressure Gravity Critical Constants Temperature Flammability
Ratio (k = Cp /Cv) Ratio at 60F at 60F One Limits (volume
Molecular at 60F and One and One and One Pressure Temperature Atmosphere percent in air
Gas Weight Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere (psia) (F) (F) mixture) References
Methane 16.04 1.31 0.54 0.554 673 116 259 5.015.0
Ethane 30.07 1.19 0.57 1.058 718 90 128 2.913.8
a
Ethylene 28.03 1.24 0.57 0.969 742 50 155 2.734.8
Propane 44.09 1.13 0.58 1.522 617 206 44 2.19.5
a
Propylene 47.08 1.15 0.58 1.453 667 197 54 2.810.8 2, 3
a
Isobutane 58.12 1.18 0.59 2.007 529 273 11 1.88.4 1
n-Butane 58.12 1.19 0.59 2.007 551 304 31 1.98.4
a
I-Butene 56.10 1.11 0.59 1.937 543 276 21 1.49.3 2, 3
a
Isopentane 72.15 1.08 0.59 2.491 483 369 82 1.48.3
a
n-Pentane 72.15 1.08 0.59 2.491 490 386 97 1.47.8
a
l-Pentene 70.13 1.08 0.59 2.421 586 377 86 1.48.7
a
n-Hexane 86.18 1.06 0.59 2.973 437 454 156 1.27.7
Benzene 78.11 1.12 0.58 2.697 714 552 176 1.37.9 2, 3
a
n-Heptane 100.20 1.05 0.60 3.459 397 513 209 1.07.0
Toluene 92.13 1.09 0.59 3.181 590 604 231 1.27.1 2, 3
a
n-Octane 114.22 1.05 0.60 3.944 362 564 258 0.96
a
n-Nonane 128.23 1.04 0.60 4.428 552 610 303 0.872.9
a
n-Decane 142.28 1.03 0.60 4.912 304 632 345 0.782.6
Air 29.96 1.40 0.53 1.000 547 221 313 2, 3
Ammonia 17.03 1.30 0.53 0.588 1636 270 28 15.527.0 2, 3
Carbon 44.01 1.29 0.55 1.519 1071 88 109 2, 3
dioxide
Hydrogen 2.02 1.41 0.52 0.0696 188 400 423 4.074.2 2, 3
Hydrogen 34.08 1.32 0.53 1.176 1306 213 77 4.345.5 2, 3
sulfide
Sulfur 64.04 1.27 0.55 2.212 1143 316 14 2, 3
dioxide
Steam 18.01 1.33 0.54 0.622 3206 706 212 2, 3
a
Estimated.
References:
1. Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons C1 to C10 , ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 109A, Philadelphia, PA, 1963.
2. International-Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill, New York.
3. Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Tulsa, OK, 1977.
and Combustible Liquids. The National Fire Protection Asso- Low-Pressure Tanks For above-ground tanks and storage
ciation is an organization of insurance companies and regu- vessels designed to operate from atmospheric pressure to 14
latory organizations. Their recommendations are likely to PSIG (104 kPa) and used for the storage of flammable liquids,
meet the requirements of most insurance companies, as they still another method of determining heat flux under fire con-
are generally more conservative than the corresponding API ditions is available. This recommendation is based on the
recommendations. American Petroleum Institute and is presented in their bul-
Table 7.15e lists the equations recommended by NFPA letin API-RP-2000. This method is also referred to in the
for the determination of total heat absorption and for calcu- National Fire Codes of the National Fire Protection Associ-
lating the equivalent air flow for tanks exposed to external fire. ation, for informational purposes only.
400
TABLE 7.15c
Heat Flux Calculation for Pressure Relieving Systems Based on
380 API RP 521
2
Type of Tank Drainage Heat Flux (q), BTU/hr/f *
Coefficient C
0.18
Adequate 21,000FA
360
0.18
Inadequate 34,500FA
2 2
340 *1 BTU/hr/ft = 3.15 W/m
320 W/hr). This heat input corresponds to a free air vent rate of
742,000 SCFH.
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 For a comparison between API RP 521 based heat flux
Specific Heat Ratio, k = Cp /Cv recommendation for adequately drained regular tanks and
NFPAs heat flux information for low pressure tanks, refer to
FIG. 7.15b Figure 7.15d.
The relationship between the specific heat ratio (k) of gases and
coefficient C. (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute from Free Air Calculation This procedure relates the required
API Recommended Practice 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation relieving rate, expressed as cubic feet of free air per hour, to
of Pressure-relieving Devices in Refineries, Part I Sizing and the wetted area. Relieving rates for low-pressure tanks are
Selection, 7th ed., January 2000.) tabulated as shown in Table 7.15g. The data in this table are
based on the physical properties of hexane and utilize the
Table 7.16f gives the NFPA-30 heat flux calculation API recommendations for heat flux due to fire conditions.
equations as a function of tank design pressure and wetted The total emergency relief capacity for any specific liquid
area. The NFPA recommended values of the environmental may be calculated from Table 7.15g by the use of the follow-
factor F are listed in Table 7.15j. For low-pressure tanks with ing formula:
design pressures under 1 PSIG and having wetted surface
2 2
areas exceeding 2800 ft (260 m ), they have concluded that Design cubic feet of free air per hour = V1337/( M w )
complete fire coverage is unlikely, and the maximum total
heat input has been limited to 14,090,000 BTU/hr (4,128,370 7.15(6)
HEAT FLUX(q)
Kcal/HR m2 BTU/HR FT2
81,345 30,000
54,230 20,000
NFPA
27,115 10,000
21,692 8,000
16,269 6,000
5,423 2,000
FIG. 7.15d
Heat flux estimates under fire conditions as a function of wetted area recommended by API and NFPA. The solid line is based on API RP
521 and can be used for regular tanks, which are provided with adequate drainage under fire conditions. The dotted line describes NFPA
2
information for low-pressure tanks only. For tanks having over 2800 ft in wetted area and with design pressures of 1 PSIG or less, NFPA
suggests the fixed maximum heat input of 14,090,000 BTU/hr (3,553,000 kcal/hr).
