7 Oxidationand reduction

r
In Topic 6, acid-base reactions wereshown to involve
proton transfer.In this topic we show that oxidation-
Learning outcomes
reduction (redox) reactions involve electron transfer. The By the end of this topic you should be able to:
concept of oxidation number is introduced and used to find 4.3b) discuss the finite nature of materials as a resource and the
the oxidation state of an element. Thisenables us to write importance of recycling processes
half-equations and, from these, full balanced equations. 6.1a) calculate oxidation numbers of elements in compounds
Volumetric analysis using either potassium manganate(Vll) and ions
or iodine can be used to find the number of electrons 6.1b) describe and explain redoxprocesses in terms of electron
transferred in a reaction. transfer and changes in oxidation number
6.1c) use changes in oxidation numbers to help balance
chem lcal equations

7.1 What are oxidationand reduction?

Losing and gaining electrons
Oxidation and reduction processes have been in use for about 7000 years in the
extraction of metals from their ores, as well as to determine the colours of glazes
for earthenware pots. One of the first "textbooks' about the extraction of metals. De
Re Metallica, was written by the German scientist Georg Agricola and published in
1556 after his death. As long ago as 1741, the word 'reduce' was used to describe the
process of extracting metals from their ores. 'Reduction' referred to the fact that the
mass decreased when the ore was convened into its metal. In the eighteenth century.
the French nobleman Antoine Lavoisier recognised that these ores were oxides. and
by the beginning of the nineteenth century the idea that reactive metals were easily
oxidised had become established.
These observations formed the basis of the original definitions of oxidation as
the addition of 0>.-ygen and reduction as the removal of o.'<ygen. With the use of
electrolysis for the extraction of reactive metals such as sodium and aluminium from
their ores, this definition became too limited. The reduction of an oxide by heating it
with hydrogen or carbon and its reduction in an electrolytic cell are similar chemical
processes - both involve the addition of electrons to a positively charged metal ion.
The modern definition of oxidation, therefore, is the removal of electrons from a
substance, while reduction is the addition of electrons to a substance. Reduction
takes place at the negative electrode (cathode) of an electrolytic cell. and oxidation
takes place at the positive electrode (anode).

Oxidation is the removal of electrons.

Reduction is the addition of electrons.
During electrolysis:
oxidation takes place at the anode - the anode accepts the electrons
reduction takes place at the cathode - the cathode provides the electrons.

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7 Oxidation and reduction

Half-equationsand redox reactions

The processes of oxidation and reduction happen at the same time in oxidation-
reduction reactions (also called redox reactions) - one substance is oxidised
while the other is reduced. Redox reactions can therefore be broken down into two
half-reactions, represented by half-equations that show the electron loss or gain. For
example, for the combustion of magnesium to fonn magnesium oxide:

half-equation 1 (oxidation): Mg~ Mg2+ + Ze" or Mg - Ze" ~Mg!+

half-equation 2 (reduction): 02 + 4e- ~ 202-

These half-equations are similar to those used co describe acid-base reactions in

Topic 6.
The oxidation half-equation above is written in two ways. The first method
shows more clearly that charge is being conserved, while the second method
shows more clearly that electron loss is taking place. We will generally use the
first method.
To balance the rwo half-equations together, the number of electrons lost from the
magnesium muse be the same as the number gained by the oxygen. This can be
achieved in rwo ways:

add 2 x (half-equation 1) to (half-equatlon 2) so that 2 mot of magnesium react with

1 mot of oxygen:

2Mg(s) + 02(g) ~ 2MgO(s)

add (half-equation 1) 10 .!. x (half-equation 2) so that 1 mol of magnesium reacts

In a redox reaction, the number of I 2
with
=
electrons lost the number of electrons 2mol of oxygen:
gained. 1
Mg(s) + 202(g) ~ MgO(s)

The complete equation for the combustion of magnesium could easily have been
written wirhout using hnll-equatlons. With more complicated redox examples. this
would be much harder. For example, consider the reduction of aqueous iron(UI)
sulfate by metallic zinc. The fir:.t stage ls 10 identify the oxidised and reduced species.
The Fe''{aq) ions are reduced to Fe(s) while the Zn(s) is oxidised to zni.(aq) ions.
We can now write the relevant half-equations:
oxidation: Zn~ Zn2+ + 2c-
reduction: Fc3+ + 3c- ~ Fe

We must multiply the first equation by 3 and the second equation by 2 in order to
balance the electron cm nsfer:

3Zn ~ 3Zn2+ + 6e-

2Fe3+ + 6e- ~ 2Fe

Adding these together gives:

3Zn(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) ~ 3Zn2+(aq) + 2Fe(s)

This reaction proceeds because Zn(s) is a more powerful reducing agent than Fe(s).
Alternatively, we can say that Fe>+{aq) is a more powerful oxidising agent than
Zn2+(aq). This can be found out qualitatively by carrying out the reaction in a test
tube: if powdered zinc is added to a yellow-brown solution of Fe~aq) ions. the
grey zinc dissolves, to be replaced by black specks of iron metal, the brown solution
fades to colourless as the Fe*(aq) ions are replaced by Zn2'{aq) ions. and the cube
becomes warm as the exothermic reaction takes place.
To compare strengths of oxidising and reducing agents quantitatively. we need to
combine the two half-reactions into an electrochemical cell and measure the voltage
produced, as we shall see in Topic 23.

