Albright - The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and Their Decipherment (1969)

HARVARD THEOLOGICAL STUDIES XXII
THE PROTO-
SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS
AND THEIR DECIPHERMENT
WILLIAM FOXWELL ALBRIGHT

JOHNS HoPKINS UNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
HARVARD THEOLOGICAL STUDIES XXII
THE PROTO-
SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS
AND THEIR DECIPHERMENT
WILLIAM FOXWELL ALBRIGHT

JoHNS HoPKINs UNIVERSITY
SECOND PRINTING
mw
m
CAMBRIDGE
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Copyright, 1966 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College,
Entered as second-class mail matter January 2, 1908, at the post-office at
Boston, Mass. under the Act of Congress of March 3, 1879.
Acceptance for mailing at special postage rate provided by Section 1103,
Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 31, 1918.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. THE DECIPHERMENT
II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND INFERENCES 10
III. THE TEXTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION J6
IV. GRAMMATICAL SKETCH 31
v. GLOSSARY 38
CHAPTER I
THE DECIPHERMENT 1
THE first inscription of the category now known as Proto-Sinaitic

was discovered and copied by E. H. Palmer in Wadi Magharah
during the winter of 1868-1869. The text was not published un-
til 1904 2 and seems subsequently to have eluded rediscovery.
But this find was useless until the Sinai expedition of (Sir) W.
M. Flinders Petrie, who, while digging at Serabit el-Khadem in
early 1905, discovered eleven inscriptions on objects or in rock
1
I wish to thank Dr. Herbert Huffmon and Mr. Simon Parker, who were my
research assistants in 1962-64, for valuable assistance during the process of check-
ing and rechecking the data on which this study is based. Dr. Huffmon was par-
ticularly helpful in drawing and redrawing the figures, as well as in criticism of
successive stages of the decipherment. He is not responsible for the drastic final
revision of various drafts of the study. Note the following abbreviations:
ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts, ed. James B. Pritchard (Princeton,
1950, 1955).
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.
Butin See references in n. 5, below.
CAD Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (Chicago, 1956- ) . Cited by content
of volume.
Cowley "The Sinaitic Inscriptions," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15
(1929), 20Q-218.
EA Die El-Amarna-Tafeln, ed. by A. Knudtzon, E. Ebeling and 0.
Weber (1915).
Gardiner See n. 4, below.
Gardiner The Inscriptions of Sinai, Part I, Introduction and Plates, ed. by
Peet A. Gardiner and T. E. Peet (London, 1917).
Grimme Althebraische Inschriften vom Sinai, by Hubert Grimme (Hannover,
1923) .
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual.
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society.
JCS J ournal of Cuneiform Studies.
Jean C. F. Jean and Jacob Hoftijzer, Dictionnaire des inscriptions semi-
Hoftijzer tiques de !'ouest (Leiden, 1960).
MUSJ Melanges de l'Universite Saint Joseph.
Posener Princes et pays d'Asie et de Nubie, by Georges Posener (Brussels,
1940).
PPG Phonizisch-punische Grammatik, by Johannes Friedrich (Rome,
1951).
PRU Palais royal d'Ugarit, ed. by C. F. A. Schaeffer (Paris, 1955- ) .
Ranke Die agyptischen Personennamen (G!Uckstadt, 1935- ).
Sethe Die .Achtung feindlicher Fi.irsten, Volker und Dinge auf altagyptischen
Tongefassscherben des mittleren Reiches (Berlin, 1926) .
R. Weill, Recueil des inscriptions egyptiennes du Sinai (Paris, 1904)' 154.
No. 44 See below on Text No. 348.
2 THE PROTO-SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS
panels shaped like stelae (steliform), with unidentified script
which seemed to have strong Egyptian affinities. Photographs of
two of the objects appeared in Petrie's official report, 3 together
with his suggestion that the script represented a linear alphabet
which had been used by Syrian miners. Speculation about the
inscriptions now began, but the first break-through did not come
until 1915, when the late (Sir) Alan Gardiner (in a paper pre-