TABLE 7.15e
Equations Recommended by NFPA Bulletin 30 for the Determination of Total Heat Absorption Q (BTU/hr) and
for the Determination of Vent Rate of Free Air (SCHF), when Various Size Vessels, with Design Pressures Exceeding
1 PSIG and Containing Flammable Liquids, Are Exposed to External Fire
Total Heat Absorption Equivalent Vent Rate of Free Air
(Air Flow in SCFH at 14.7 PSIA and 60F)
2
Wetted Tank Area (A in ft ) Due to Fire (Q in BTU/hr)
3
potential for oversizing relief valves on vessels in crude oil **SCFH = 0.0283 m /hr
and other multicomponent liquid applications where the com-
ponents have a wide range of boiling points. Latent heat of Wetted Area (A)
vaporization depends on the specific liquid, and, for multi-
component liquids such as crude oil, it cannot be tabulated. The factors that need to be considered in calculating the
In the case of crude oil, the heat input is initially absorbed wetted area include the following:
by the oil and steel (minor part) as the temperature of the
vessel and oil rises. Initially, the specific heat of the oil 1. The design basis, which can be API or NFPA
absorbs the heat, and only a small portion of the heat input 2. The tank shape, which can be horizontal, vertical, or
is utilized as latent heat generating vapor, which must be spherical
relieved. With constant heat input, the amount of vapor gen- 3. The ground area of the fire zone
erated varies with the temperature of the oil in the vessel. 4. The effective fire height
Process calculations must be made to determine the true
(maximum) rate of vapor evolution, taking into consideration While relief capacity determination is not directly
the actual process fluid. This calculation must consider the impacted by it, the effect of fire on nonwetted surfaces can
worst-case situation when a particular vessel can be used to also cause structural failure from the steel softening at elevated
store different liquids. temperatures. Thermal insulation or fire-resistant coatings,
TABLE 7.15h
Relief Capacity Determination: Table of Constants*
Heat of Vaporization,
Molecular BTU per lbm at Boiling
Chemical Mw Weight (Mw) Point ()
if not dislodged by the fire, can reduce the probability of PRV for overpressure protection, no regular block valves
vessel failure caused by steel softening. are to be installed between them. The use of CSO valves is
allowed.
API or NFPA As will be noted from the discussions in the
paragraphs that follow, there are some differences between Fire Height If NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gases, Stor-
the recommendations of NFPA and API. For this reason, it age and Handling, is selected as the basis of the design, the
is suggested that design engineers decide which set of rec- design engineer must calculate the wetted area on the basis
ommendations are to be followed in designing the particular of a 30-ft fire height above ground.
plant before considering the shapes of tanks or the expected If API RP 520 and 521 are used as the design basis for
fire height. the plant, the design engineer must consider only a 25-ft fire
NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gases, Storage and Han- height and measure that height, not necessarily from ground,
dling, requires the design engineer to calculate the wetted but from above the source of flame. In other words, the API
area on the basis of a 30-ft fire height above ground, whereas code requires the design engineer to also consider the possi-
API RP 520 and 521 require us to consider only a 25-ft fire bility that a pool of flammable materials might accumulate
height above the source of flame. at any elevation (other than ground) and catch fire.
In some cases, the NFPA and API recommendations can
Tank Shape NFPA RP 521 recommends that, when a tank give substantially different results. To illustrate, take the
is exposed to external fire, its wetted area is to be calculated example of a vertical tank with its bottom tangent line at 20
on the basis of a percentage of total exposed area of the ft above ground and containing a 10 ft level of liquid so that
vessel. This percentage is 55% for a sphere or spheroid, 75% the liquid surface is 30 ft above grade level. Let us also
of total exposed area of a horizontal tank, and the first 30 ft assume that, in this case, flammable materials can accumulate
(9 m) above grade of a vertical tank. only at grade level and, therefore, the source of flame is at
API recommendations for calculations of wetted area are that level. In this case, the calculated wetted surface area
similar to NFPAs, except that, for a sphere or spheroid, the using API will be half as much as if it were determined using
total exposed surface up to the maximum horizontal diameter the NFPA recommendations.
or to a height of 25 ft (7.5 m) is used, whichever is greater.
Vertical Tanks If the liquid level is above the bottom tan-
In case of distillation towers, normally, only the heights of
gent line in a vertical vessel that is provided with an elliptical
liquid layers on the trays are considered in determining the
head, Equation 7.15(7) can be used to calculate its wetted
wetted area.
surface (A w) in square feet.