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PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Worked example I -
a v\lhich species has been oxidised and which has been reduced in the following reaction?
Zn(s) + CuSOiaq)-+ ZnS04(aq) + Cu(s)
b Write the two relevant half-equations for the reaction in part a.
Answer
a Zn(s) is oxidised, and Cu2(aq) is reduced. (Note that it is not CuS04(aq) that is reduced.)
b Oxidation: Zn-+ Zn2 + 2e-; Reduction: Cu2 + 2e--+ Cu

In each of the following reactions, identify whether the underlined species has been
oxidised, reduced or neither.
a Al(s) + ~r2(1)-+ AIBr3(s)
b 2Mg(s) + Ti02(s)-+ 2MgO(s) + Ti(s)
c Ag(ag) + C r'(aq) -+ AgC l(s)
d Cl2(ag) + SnCl2(aq)-+ SnC14(aq)
Answer
a Oxidised b Reduced c Neither d Reduced

1 Write half-equations and then full equations for the reactions that take place between:
a aqueous sulfuric acid and magnesium meta I
b liq uld bromine and lithium meta I
l
c oxygen gas and aluminium metal
d zinc metal and aqueous silver nitrate.
2 In each of the following reactions, identify which species has been oxidised and which
has been reduced.
a Fe(s) + S(s) -+ FeS(s)
b Mn02(s) + 4HCl(aq)-+ MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H20(1)
c 2FeC12(aq) + Cl2(g)-+ 2FeCl3(aq)
d CuO(s) + Cu(s)-+ Cu20(s)
3 In each of the following reactions, identify whether the underlined species has been
oxidised, reduced or neither.
a CuO(s) + H2S04(aq)-+ CuS04(aq) + H20(I)
b Pb02(s) + 4HCl(aq)-+ PbCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2H20(1)
c 4Fe(OH)i(s) + 02(g) + 2H20(1) -+ 4Fe(OH)3(s)
d Zn(s) + 2V3(aq) -+ Zn2(aq) + zy2+(aq)

7.2 Oxidation numbers

So far we have restricted oxidation and reduction to elements and their ionic
compounds. For reclox reactions of this type, it is quite clear which species are losing
or gaining electrons. However, many compounds contain covalentbonds and for
these a simple ionic treatment is inappropriate.

Oxidation number and simple ionic compounds

To get round this difficulty, the concept of oxidation number has been developed.
nus idea applies to both ionic and covalent compounds. For simple ionic
compounds, the oxidation number of the element is the same as the charge on the
species containing the element, together with its sign. This means that all elements
have the oxidarion number 0, cations have positive oxidation numbers and anions
have negative oxidation numbers. The oxidation number is written in Arabic numbers
in brackets, immediately after the species (without a space). So Clig) contains Cl(O).
FeCl2 contains Fe(+2) and MgO contains 0(-2).

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7 Oxidation and reduction

The convention is helpful when a metal can exist in more than one oxidation
state. iron, for example, can have oxidation numbers of +2 and +3, which are
distinguished in their formulae by using roman numerals; for example, FeSO~ is
iron(II) sulfate and Fei(S04)3 is iron(III) sulfate.

Oxidation number and covalent molecules

The only covalent substances chat contain bonds with no ionic character at all are
molecules that contain only a single element, such as hydrogen, H2, or sulfur, Sg.
The atoms of such substances are given an oxidation number of O. All other covalent
bonds have some ionic character, whose magnitude depends on the electronegativity
difference between the two bonded atoms (see section 3.10). Oxidation numbers
are assigned as though the bond is completely ionic, rather than panially ionic. For
example, in carbon dioxide, C02, oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Each
oxygen is given the oxldatlon number-2, just as in an ionic metal oxide. In order
to maintain electrical neutrality, the carbon muse be assigned the oxidation number
+4. In chis case it is helpful 10 include the +sign. as in other compounds carbon
can have 01he1 oxidation numbers, including -4. Of course, we do nOI suggest that
carbon dioxide is actually composed of one c'+ and rwo O~ ions, bur the convention
indlcates that the oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide is equivalent to a four-
electron transfer.
With a few exceptions char will be discussed lacer, o.")'gen in its compounds always
has an oxldatlon number of -2. Similarly, in most of its compounds, hydrogen has an
oxidation number of+ l. This often helps in working out the oxidation numbers of
other elements In covalent compounds.

The oxidation number of atoms in a pure element Is 0,

In a compound, the more electronegative element is given a negative oxidation number
(fluorine always has oxidation number -1).
The sum of all the oxidation numbers in a molecule is 0.
In most compounds, the oxidation number of oxygen is -2 and that of hydrogen Is + 1.

What is the oxidation number of carbon in each of the following compounds?

CHa b CCla c CH2Cl2
Answer
Carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen. Each hydrogen has oxidation number +1,
so that of carbon is -4.
b Chlorine is more electronegative than carbon. Each chlorine has oxidation
number -1. Let the oxidation number of carbon be x, Thenx + 4(-1) = 0, so the oxidation
number of carbon is +4.
c lfthe oxidation number of carbon is x, we have x + 2(+ 1) + 2(-1) = 0, so the oxidation
number of carbon is 0.

Worked exam I
What is the oxidation number of the underlined species in each of the following
What is the oxidation number of the compounds?
underlined element in each of the a ~03 b !Cl c i03
following compounds?
Answer
1 QiO, In each case let the unknown oxidation number be x.
2 Ef3 x+ 3(-2)= 0, giving x= +6, so S = +6.
3 ~HCl3 bx+ (-1)= 0, givingx = +1, so I = +1.
lliH, c 2x + 3(-2) = 0, giving x= +3, so P = +3. (Notice that each atom has its own oxidation
5 NHzOH number -so each P has an oxidation number of +3.)