Fire Zone When determining the wetted surface area that 2
Aw = 1.089D + D[h (SE-FH)] 7.15(7)
is exposed to an external fire, it is necessary to define the
ground area of the fire, called the fire zone. According to API where
2
RP 521, the probable maximum ground area that a fire inci- Aw =
the wetted surface area in ft
2
dent is likely to cover is 2,500 to 5,000 ft . For engineering D =
the diameter of the vertical tank in feet
design purposes, this area corresponds to that of a circle h =
the actual liquid level in the tank in feet
having a diameter of 55 to 80 ft. SE =
the above grade liquid surface elevation in the tank
When a PRV protects several vessels, the design engi- in feet
neers should be conservative and select, from the various FH = the fire height in feet (25 for API, 30 for NFPA)
possible fire zones, the fire zone (circle of 80 ft in diameter)
that would include the largest total wetted surface area If [h (SE-FH)] is zero or negative, the vessel is above the
protected by that PRV. When several vessels share a single effective fire height, so the fire case is not relevant.
argue that the sprinklers are not regularly tested; they can carbon liquids are given in Figure A1. Using the relieving pres-
freeze in northern regions and are often the first systems to be sure and the average molecular weight of the multicomponent
destroyed when a fire breaks out, because they are fragile. hydrocarbon liquid, one can use this chart to estimate the latent
heat of vaporization of the mixture at relieving conditions.
Calculating the Relieving Capacity
Protecting Liquid-Full Tanks
The steps required to determine the relief capacity under fire
conditions are as follows: When a liquid-full vessel is exposed to external fire, the reliev-
ing process will be initiated by the thermal expansion of the
1. Establish wetted surface area (Aw) of the tank, consid- liquid. This will be followed by a period during which both
ering its size, shape, and location within the fire zone. liquid and vapor are simultaneously relieved. This continues
2. Based on the selected code (API, NFPA, other) and until enough vapor space is created for vapor-liquid disen-
on the type of thermal insulation, water spray, and gagement in the vessel, which usually starts when 1 or 2 ft
other installation featured, select the applicable envi- of vapor space is cleared.
ronmental factor F. The PRV for such a liquid-full tank is sized for this last,
3. Based on the wetted surface area (Aw) and based on all-vapor relieving phase, because the relieving area require-
the selected code (API, NFPA, other), determine the ment of thermal expansion is small, and the time period of
equation to be used to calculate the total heat absorp- two-phase relieving is short. When a liquid-filled tank is con-
tion due to fire. (The equation to be used can be nected to another vessel with a vapor space in it, the control
7.15(4), 7.15(5), or one of the equations in Tables and check valves in the connecting piping should be carefully
7.15e and 7.15g.) evaluated. As to the selection of the set pressure of the PRV,
4. Calculate the relief capacity required (W) by Equation it is recommended to base it on the design pressure of the
7.15(11) as follows: tanks bottom minus the hydrostatic head of the liquid column.
tions, and human errors. In the following paragraphs, the for 51 to 63.9, 0.0007 for 64 to 78.9, 0.0008 for
topics of thermal expansion and blocked outlets are discussed. 79 to 88.9, and so on)
Cp = the specific heat of the trapped in liquid on the
Thermal Expansion cold side in BTU/F
GPM = the thermal expansion relief rate required in GPM
When a liquid filled system is blocked in and heated, the at flowing temperature
resulting expansion can cause very high pressures. The heat Q= the total heat transfer rate in BTU/hr
source of thermal expansion can be a heater, heat exchanger, SpG = the specific gravity of the process fluid referred
or heat tracing, or it can be solar or other radiant heat or to water at 60F = 1.0
external fire.
Thermal-expansion PRVs should be installed if a section Blocked Outlet Conditions
of the process can be blocked in during maintenance or shut-
down. If the plant uses strictly enforced and checked proce- Whenever an inlet stream pressure can exceed the maximum
dures to drain all liquid filled vessels during shutdown, the allowable working pressure of the receiving tank or other
need for thermal-expansion PRVs is reduced, but human error equipment, overpressure protection is needed in case of outlet
can never be fully eliminated. Therefore, if the blocked-in blockage. The blocking of the outlet line can be caused by
section contains toxic or environmentally hazardous materials, instrument air or power failure, by control valve malfunction,
the installation of thermal-expansion PRVs is recommended. or by inadvertent valve operation.
On the other hand, no metal seated block valve can pro- The set pressure of the PRV should be selected to corre-
vide 100% bubble-tight closure. Therefore, if the blocked-in spond to the design pressure at the bottom of the tank minus
pipe section is of small diameter and less than 100 ft in length, the hydrostatic head above it. The discharge piping of the
the required thermal expansion relieving capacity is less than PRV should have no pockets. It is advisable to install bleeding
the leakage of the block valve, so a thermal relief valve is not valves at the lowest points to eliminate liquid accumulation.
required. When liquid discharges to a flare header, the sizing of the
In addition, thermal-expansion PRVs are not required on flare header should take the total volume of the discharged
pipelines that cannot be blocked in or that cannot be heated liquid into consideration.
by any heat source other than the ambient and are normally
operating at a temperature exceeding the ambient. Thermal Sizing the PRV PRVs must always be installed on the out-
expansion relief valves also are not required if the blocked- lets of compressors and of positive displacement pumps. These
in pipe or equipment is not liquid full but has a vapor pocket. PRVs should be sized for the rated capacity of the compressor
When thermal-expansion PRVs are required, and the or pump. On other sources, a PRV is required only if the source
trapped in liquid is toxic, corrosive, volatile, or flammable, the pressure can be higher than the maximum allowable working
PRV must discharge into a closed receiver. Environmentally safe pressure of the protected equipment or tank. A PRV is not
liquids such as water can be discharged directly into a sewer. required if the outlet cannot be blocked. When CSO valves
are used, the system is assumed to be not blocked.
Set Pressure and Sizing The set pressure of a thermal- The required sizing capacity for blocked-outlet PRVs is
1
expansion PRV must be high enough that the valve will open not always the normal flow rate of the blocked line. When
only as a result of thermal expansion. In selecting the set the liquid outlet is blocked, the PRV has to relieve the liquid
pressure, the design engineers should carefully evaluate the accumulation, which might fluctuate. At high levels in the
backpressure that might be acting on the valve; if it is variable, protected tank and with two-phase input, the vapor-liquid
the selected PRV should be provided with balanced bellows. separation can become impossible, and the PRV can also be
If the protected volume is small, sizing calculations need relieving a two-phase flow.
not be performed, and it is sufficient to install a 1/2 3/4- Therefore, when the vessel has a large liquid inventory,
in. or 3/8 1-in. nominal thermal relief valve. When large it is important to provide the tank with a void space corre-
vessels or long, large-diameter pipelines are to be protected sponding to 10 to 15 min of inlet flow. This way, after a
against thermal expansion, the required relief capacity in blockage, the operator will have some time to prevent the
GPM (without vaporization) can be calculated using Equa- level from further increasing. An even safer approach is to
tion 7.15(12). provide a high-level alarm when the remaining residence time
above the liquid level drops to, say, 20 min, and in addition,
GPM = BQ/500(SpG)(Cp) 7.15(12) install a high-high level alarm when it drops to 15.
distillation towers, pipe headers, and chemical reactors against gravity of the vapors in tanks containing volatile hydrocar-
overpressure, and how to design their PRV installations. bons is greater than air. The thermal venting capacity
requirements as recommended by API were given in
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks Table 7.15g.
The total in-breathing and out-breathing requirements of
In designing the breathing of atmospheric storage tanks,
a tank should always be calculated as the sum of the thermal
there are two considerations. One is the need to vent the venting capacity requirements and the requirements to com-
displaced air when liquid is being pumped into the vessel, pensate for in or out pumping rates.
and the other is the need to admit air into the tank when
liquid is being pumped out of the vessel. This breathing is
Heat Exchangers
needed to (a) prevent over-pressure while pumping liquid in
and (b) collapsing the vessel as a result of vacuum when Heat exchangers are a class of process equipment requiring
liquid is being pumped out and the corresponding volume is special relief considerations because of the potential need for
not replaced with air. protection against thermal expansion, external fire, blocked
Quoting once again the API Guide for Tank Venting, RP- outlets, and tube rupture cases.
2000, the following recommendations apply:
3
Inbreathing8 scfh (0.226 m /hr) air for each gpm Blocked-In Exchangers Heat exchangers frequently have
(3.78 lpm) of maximum emptying rate valves located on both their inlet and outlet piping. When
3
Outbreathing8.5 scfh (0.24 m /hr) air for each gpm these valves are all closed, the exchanger is blocked in. If
(3.78 lpm) of maximum filling rate for fluids with a the cold side of the heat exchanger can be blocked in, relief
flashpoint of 100F (37.8C) or higher, and 17 scfh devices are installed to provide protection against thermal
3
(0.48 m /hr) air for each gpm (3.78 lpm) of maximum expansion of liquids in the exchanger. This is always done
fill rate for fluids with a flashpoint below 100F for the cold side of an exchanger, where the liquid can be
(37.8C) heated by the hot fluid on the other side or can be heated by
ambient temperature while sitting with the inlet and outlet
valves closed.
Thermal Venting Capacity In addition to pumping, provi- No relief device is necessary for the protection of either
sion must be made to accommodate the thermal venting side of an exchanger that cannot be blocked in. In such
requirements of the vessel. This is defined as the expansion installations, it is assumed that the relief of the unit is taken
or contraction of the vapors in the tank resulting from changes care of by the relief device on the related tank or equipment.
in the tanks ambient temperature. For example, at the begin-
ning of a rainstorm, the vapors in the tank would cool and Liquid Refrigerants In the case of liquid refrigerants, a
contract. Under such conditions, to avoid creating a vacuum relief device should always be provided for the protection of
in the atmospheric tank, additional air must be admitted into the refrigerant side if that side can be blocked in and if the
the vapor space of the tank. vapor pressure of the refrigerant, when its temperature rises
The API recommendations are based on an in-breathing to that of the hot side, exceeds the design pressure of the
3
capacity of 2 ft of air per hour per square foot (0.61 exchanger. This is also done whenever the vapor pressure of
3 2
m /hr/m ) of total shell and roof area for very large tanks (a the material flowing at 100F (37.8C) is greater than the
3
capacity of more than 20,000 barrels or 3180 m ). For tanks design pressure of the exchanger. This recommendation is
3
with a capacity of less than 20,000 barrels (3180 m ), an in- somewhat site specific and is based on an assumed (maxi-
3 3
breathing requirement of 1 ft of air per hour (0.028 m /hr) mum) ambient temperature of 100F (37.8C); this temper-
3
for each barrel (0.158 m ) of tank capacity is recommended. ature may lower for some geographical areas.
This capacity is based on a rate of change of vapor space
temperature of 100F (37.8C) per hour. This maximum rate Gas-Fired Tubular Heaters Direct gas-fired tubular heaters
of temperature change is assumed to occur during such events are always protected by relief valves on their tube side. The
as a sudden cold rain. valve is normally sized for the design heat transfer rating of
It is assumed that the tank roof and shell temperatures the heater and must initially handle a fluid rate corresponding
cannot rise as rapidly as they can drop under any conditions. to the rate of thermal expansion in the tubes when they are
It is further assumed that, for liquids with a flashpoint of blocked in.