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PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Oxidation number and 'complex' ions containing

covalent bonds
Many ions are not simple, but are made up of several covalently bonded atoms. A
familiar example is the sulfate ion, so.>, The oxidation number of each oxygen is -2,
but it is not immediately dear what the oxidation number of the sulfur atom is. We
can, however, work out the oxidation number of sulfur in potassium sulfate, Ki5()4,
because the sum of all the oxidation numbers is O. If the oxidation number of sulfur is
x, then 2(+1)+ x+ 4(-2) = 0, giving x = +6. This must also be the oxidation number of
In an ion, the sum of the oxidation sulfur in the so,> ion. It can be found directly by letting the sum of the oxidation
numbers equals the charge on the ion. numbers equal the charge on the ion: x + 4(-2) = -2, giving x= +6 as before.

What is the oxidation number of:

a Cr in Cr2ol- b Vin V02'7
What is the oxidation number of:
Answer
a Al in AI02- b Pin HPO/- Let the unknown oxidation number be x.
c Vin v02+ d c inC2ol- a 2x + 7(-2) = -2, giving x = +6
Pb in PbCll- t Sn in Sn(OH)62-7 b x + 2(-2) = 1, giving x = +5

The oxidation numbers of oxygen and hydrogen

Oxygen is the second most electronegative element, and in most of its compounds it
has an oxidation number -2. There are two exceptions.
As fluorine is more electronegative than oxygen, compounds of oxygen and
fluorine are known as oxygen fluorides rather than fluorine oxides. (The names of
compounds usually start with the least electronegative elemeru.) For example. in
the fluoride OF2, each fluorine has an oxidation number of-1 and oxygen has an
oxidation number of +2.
Peroxides contain the 0-0 bond. In both the peroxide ion. 02z-. and in covalent
peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide, H202, each oxygen atom has an oxidation
number of -1.
ln most of its compounds, hydrogen is joined to a more electronegative element
such as carbon or oxygen, so in these compounds the oxidation number of hydrogen
is +1. But there are also compounds in which hydrogen is combined with a metal
that is less electronegative than hydrogen (for example, lithium hydride. LlH). In these
compounds, the oxidation number of hydrogen is -1.

The usefulness of oxidation numbers

There are two main uses for oxidation numbers.

In quantitative work, particularly volumetric analysis (as we shall see later in the
topic), it is necessary to know the stoichiometry of the reaction being studied. and
this is most easily found using oxidation numbers.
When converting one compound into another, it is necessary to know if the reaction
involves oxidation and reduction. This is most easily found by using oxidation numbers.
Oxidation numbers can readily be calculated if the compound is not too complicated.
For example, the oxidation number of each carbon in ethane. G.?H6. is -3. For
propane,C~8, the average oxidation number of carbon is -~, that is,
3
-i~.3 This is
not very meaningful. If we calculate the oxidation numbers of the individual carbons,
it is -3 for the two end carbons and -2 for the middle one. even though they are all
considered to be in very similar chemical environments to those in ethane.
\Ve can therefore see that calculating oxidation numbers in organic compounds
does not teU us very much. However, changes in oxidation numbers in organic
compounds can be useful.

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7 Oxidation and reduction

In the conversion of ethane into bromoethane:

C2H6 + Br2 ~ C2H5Br + HBr
it is not very helpful to state chat the (average) oxidation number of the carbon atoms
has increased from -3 to -2. It does show that a two-electron transfer reaction has
taken place, buc this is more easily established by noting that the two Br(O) atoms
have changed their oxidation number to -1. If we calculate the oxidation number of
each carbon atom separately, we see that the -CH3 carbon remains unchanged at -3,
buc the -CH2Br carbon has increased from -3 to-1 (x + 2 - 1 = 0, so x = -1).
In more complicated redox reactions, which may not be quantitative. [OJ is often
used to indicate the addition of oxygen and [H] the addition of hydrogen. In this way,
the oxidation of ethanol co ethanoic acid can be represented by:

which shows that a four-electron transfer reaction has taken place (2(0] + 4e--... 20(-2)).
Similarly, the reduction of propene to propane can be represented by:

which shows that a two-electron transfer reaction has taken place (2[Hl-... 2H(+I) + 2e).
As we saw above with propane, it is best to avoid fractional oxidation numbers.
If a simple calculation gives a fractional oxklatlon number for one type of atom in a
formula, this usually means that some atoms have one integer oxidation number and
other atoms have another. In Fe304, for example, the average oxidation number of iron
is+~, but a better description is to assign one iron atom as Fe{+2) and two as Fe(+3).

7.3 Balancing redox equations

An important use of oxldauon numbers is to help establish the Stoichiometry of an
unknown redox reaction. The overall reaction can be found by combining the half-
equations for the oxidation and reduction reactions.

Writingthe half-equations
Some half-equarlons are easy to work out, for example the oxidation of iron(ll) ions
10 iron(Ill) ions:

or
Others are more difficult, for example the oxidation of nitrite ions to nitrate ions in
acid solution. The following stages lead to the relevant half-equation.

Work out oxidation numbers- nitrite, N02-, is N(+3) and nitrate, N03-, is N(+5).
Balance for reclox - we know that this is a two-electron transfer reaction from the
oxidation numbers given (N(+3)-... N(+5) + 2e):
N02- ~ N03- + 2e-
Balance for charge - because the reaction is being carried out in acid solution. we
add W ions to one side of the equation. We need 2H+on the right-hand side of
the equation so that the overall charge is the same on both sides. in this case -1:
NOz- ~ N03- + 2e- + 2H+
(If the reaction had been carried out in alkaline solution. we would balance by
adding Otr ions to one side of the equation.)
Balance for hydrogen - this is done by adding water to one side of the equation.
We need to add H20 on the left-hand side of the equation to balance the 2W on
the right-hand side:
NOz- + HzO ~ N03- + Ze" + ztt+
Check for m.-ygen - the half-equation is now balanced, but it is a good idea to
check that it is correct by confirming that the ox-ygenatoms balance.