100F (37.8C) or above, the thermal out-breathing require- When designing fired heaters, there should be no block
ment has been assumed to be 60% of the in-breathing capac- valve on its outlet. This is because PRVs for high-temperature
ity requirement. services exceeding 550F are not available with dependable
For materials with a flashpoint below 100F (37.8C), seat and seal materials.
the thermal out-breathing requirement has been assumed to
be equal to the in-breathing requirement. This allows for Tube Rupture Consideration should be given to relief pro-
vaporization of the liquid and for the fact that the specific tection of low-pressure equipment in the event that an
exchanger tube ruptures because of corrosion, vibration, or In the case of turbine pumps, relief devices are generally
thermal shock. ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Para- provided to protect the pump, the associated piping, and the
graph UG-133(d) require such protection. equipment that may be blocked in. In the case of centrifugal-
This consideration is particularly critical when the low- type pumps, it is uncommon that the maximum pump shutoff
pressure side design pressure is less than the operating pressure would exceed the maximum allowable working pres-
pressure on the high-pressure side. In terms of high- and sure (MAWP) of any system components, but the design engi-
low-pressure side design pressures, PRV protection against neer still must fully evaluate the overpressure possibilities.
tube rupture is recommended if the design pressure of the
low-pressure side is less than 77% of the high-pressure side
design pressure. Distillation Towers
Reference 2 provides some advice on the sizing of PRVs Several conditions and combinations of conditions can result
to protect against overpressure caused by tube rupture. The in the overpressure of distillation columns. These can include
PRV, which is to protect the exchanger, should be located the failure of power, instrument air, reflux, cooling water,
directly on the exchanger or very close to it. control system, and control valves. Other causes can include
abnormal heat input, tube rupture, blocked outlets, and ther-
Pumps and Compressors mal expansion.
In evaluating the above conditions, one must always ask,
Reciprocating compressors should be protected against over- When this failure occurs, will the feed, the steam flow to
pressure on the discharge side in case the discharge piping the reboiler, the cooling water flow, etc. continue, or will it
can be blocked. In the case of positive displacement pumps, stop? The answers to such questions will help determine if
a relief device is required to relieve the pumped liquid when secondary effects such as overhead condenser flooding also
the discharge line is blocked in. This relief device is some- need to be considered in the safety analysis.
times provided as an integral part of the pump. In all distillation towers, there is a normal heat input at
The routing of the discharge from the PRVs should be the column reboiler. The vapors generated are normally con-
carefully evaluated. In many cases, directing the relieved fluid densed in an overhead condenser. In the event of the failure
back to the pump or compressor suction may result in dan- of cooling water or cooling medium to the overhead con-
gerous overheating of the fluid because of the work input by denser (or a failure of the fan drive unit on air-cooled con-
the pump or compressor. This may result in unit overheating, densers), a dangerous overpressure situation may develop
fluid vaporization, seal failure, and so on. because of the continued generation of vapors in the reboiler.
A relief device must be added to relieve the vapors thus
Sizing In sizing the PRV, the type of pumping equipment generated, and this PRV is generally rated for the normal heat
must be taken into consideration. In the case of rotary pumps input of the reboiler.
with a fairly uniform instantaneous flow rate, the PRV is sized Overpressure can also develop when the source of heat is
for the rated pump capacity. continuous and the overhead vapor line from the column is
In the case of reciprocating pumps, consideration must accidentally blocked. In this case, a relief device must relieve
be given to the fact that the rated flow rate is the average of the vapors as they are generated by the column reboiler.
the total stroke of the piston. It is suggested that, for a single- Reflux failure to a column where reflux acts as a coolant
piston pump, four times the average flow rate be used as the may also cause an overpressure condition. Similarly, loss
basis for relief sizing. With a duplex or triplex pump, there of feed may result in an overpressure condition, especially
is some flow averaging, and the engineer must exercise safe if the reboiler continues to operate when the feed has
judgment. stopped.
In general, the PRV should be sized for the maximum
capacity that the pump or compressor can generate. There- Pipe Headers
fore, the design engineer should always consider the maxi-
mum impeller size and 105% of the normal speed of the The design engineer must always consider that automatic
compressor or pump in selecting the sizing capacity. control systems do fail and can accidentally subject some
equipment to pressures exceeding their design pressures.
Set Pressure The design pressure of the weakest part of Such an overpressure condition can occur because of the
the system downstream should determine the pressure setting failure of steam pressure reducing stations. To illustrate this,
of the relief device used. This may be the design pressure of assume a case in which high-pressure steam (150 PSIG, or
the pump casing, the design pressure of some valve or equip- 1035 kPa) is reduced to a lower pressure (30 PSIG, or 207
ment in the line, or another appropriate specification. Nor- kPa). Should this control station fail as a result of the control
mally, a set pressure is selected to be below this limit but valve sticking open, all equipment connected to the low-
high enough that the PRV will not open under normal oper- pressure steam header could be subjected to high pressure.
ating conditions. In such case, a relief device is normally placed on the low-
When the PRVs are discharged into a closed system, they backpressure on the performance characteristics of
are sent through a manifold and blowdown drum to a flare the valve (set pressure, blowdown, and capacity) is
system. The blowdown drum separates the liquids from the much less than on the conventional valve. The bal-
vapors. The vapors are then sent to the flare system while the anced safety relief valve is made in three designs:
liquids are pumped to the treatment and disposal system. In (1) with a balancing piston, (2) with a balancing
a processing plant, there can be flare header systems for bellows, and (3) with a balancing bellows and an
different pressures or for different types of process materials, auxiliary balancing piston.
such as, for example, a separate H2S flare header or other Blowdown (blowback). The difference between the set
system. pressure and the reseating (closing) pressure of a
pressure relief valve, expressed in percent of the set
pressure or in bars or pounds per square inch.