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PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

To produce a balanced half-equation

Work out oxidation numbers.
Balance for redox - add the correct number of e- to account for the difference between
the two oxidation states.
Balance for charge - add the correct number of H+ (or 01-t"l to one side of the equation
so that the tota I charge is the same on both sides.
Balance for H - add the correct number of H20 to one side of the equation so that both
sides have the same number of H atoms.
Check for 0 - there should now be an equal number of 0 atoms on both sides of the
equation.

Produce a balanced half-equation for the reduction of manganate(Vll) ions to manganese {II)
ions in acid solution.
Answer
Work out oxidation
numbers: Mn04- is Mn(+7) and Mn2 is Mn(+2).
Balance for redox: Mn04- +Se--+ Mn2
Balance for charge: Mn04- +Se-+ 8W-+ Mn2+
(In acid solution, so xW ions are added to one side of the equation
to balance forcharge:-1 + (-S)+x(+1)= +2. givingx= 8.)
Balance for H: Mn04- +Se-+ 8W-+ Mn2+ + 4f.l.i0
(This is done by adding yH20 to one side of the equation. \>\fith BW
on the left-hand side, we need 4H20 on the right-hand side.)
Check for O: There are 40 on both sides of the equation.

Produce half-equations for the following changes:

1 the oxidation of Cr(OH)] to Croi- in alkaline solution
2 the reduction of VO/ to v2+ in acid solution
3 the oxidation of H2C204 to C02 In acid solution
4 the reduction of Cr2ol- to Cr3+ in acid solution
5 the reduction of IOt to I2 in acid solution
6 the reduction of oxygen in alkaline solution
7 the reduction of H202 to water in acid solution
8 the oxidation of H202 to oxygen in alkaline solution

Producing a full equationfrom two

half-equations
A full equation can be written by adding the two half-equations for the oxidised
and reduced species together. It is essential that the electrons balance between the
two half-equations, and to this end one (or both) of them may have to be multiplied
throughout by an approptiate factor.
After adding the half-equations together, the moles of any substance that appears
on both sides of the equation (for example, water) can be cancelled.
To produce a full equation
Write down the two half-equations.
Multiply each equation so that the number of electrons being given by the reducing
agent equals the number of electrons required by the oxidising agent.
Add the half-equations together.
Simplify if possible.
Check that the equation balances for charge.
Add state symbols.

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7 Oxidation and reduction

Worked examP.I
Produce a balanced equation for the oxidation of iron(ll) ions with acidified manganateMI) ions.
Answer
The two relevant half-equations are:
oxidation: Fe2+ ~ Fe3+ + "
reduction: Mno4- + se- +SW~ Mn2+ + 4H20
We must multiply the first half-equation by 5 so that the electrons will cancel:
5Fe2+ ~ 5Fe3+ + se-
On addition, we then have:
Mn04- + 5Fe2+ +SH+~ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H20
Checking for charge, there are 17 positive charges on both sides of the equation. Finally, we
add the state symbols:
Mn04-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + SW(aq) ~ Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H20(0

Produce balanced equations for the fol lowing reactions:

a the reduction of iodate(\/) ions. 103-. to iodine, 12, by iodide ions in acid solution
b the oxidation of N02- to NQ3- with manganate(Vll) Ions, Mn04-, in acid solution
c the reduction of vo2+ to v4 with metallic zinc in acid solution
d the oxidation of Fe(OH}i to Fe(OH)] by oxygen.
2 (Harder) Write balanced equations for the following reactions:
a the reduction of Cr2072- to cr3+ with metallic magnesium in acid solution
b the reduction of nitrate(\/) to ammonia with metallic aluminium in alkaline solution

l c the oxidation of Cr(OHh to Cr042- by H202 in alkaline solution.

Disproportionation
If an element has three or more oxidation states, then ii can act as iLS own oxidant
(oxidising agent) and reductanr (reducing agent). Usually, the higher the oxidation
state of the element, the more powerful an oxidant it is. If a compound that contains
the element in a high oxidation state is mixed with :i compound that contains the
element in a low oxidation state, the result is that the intermediate oxidation state is
formed. For example, if vanadium(+5) is mixed with vanadium(+3), the result is a
compound containing vanadiumf+d):
V02+(aq) + y3+(aq) ~ 2V02+(aq)
If iodlne(+5) is mixed with iodine(-1), the product is iodlne(O) (see Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1 OJOdabon of iodide, 1-. by oxidation state of iodine
IOdateM,103- The diagram shows thatone +S------~-----103-
iodate ion oJOd1ses hve iodide ions.

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PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Measurements of the voltages of electrochemical cells (see Topic 23) can show why
the high oxidation state oxidises the low oxidation state.
Occasionally, the intermediate oxidation state is a more powerful oxidant than
the higher oxidation state. This is because the intermediate state has a structure
that makes it unstable. The intermediate state then disproportionates and breaks
down to a mixture of the substances in the higher and lower oxidation states. A
familiar example is hydrogen peroxide, H202, containing 0(-1). This spontaneously
breaks down to ox..ygen, 0(0), and water, which contains 0(-2) (see Figure 7.2).