CONCLUSIONS
Built-up backpressure. Variable backpressure that devel-
ops as a result of flow through the pressure relief
Overpressure analysis is more art than science. The design
valve after it opens. This is an increase in pressure
engineer must always exercise care and sound judgment
in the relief valves outlet line caused by the pressure
when determining the sizing basis for relief capacity deter-
drop through the discharge headers.
mination. There are so many combinations of installations
Chatter. Rapid, abnormal, reciprocating variations in lift
and circumstances that it is beyond our scope here to do much
during which the disc contacts the seat.
more than present some generalized advice and a fairly long
Cold differential test pressure (CDTP). The pressure at
list of further reading material in the bibliography.
which the PRV is adjusted to open during testing.
In many cases, it is necessary to calculate relief capacity
The CDTP setting includes the corrections required
requirements based on a combination of several considerations,
to consider the expected service temperature and
such as fire, cooling water failure, runway reactions, etc., and backpressure.
determine which will require the largest relief device. There
Constant backpressure. Backpressure that does not change
can also be installations where the relief capacity require- under any condition of operation, regardless of
ments based on fire and those based on some other consid- whether the pressure relief valve is closed or open.
eration should be additive, because both conditions are likely Closing pressure (reseat pressure). The pressure, mea-
to exist simultaneously. sured at the valve inlet, at which the valve closes,
Concurrently, the engineer must be aware that oversizing flow is substantially shut off, and there is no mea-
of relief valves can also present problems such as chattering, surable lift.
which creates a dilemma in relief valve sizing and selection. Conventional safety relief valve. A safety relief valve
Computer simulations can be very valuable in specific cases, with the bonnet vented either to atmosphere or inter-
such as when the relieving conditions are near critical. On nally to the discharge side of the valve. The perfor-
the other hand, one should always remember that software mance characteristics (set pressure, blowdown, and
packages are only as good as the programmer who has pre- capacity) are directly affected by changes of the
pared them and are applicable only under the same conditions backpressure on the valve.
and for the same equipment configuration for which they Design pressure. This pressure is equal to or less than the
have been prepared. maximum allowable working pressure. It is used to
define the upper limit of the normal operating pres-
sure range.
TERMINOLOGY AND NOMENCLATURE Effective coefficient of discharge. This is a coefficient
used to calculate the minimum required discharge
Accumulation. This is the pressure increase over the area of the PRV.
maximum allowable working pressure of a tank or Flutter. Rapid, abnormal, reciprocating variations in lift
vessel during discharge through the pressure relief during which the disc does not contact the seat.
valve. It is given as a percentage of the maximum Lift. The rise of the disc in a pressure relief valve.
allowable working pressure or in pressure units Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP). The
(e.g., bars or pounds per square inch). maximum pressure expected during normal operation.
Backpressure. Pressure on the discharge side of a pressure Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). This is
relief valve. This pressure is the sum of the super- the maximum pressure allowed for continuous oper-
imposed and the built-up backpressures. The super- ation. As defined in the construction codes (ASME
imposed backpressure is the pressure that exists in B31.3) for unfired pressure vessels, it equals the
the discharge piping of the relief valve when the design pressure for the same design temperature.
valve is closed. The maximum allowable working pressure depends
Balanced safety relief valve. A safety relief valve with on the type of material, its thickness, and the service
the bonnet vented to atmosphere. The effect of conditions set as the basis for design. The vessel
may not be operated above this pressure or its equiv- Relieving pressure (opening pressure plus overpressure).
alent at any metal temperature other than that used The pressure, measured at the valve inlet, at which
in its design; consequently, for that metal tempera- the relieving capacity is determined.
ture, it is the highest pressure at which the primary Reopening pressure. The opening pressure when the pres-
pressure relief valve can be set to open. sure is raised as soon as practicable after the valve
Operating pressure. The operating pressure of a vessel is has reseated or closed from a previous discharge.
the pressure, in pounds per square inch gauge, to Safety relief valve. An automatic pressure-actuated
which the vessel is usually subjected in service. A relieving device suitable for use as either a safety
processing vessel is usually designed for a maxi- or relief valve.
mum allowable working pressure, in pounds per Safety valve. An automatic pressure-relieving device
square inch gauge, that will provide a suitable mar- actuated by the static pressure upstream of the valve
gin above the operating pressure to prevent any and characterized by rapid and full opening or pop
undesirable operation of the relief device. It is sug- action. It is used for steam, gas, or vapor service.
gested that this margin be approximately 10% or 25 Seal-off pressure. The pressure, measured at the valve
PSI (173 kPa), whichever is greater. Such margin inlet after closing, at which no further liquid, steam,
will be adequate to prevent the undesirable opening or gas is detected at the downstream side of the seat.