Figure 7 .2 The dsoroporuonaton of oxidation state of oxygen

hydrogen peroXide. H202 The diagram shows o~~~~~--,.--~~~~~~-102
that each molecule of H202 is converted mto
f
one H20 and 02

Some more examples of disproportionation are described in section 11.2.

7.4 Redox titrations

Redox tluntlons involve calculations similar to those described for acid-base titrations
(see section 6.6).

The basic equations used In tltratlon

s - a reminder

n=~
M
n=cx-v- or c= 1000 x n
1000 v
n =amount (In mol). m = mass (in g), M = molar mass (in g mol"'1),
c =concentration (in mol dm-3), v= volume (in cm3)
Redox titrations me used for two main reasons:

to find the concentration of a solution

to determine the stoichiometry of a redox reaction and hence to .suggest a likely
equation for the reaction.
If the concentration of a solution is unknown and is to be found by a redox
titration. a standard solution (one whose concentration is known) that reacts with
the unknown solution is required. The balanced equation gives the number of moles
that react together. After having carried out the titration, the stages in the calculation
are as shown in Table 6.3, page 130. The balanced chemical equation allows us to
calculate the number of moles of B from the number of moles of A. This then leads
us to the concentration of solution B.
If, instead, the stoichiometry of the reaction is to be found, then the concentrations
of both solutions A and B must be known. The volumes from the titration enable us
to calculate the numbers of moles that react together.
Although a wide range of oxidising agents can be used in redox titrations, 'Ive sbaU
concentrate on two - potassium manganate(VII)and iodine.

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7 Oxidation and reduction

Titrations using potassium manganate(Vll)

as the oxidant
Usually potassium manganace(VTI) titrations are carried out in acid solution. Under
these conditions, the following half-equation is relevant:
Mn04- + 5e- +SH+~ Mn2+ + 4H20
;;21 You will meet this equation often in redox reactions, and it is a good idea to learn it.
The deep purple manganate(VII) ion is used as its own indicator. This solution
is run into the flask from the burerte, and in the course of the reaction the colour
changes from purple to colourless as nearly colourless manganese(II) ions are
produced. At the end-point, the first extra drop of manganate{Vll) ions makes the
solution tum pink. The following experimental details should be noted.

Potassium manganate{VIT) is not very soluble, and the highest concentration used is
0.02mol dm-3.
The reaction is carried out in the presence of sulfuric acid at approximately 1 moldm-3.
It is usual to read the top, rather than the bottom, of the meniscus of potassium
manganate(Vll) in the burette because the deep purple colour obscures the reading
Figure 7 .3 The top of the meniscus 1s read
at the bottom (see fligure 7.3). Because the volume delivered is the difference
\1tien using potassium manganate(Vll) In a
11trat1on Compare the readingswith those m between the readings, it does not matter whether we read the top or bortom of the
Figure6 4 (page 129) meniscus, as long as we do the same for both readings.
If the titration is carried out too quickly. the solution may tum brown (see
l'igure 7.4). 111is is due to the formation of manganese(JV) oxide, Mn02 This can
be avoided either by increasing the acidity of the solution or by warming it
Figure 7 .4 To avoid the soluton turning
bro11 n, warm the solution or use plenty
ofaad

In a titration, 25.0cm3 of a solution of iron(ll) sulfate required 22.4cm3 of 0.0200moldm-3

potassium manganate(Vll) solution at the end-point. What is the concentration of the
solution of iron(ll) sulfate?

Answer
22 4
n(KMn04)=cx =0.0200x =4.48x 10-4mol
1;00 1~
oxidation: Fe2+ -+ Fe3+ + e-
reduction: Mno4- + 5e- + 8W-+ Mn2+ + 4H20
To balance the electrons, 5 mol of Fe2+ react with 1 mol of KMn04 Therefore:
n(Fe2+) used is= 5 x 4.48 x 10-4 = 2.24 x 10-3mol
c(Fe2+) = 1000 x n
v
1000
= x 2.24 x 10-3
25.0
= 0.0896moldm-3

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PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Worked exarnp]
25.0cm3 of a 0.0200mol dm-3 solution of ethanedioic acid, H2C20.., reacted with 20.0cm3
of 0.0100 moldrrr" potassium manganate(Vll) solution.
How many moles of ethanedioic acid react with 1 mol of potassium manganate(Vll)?
Suggest a likely equation for the reaction.
Answer
n(KMnO.J= ex _v_
1000
200
= 0.0200 x 250 = 5.00 x 1cr4mol = 0.0100 x = 2.00 x 1cr4mol
1000 1000
Therefore 5 mol of H2C204 react with 2 mol of KMn04 (or 2-imol react with 1 mol). We
know from the half-equation for manganate(Vll) that 2 mol of KMn04 receive
2 x 5 = 10mol of electrons, so 5mol of H2C204 donate 10mol of electrons, and 1 mol of
H2C204 donatesT = 2 mol of electrons.
The oxidation number of C in H2C204 is +3. During the oxidation, 2C lose 2 electrons, so
each changes oxidation number from +3 to +4. This suggests that C02 may be produced.
We shall write the half-equation assuming this:
oxidation: H2C204-+ 2C02 + 2e- + 2H+; reduction: Mn04- +Se-+ SW-+ Mn2 + 4H20
We multiply the first half-equation by 5 and the second by 2, and add them together:
2Mn04- + SH2C204 + 16W-+ 2Mn2 + 8H20 + 10C02 + 10W
Simplifying and adding state symbols:
2Mn04-(aq) + 5H2C204(aq) + 6H+(aq)-+ 2Mn2(aq) + 8H20(1) + 10C02(g)
(Check the charges balance: four positive charges on both sides.)

1 A steel nail with a mass of 2.47 g was dissolved in aqueous sulfuric acid and
the solution made up to 250 cm3 in a standard flask. 25.0 cm3 of this solution
reacted with 18.7 cm3 of 0.0105 mol dm-3 potassium manganate(Vll) solution.
Calculate:
a the concentration of the iron solution
b the mass of iron present in the 250cm3 flask
c the percentage by mass of iron in the steel nail.
2 25.0cm3 of acidified 0.0370 mol dm-3 sodium nitrate(lll), NaNOi. solution reacted with
23.9cm3 of 0.0155 mol dm-3 potassium manganate{Vll) solution.
a Calculate the number of moles of sodium nitrate(lll) that react with 1 mol of
manganate(VI I).
b Suggest a I ikely equation for the reaction.
3 A 1.31 g sample of hydrated potassium ethanedioate, K2C204.xH20, was dissolved
in acid and made up to 250cm3 in a standard flask. 25.0cm3 of this solution reacted
with 28.5 cm3 of 0.0100 rnoldrrr ! potassium manganate(Vll) solution. Calculate:
a the amount of potassium manganate(Vll) in 25.0cm3 of solution
b the amount of potassium ethanedioate in 250cm3 of solution
c M,(K2C204.XH20)
d the value of x.

Titrations using iodine as the oxidant

Iodine is a weak oxidising agent, but it is often used to oxidise the thiosulfate ion,
S2032-, to the tetrathionate ion, S40/-:
12(aq) + 2Sz0/-(aq) -7 znaq) + S4oi-(aq)
This is another reaction that you will meet often, so it is helpful to know the
equation well.

146
7 Oxidation and reduction

The colourless thiosulfare solution is placed in the burette. The iodine solution
is initially brown in colour, and as the thiosulfate is added it fades to pale yellow
(see Figure 7.5). Finally at the end-point the solution becomes colourless. The
end-point is rather indistinct and it is usual to add a few drops of starch solution.
This forms an intense blue colour with iodine. The end-point is then a sharp
change from blue to colourless, when all the iodine has been used up. The starch
solution is not added until the iodine solution is pale yellow - if it is added at the
start of the titration, clumps of blue solid may be formed which are difficult to
break up.
This titration is not often used just to find the concentration of an iodine solution.
There is a large number of oxidising agents that oxidise iodide ions to iodine, and
the iodine titration is used mainly to analyse such reactions. If an excess of aqueous
potassium iodide is added to the oxidising agent, the amount of iodine liberated is
directly related to the amount of oxidising :1gent used. Table 7 .1 lists some of the
oxidising agents that may be estimated in this way.

Figure 7 .5 The end-point of an iodine

mrauon 1~ made much sharper using starch A
fe11 drops of starch solutlOll are added when
the solution is pale yellow. the end-pomt
occurs when the intense blue colour
.J \
I
-J
JUSI disappears
I I
\

- - )

I
'

Table 7 .1 SomeOJ11d1sing agents that can be Oxidising agent Equation n(thiosulfate)

estimated using iodmetthiosulfate. Each mole
of 1od1ne reacts with two moles of throsultate n(oxidising agent)
Cl2 c12 + 2r-+ 2c1- + I2 2
Br2 Br2 + 21--+ 2Br + 12 2
I03- 103- + GW + s1- -+ 312 + 3H20 6
Mn04- Mn04- + 51- + BW ...+ Mn2+ +112 + 4H20 5

cu2 cu2 + zr -+ Cul+ 12 1

147
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Thiosulfate oxidation numbers

The thiosulfate ion. S2032-, is an example of the inappropriate use of oxidation
numbers.
The equation:

shows that the half-equations are as follows:

oxidation: 2S2032- ~ S4062- + 2e-

reduction: 12 + Ze" ~ 21

So each thiosulfate ion receives one electron. Some books suggest that the oxidation
number of each sulfur atom has changed from +2 to +2-i. Others compare the s20/-
ion with the SO/,_ ion, and assign S(+6) to the central sulfur atom and S(-2) to the
other one. On oxidation, the S(-2) atom then becomes S(-1). This m."ly show what is
taking place during the reaction more accurately.

0 0 0 0
11 II
-o-~-s- + -s-M-o- -o-s-s-s-s-o-
11 11 11 II
0 0 0 0
As can be seen, oxidation numbers cease to be useful when applied 10 the thiosulf:ne
ion. All that needs to be known is that each 52032- ion loses one electron when it
reacts with iodine - it is not necessary to know the oxidation number of each sulfur
atom.

Although the active ingredient in a commercial bleach is chlorate(I) ions, c10-. the
concentration is often quoted in terms of free chlorine. This is because the concentration is
estimated by liberating iodine from potassium iodide. 10.0cm3 of the bleach were made up
to 250.0cm3 in a standard flask. 25.0cm3 of this solution were added to an excess of
aqueous potassium iodide.
The iodine liberated reacted with 22.0cm3 of 0.105 moldm-3 thiosulfate solution.
Calculate:
iithe concentration of 'chlorine' in the diluted bleach solution
b the concentration of 'chlorine' in gdm-3 in the commercial bleach. A,(CI)= 35.5.
Answer
ii First we calculate the amount of thiosulfate used:
v 22.0
n(S2oi-) = c x = 0.105 x = 2.31 x 10-3mol
1000 1000
The ratio in Table 7 .1 (page 147) tells us that n(Cl2) in 25.0cm3 of diluted bleach
solution is:
ix 2.31 x 10- 3 = 1.155 x 1 Q-3 mol