and operation of the pressure relief valve caused by Set pressure (opening pressure). The pressure at which
minor fluctuations in the operating pressure. the relief valve is set to open. It is the pressure
Operating pressure margin. The margin between the max- measured at the valve inlet of the PRV at which
imum operating pressure and the set pressure of the there is a measurable lift or at which discharge
PRV. becomes continuous as determined by seeing, feel-
Operating pressure ratio. The ratio of the maximum ing, or hearing. In the pop-type safety valve, it is
operating pressure to the set pressure of the PRV. the pressure at which the valve moves more in the
Overpressure. This is the pressure increase over the set opening direction as compared to corresponding
pressure of the primary relief device. When the set movements at higher or lower pressures. A safety
pressure is the same as the maximum allowable valve or a safety relief valve is not considered to be
operating pressure (MAOP), the accumulation is the open when it is simmering at a pressure just below
same as the overpressure. Pressure increase over the the popping point, even though the simmering may
set pressure of the primary relieving device is over- be audible.
pressure. Note: from this definition, it will be Simmer (warn). The condition just prior to opening at
observed that, when the set pressure of the first which a spring-loaded relief valve is at the point of
(primary) safety or relief valve is less than the having zero or negative forces holding the valve
maximum allowable working pressure of the vessel, closed. Under these conditions, as soon as the valve
the overpressure may be greater that 10% of set disc attempts to rise, the spring constant develops
pressure. enough force to close the valve again.
Pressure-relieving device. The broadest category in the area Start-to-leak pressure. The pressure at the valve inlet at
of pressure relief devices, it includes rupture discs which the relieved fluid is first detected on the down-
and pressure relief valves of both the simple spring- stream side of the seat before normal relieving
loaded type and certain pilot-operated types. action takes place.
Pressure relief valve (PRV). A generic term that might Superimposed backpressure. Variable backpressure that
refer to relief valves, safety valves, and pilot-operated is present in the discharge header before the pressure
valves. The purpose of a PRV is to automatically relief valve starts to open. It can be constant or
open and relieve the excess system pressure by send- variable, depending on the status of the other PRVs
ing the process gases or fluids to a safe location in the system.
when its pressure setting is reached. Variable backpressure. Backpressure that varies as a result
Rated relieving capacity. This is the maximum relieving of changes in operation of one or more pressure relief
capacity of the PRV. This rating is normally provided valves connected to a common discharge header.
on the nameplate of the PRV. The rated relieving
capacity of the PRV exceeds the required relieving References
capacity and is the basis for sizing the vent header
system. 1. Wong, W. Y., Consider two-phase relief for liquid blockage of flash drums,
Relief valve. An automatic pressure-relieving device Hydrocarbon Process., December 1997.
actuated by the static pressure upstream of the valve, 2. Wong, W. Y., PRV sizing for exchanger tube rupture, Hydrocarbon Pro-
cess., February 1992, and Capacity credit calculation for exchanger
which opens in proportion to the increase in pressure tube rupture, Hydrocarbon Process., December 1992.
over the operating pressure. It is used primarily for 3. Boyle, W. J., Sizing relief area for polymerization reactors, 61st AIChE
liquid service. National Meeting, Houston, TX.
Bibliography Kletz, T., What Went Wrong? Case Studies of Process Plant Disasters, Gulf
Publishing, Houston, TX, May 2001.
Lai, Y. S., Conventional Spring-Loaded Safety Relief Valves Subjected to
Andrews, D. C., Industry views on chemical process safety, Process Safety
Back Pressure, ASME Publication PVP180, New York, 1989.
Prog., 12(2), April 1993.
Lees, F. P., Loss Prevention, Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX, September
Ahmad, A. A., Pressure relief systems: the sensible approach to verification
1996.
and documentation, Process Safety Prog., 16(1), Spring 1997.
Leung, J. C., The omega method for discharge rate evaluation, Int. Symp.
Ahmad, S. M., Ease relief system design and documentation, Chem. Eng.
on Runaway Reactions and Pressure Relief Design, American Institute
Prog., May 2000.
of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1995.
API Recommended Practice 520, Parts I and II, Sizing, Selection, and
Moodie, K., Cowley, L. T., Denney, R. B., Small, L. M., and Williams, I.,
Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries, 7th ed., Amer-
Fire engulfment test on a 5 tonne LPG tank, J. Haz. Mat., 20, 5571,
ican Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., January 2000.
December 1988.
API-RP-521, Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 4th
Morley, P. G., Sizing pressure safety valves for gas duty, Chem. Eng. (Rugby-
ed., American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
GB), 463(21), 2324, August 1989.
API Standard 526, Flanged Steel Safety Relief Valves, American Petroleum
Muser, W. and Schauki, N., New Requirements for Safety and Relief Valves,
Institute, Washington, D.C.
ASME Pressure Vessel & Piping Division, PVP-180, 107110, 1989.
API-RP-2521, Use of Pressure-Vacuum Vent Valves for Atmospheric Pres-
National Board Inspection Code, A Manual for Boiler and Pressure Vessel
sure Tanks to Reduce Evaporation Loss, American Petroleum Institute,
Inspectors, National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors,
Washington, D.C.
Columbus, OH.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I (Power Boilers), Section
NFPA 68, Guide for Venting of Deflagrations, 2002 ed., National Fire Pro-
IV (Low Pressure Heating Boilers), Section VIII (Pressure Vessels-
tection Association, Quincy, MA.
Division l), 2001 ed., 2002 addenda, American Society of Mechanical
Nayfeh, A. H. and Bouguerra, H., Non-linear response of a fluid valve, Int.