Therefore:
1000 1000
c(Cl2)= -v- Xn= x 1.155x10-3
25.0
= 0.0462moldm-3
b M,(Cl2) = 2 x 35.5 g mor". The original bleach was diluted 25 times. Therefore the
concentration of chlorine in the bleach is:
25 x (2 x 35.5) x 0.0462 = 82.0 g dm-3

148
7 Oxidation and reduction

~
1 A 25.0cm3 sample of 0.0210 rnoldrrr? potassium peroxodisulfate(VJ), KiS208, was
treated with an excess of potassium iodide. The iodine liberated reacted with 21.0cm3
of 0.0500 mol dm-3 thiosulfate. Calculate:
a the amount of 52082-, and the amount of 1- used by the peroxodisulfate
b the amount of r that reacts with 1 mol of 52082-.
c Suggest a likely equation for the reaction between K2S208 and KI.
2 A 1.00g sample of brass (an alloy of copper and zinc) was dissolved in nitric acid and
made up to 250cm3 in a standard flask. To a 25.0cm3 sample of this solution was
added an excess of aqueous potassium iodide.
Cu2 + 2r ~ Cur+ 2.12
2
The iodine liberated reacted with 27.8cm3 of0.042Smoldm-3 thiosulfate.
Calculate:
a the concentration of Cu2 in the solution
b the total mass of copper dissolved
c the percentage of copper in the sample of brass.

7.5 Some uses of electrolysis

The electrolysis of brine
If concentrated aqueous sodium chloride is electrolysed, hydrogen is given off at the
cathode and chlorine at the anode.
At the cathode:
H20(l) ~ W(aq) + OW(aq)
2H+(aq) + 2e- ~ H2(g)
Because hydrogen ions are being used up, hydroxide ions are left behind. Adding
the equations:

At the anode:

The products, therefore, are hydrogen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide:

2NaCl(aq) + 2H20(l) ~2Na0H(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
For most purposes, the chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide solution need to
be collected separately, which can be done using a diaphragm cell (see Figure 7.6).
This contains an asbestos diaphragm that allows the ions to flow from the anode
compartment to the cathode compartment. This flow is established by having the
level of the electrolyte higher on the anode side of the diaphragm than on the
cathode side.
The incoming solution is saturated brine containing about 25% sodium chloride.
The outgoing solution contains about l()('AI sodium hydroxide and 15% sodium
chloride. This solution is evaporated to about one-fifth of its volume. when nearly aU
the sodium chloride crystallises out, leaving a solution containing 50% of almost pure
sodium hydroxide. This can be used as a solution or evaporated to dryness to give
the solid product.
Modern plants use a membrane rather than a diaphragm in the cell (see Figure 7.7).
The membrane is made of a polymer containing PTFE(see section 28.1). which
allows cations but not anions to pass through it. The resulting solution is pure sodium
hydroxide, uncontaminated by sodium chloride. The chlorine and hydrogen gases are
collected separately.
The principal uses of the three chemicals are listed in Table 7.2.

149
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Figure 7 .6 Outline diagram of the diaphragm

cell used for the electrolysis of bnne ~

H2(g)

saturated 0

NaCl(aq) in 0
O

- Oo
O
0o
0
Na+(aq) 0
.o
o
-
o .o
+e -
o
0
. out
NaOH(aq) +
NaC~aq)
H20(1)
H+
--
H20(1) .-
I I
H+(aq) + 011(aqJ
~-
+ diaphragm -
titanium anode steel cathode

Figure 7. 7 Modern plants use a membrane

rather than a diaphragm in the cell This yields
very pure sodium hydroxide

Table 7.2 Principal uses of the products of Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen Chlortne
the electrolysisof bnne.
making soaps and detergents in making ammonia for sterilisation and bleaching
converted into sodium for the hydrogenation of to mal::e insecticides
carbonate oils (see section 14.3)
used in refining aluminium in welding using an to mal::e solvents such
oxide (see below) oxy-hydrogen flame as dichloromethane and
tetrachloromethane
for making paper to mal::e c FCs (see section 15.1)
to mal::e PVC (see section 28.1)

The extraction of aluminium

Most molten aluminium compounds do not conduct electricity. Molten aluminium oxide.
Al203, is a conductor, so its electrolysis yields aluminium. However. it has an extremely
high melting point (2o6oC). The oxide is therefore dissolved in molten cryolite.
sodium hexafluoroalwuinate, Nay\lF6, which has a melting point lower than 1000C.
There are three main stages in the manufacture of aluminium:

the extraction and purification of the ore, bauxite

the preparation of cryolite
electrolysis.

150
7 Oxidation and reduction

Bauxite is a relatively abundant ore. It is mainly aluminium oxide, but its principal
impurity is hydrated iron(IJI) oxide; it may contain silica and titanium oxide as well.
The bauxite is dissolved in 10% aqueous sodium hydroxide under 4 atm pressure
at 150C. The impurities are largely insoluble and can be filtered off as a sludge.
Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, is then precipitated from the clear solution by cooling
it for three days. This precipitation is accelerated by 'seeding' the solution with a
crystal of aluminium hydroxide. The hydroxide precipitate is filtered off and heated to
convert it into pure aluminium oxide.
Al203(hydrated) + 20H-(aq) + 3H20(l) ~ 2Al(OH)4-(aq) other impurities are
Figure 7.8 Paul Heroult (1863-1914) and insoluble
CharlesHall < 1863-1914), designers of the Al(OH)4-(aq) ~ Al(OHh(s) + Off(aq) precipitation on cooling
process to produce aluminium
electrolytic 2Al(OHh(s) ~ Al203(s) + 3H20(g) dehydration on heating
TI1e sludge is composed of iron oxide and other impurities. It is washed free of
sodium hydroxide before being buried. TI1is treatment is important as untreated
sludge is an unattractive brown colour and leaves the soil too alkaline for plants to
grow. The sodium hydroxide produced during the precipitation is recycled and used
to dissolve more aluminium oxide.
Cryolitc is made by dissolving NaAl(OH)4 in hydrofluoric acid and precipitating the
product with sodium carbonate:

The electrolysis is carried out in a steel box whose floor is lined with carbon. This
acts as the cathode connection (sec Figure 7.9).