Engineers, New York.
J. Non-Linear Mechanics, 25(4), 1990.
Bernstein, M. D. and Bloomfiel, W. J., Malfunctions of safety valves due to
Papa, D. M., How back pressure affects safety relief valves, Hydrocarbon
flow induced vibrations, ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping Confer- Process., 62(5), 7981, May 1983.
ence, PVP-154, 1989.
Pressure Relief and Effluent Handling Systems, Center for Chemical Process
Bilanin, A. J. and Teske, M. E., Modeling Flow through Spring-Loaded Safety of AIChE, New York, 1998.
Safety Valves, ASME Publication PVP-190, 1990.
Puleo, P. A., Relief valve or rupture disc? Fire Protection Manual for Hydro-
Brahmbhatt, S. R., Are liquid thermal-relief valves needed? Chem. Eng., carbon Processing Plants, Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX.
International ed., 91(10), 6971, May 14, 1984. Sallet, D. W., Two-phase flow aspects in sizing pressure relief valves, ASME,
Burns, M. L., Jr., The practical application of flow test data for safety relief Safety Relief Valves, PVP33, 1979.
valves and rupture discs used in combination, Paper C 380/84, I Mech Sallet, D. W. and Somers, G. W., Flow capacity and response of safety relief
E Conference Publications, 1984. valves to saturated water flow, Plant Op. Prog., 4(4), 207216, October
Coker, A. K., Program sizes compressible flow for discharge piping, Oil and 1985.
Gas J., 87(50), December 11, 1989. Sumathipala, K. et al. Two-phase swelling and entrainment during pressure
Constantinescu, S., Sizing gas pressure-relief nozzles, Chem. Eng., Interna- relief valve discharges, J. Haz. Mat. (Amsterdam), 21(12), October 1990.
tional Ed. 92(9), 8586, April 29, 1985. Simiskey, P. L. and Faulkner, C. R., Better relief systems design, Hydrocar-
Crozier, R. A., Jr., Sizing relief valves for fire emergencies, Chem. Eng., bon Process., 68(5), 6364, May 1989.
International Ed. 92(22), 4954, October 28, 1985. Sumathipala, K., Venart, J. E. S., and Steward, F. R., Two-phase swelling
Cunningham, E. R., Keeping fluid handling systems safe with overpressure and entrainment during pressure relief valve discharges, J. Haz. Mat.
protection, Plant Eng., 39(3), 3439, February 14, 1985. (Amsterdam), 25(12), 219236, October 1990.
Dockendorff, R. L., Relief valve solves desalter problem, Oil and Gas J., Tayler, C., Designing for safer pressure relief, Process Eng. (London),
May 1980. 70(12), 5759, December 1989.
Emerson, G. B., Pressure relief valve types and selection, Hydrocarbon Theisen, T., Calculating back pressure in relief valves and piping, InTech,
Process., International ed., 67(5), 7172, May 1988. March 1988.
Emerson, G. B., Pressure relief valves: some selection guidelines, InTech, Theisen, T. J., Chatter-free relief valves, InTech, July, 1986.
33(2), 5154, February 1986. VDI 3673, Pressure Venting of Dust Explosions, Part 1, 1995 ed., Verein
Ewan, B. C. R. and Moatamedi, M., Design considerations to prevent heat Deutscher Ingenieure, Dusseldorf.
exchanger failure, Hydrocarbon Process., 66, November 2000. Venert, J. E. S., Sumathipala, U. K., Steward, F. R., and Sousa, A. C. M.,
Fauske, H. K., Properly size vents for nonreactive and reactive chemicals, Experiments on the thermo-hydraulic response of pressure liquefied
Chem. Eng. Prog., February 2000. gases in externally, heated tanks with pressure relief, Plant Op. Prog.,
Friedel, L. and Purps, S., Models and design methods for sudden depres- 7(2), 139144, April 1988.
surization of gas/vapour-liquid reaction systems, Int. Chem. Eng., Walter, L. F., Reshaping process safety regulations, Chem. Eng. Prog., March
26(3), 390407, July 1986. 2002.
Frundt, J. et al., Pressure relief with highly viscous fluids, Process Safety Wong, W. Y., Safer relief valve sizing, Chem. Eng., International ed., 96(5),
Prog., 16(1), Spring 1997. 137140, May 1989.
Going, W. S. and Pringle, R. E., Safety Valve Technology for the 1990s, Wong, W. Y., PRV Sizing for exchanger tube rupture, Hydrocarbon Process.,
Soc. Petroleum Eng. of AIME, Conference 12667, Richardson, TX, February 1992 and Capacity credit calculation for exchanger tube
1989. rupture, Hydrocarbon Process., December 1992.
Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment, Chapter XVI, Pressure relieving Wong, W. Y., Size relief valves more accurately, Chem. Eng., 99(6), 1992.
devices, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. Wong, W. Y., Consider two-phase relief for liquid blockage of flash drums,
Huff, J. E., Multiphase flashing flow in pressure-relief systems, Plant Oper- Hydrocarbon Process., December 1997.
ations Prog., 4(4), 191199, October 1985. Wong, W. Y., Improve the fire protection of pressure vessels, Chem. Eng.,
Jones, B. G. and Duckett, R. C., Thermographic survey of the integrity of October 1999.
a process plant pressure relief system, Plant Operations Prog., 4(3), Wong, W. Y., Fires, vessels and the pressure relief valve, Chem. Eng., May
161163, July 1985. 2000.