Figure 7 .9 Outline diagram of the electrolytic

+--ti _
cell used to producealuminium

graphite _
anodes

steel box__ _,_

=--+---molten cryolite
at 1000-C
graphite lining containing 5%
of Al203
.. --------------~=!!~!--molten
molten aluminium
aluminium
run off

The anodes are blocks of graphite suspended in the molten cryolite. Because
aluminium is more dense than cryolite, it sinks to the bottom of the cell as
it is formed, creating a molten pool which acts as the cathode. Periodically
the aluminium is removed and more aluminium oxide added to maintain a
concentration of 5%.
The exact nature of the electrolyte is unknown - it has been suggested that
the principal ions present are Alo+ and A102-. The reactions taking place at the
electrodes may be written as follows, although this is certainly a simplification:

at the cathode: 2Al3+ + 6e- ~ 2Al(l)

at the anode: 302- ~ 1~2(g) + 6e-
The oxygen given off at the anode reacts with the carbon, producing carbon dioxide.
The graphite blocks therefore have to be renewed regularly.
The process requires enormous amounts of electricity- up to 15kWh are needed
to produce lkg of metal. A typical cell operates at 4.5V and 3 x I05A, and two-thirds

151
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Figure 7.10 Aluminium iS the most abundant

metal in the Earth's crust. occumng largely as
the ore bauxite Its high extraction costs mean
that recyclingrs a much more economicalway
of producing 'ne\\' metal. The photograph
shows the effect of aluminium extraction on
the landscape

of rhe energy goes in heating the cell. Fortunately, aluminium is easy to recycle and
this requires only 5% of the energy required to produce ic from bauxne, Up co WHi
of aluminium used in Europe ls from recycled rnarerial.
Aluminium is the second most used metal after iron. le has a good strength-to-
weight ratio and is resistant to corrosion, especially when anodised (that is, covered
with a thin protective oxide film by anodic oxidation). Its principal uses are as
follows:

in lightweight alloys to build cars, ships, aeroplanes, etc.

for building work, such as for window frames
in overhead electric cables
to make pnckagtng, such as cans, foil, etc.

The purification of copper

A major use of copper is for electrical wiring. As the conductivity of copper
increases ten-fold when it is more than 99.9% pure, impure copper is purified
10 this high degree by electrolysis. The impure copper is made the anode of
an electrolysis cell, and a small strip of pure copper the cathode. A potential
difference of about 0.2-0.4 V is applied. Ions of copper and any more reactive
metals go into solution from the anode but the more reactive ions are not
discharged and stay in solution as the copper ions gain electrons and are
discharged onto the cathode.
Any metals that are less reactive than copper do not dissolve from the anode.
These metals drop off the anode as the copper around them dissolves, and fall to
the bottom as 'anode sludge'. This contains rare and useful elements, such as silver,
gold and selenium. Subsequently this sludge is removed and the rare elements
extracted.

Summary
Oxidation is the removal of electrons; reduction is the addition half-equations, suitably combined together. give the whole
of electrons. oxidation-reduction equation.
In a redox reaction, the number of electrons lost= the number Titrations can be carried out based on redox reactions. The
of electrons gained. most important redox titrations use potassium manganate(Vll} or
To work out the number of electrons lost or gained, oxidation iodine.
numbers may be used. Electrolysis is used in many industrial processes,such as
Oxidation numbers can also be used to work out the oxidation the electrolysis of brine, the extraction of aluminium and the
and reduction half~uations for a redox reaction. The two purification of copper.

152
 7 Oxidation and reduction

Examination practice questions

Please see the data section of the CD for any A, values you 2 Chlorine is manufactured by electrolysis from brine,
may need. concentrated aqueous sodium chloride.
a i Describe, with the aid of a fully labelled diagram, the
Radium was discovered in the ore pitchblende by Marie and
industrial electrolysis of brine in a diaphragm cell.
Pierre Curie in 1898, and the metal was first isolated by
State what each electrode is made of and show clearly
them in 1910.
the inlet for the brine and the outlets for the products.
The metal was obtained by first reacting the radium present
ii Write a half-equation, with state symbols, for the
in the pitchblende to form insoluble radium sulfate which
reaction at each electrode.
was converted into aqueous radium bromide. This solution
anode
was then electrolysed using a mercury cathode and a
cathode
carbon anode.
iii Name the chemical that is produced in solution in this
a During their electrolysis of aqueous radium bromide, the
electrolytic process. (7)
Curies obtained radium at the cathode and bromine at
{Cambridge International AS & A level Cbemntry;
the anode. Write half-equations for the two electrode
9701, Paper 22 Q4June 2011)
reactions that take place during this electrolysis. (2]
{Cambridge International AS & A Level Chemistrv . 9701 '
\ Paper 21 02 b November 2009]

153