sented to the British Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence) 4 recognized that several signs were acrophonic and suc-
ceeded in reading a commonly occurring group of signs as l-b'lt,
"(belonging) to Ba'lat (Baalath, 'the lady')." This interpreta-
tion correlated beautifully with the prominence of I;Iatl).or, the
Egyptian patroness of the temple at Serabit el-Khadem, especially
since the small sphinx bears an Egyptian dedication to I;Iatl).or
together with a Proto-Sinaitic dedication to Ba'lat.
Subsequent progress, however, was slow, with little advance
beyond Gardiner's correct identification of nine letters. Indeed
some "decipherments," notably the adventurous combinations
of Hubert Grimme, were steps backward. Meanwhile three addi-
tional inscriptions were found by the 192 7 Harvard Sinai ex-
pedition, which had detoured on its return from St. Catherine's
in order to remove the texts left behind by Petrie to the safety
of the Cairo Museum. Subsequent finds by the Harvard-Catholic
University of America expeditions to Serabit el-Khadem ( 1930,
1935) , also directed by Kirsopp Lake, nearly doubled the material
available for decipherment. (The Finnish expedition of 1929
had also found one fragment.) In several careful studies Father
R. Butin published the results of a personal examination of all
available texts and provided new photographs an.d much more
accurate drawings, as well as full bibliography of previous studies. 5
In 1940 a useful study was published by J. Leibovitch, 6 in which
8
Researches in Sinai (London, 1906), Figs. 138-139, 141, with discussion on
pp. 129-32.
See Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3 (1916), 1-16, and, for a report on the
circumstances of his discovery, see Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly State-
ment, 1929, 4&--50.
"See Harvard Theological Review 21 (1928), 9-67; ibid. 25 (1932), 95-203;
Excavations and Protosinaitic Inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadem (Studies and
Documents, VI ; London, I 93 6) .
See Annales du Service des Antiquites 40, 101-22.
THE DECIPHERMENT 3
he advanced the hypothesis that the Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions
were Meroitic (subsequently abandoned). But his drawings,
based on repeated examination of the originals in Cairo, have
independent value.
In 1935 I ventured without much success into the study of the
Proto-Sinaitic texts. 7 Later, during the winter of 1947-1948, I
had an opportunity to examine the important and well-preserved
cave inscription (No. 357) in situ at Serabit el-Khadem, as well
as to study closely all the inscriptions then preserved in the Cairo
Museum. This led to a renewed effort at decipherment, as a re-
sult of which I tentatively identified nineteen characters. 8 Now
I believe that it is possible to identify twenty-three letters out of
a probable twenty-seven, with two more perhaps identifiable on
the Lachish dagger (below, No. 4). If correct, this would leave
only two (?) - S and :0 - still unrecognized.
The stock of available texts has been increased by two, thanks
to the explorations of Dr. Georg Gerster, who found them five
years ago in the Wadi N a~b close to an almost completely effaced
hieroglyphic text of Amenemmes III. 9 Though short and incom-
plete, these texts add important details to our knowledge and
help to refocus attention on Proto-Sinaitic. 10 My present study
was begun in November, 1957, and has been subsequently ex-
tended considerably in scope. It is a direct continuation and ex-
pansion of the 1948 essay; revisions and additions, though numer-
ous and significant, seldom change my 1948 transcriptions and
identifications of words. Syntax and interpretation have been
greatly improved. In August, 1958, I received Olga Tufnell's
Lachish IV: The Bronze Age. Here we have (Plate Volume,
7
Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society 15, 334-40. See also BASOR no
(1948), 9 Two new signs (:ij and Q) and some new words were, however, cor-
rectly identified.
8
BASOR IIO (1948), 6-22.
see G. Gerster, Sinai (Darmstadt, Il}6I), 62, Figs. 65-66.
10
Note the discussions by J. Leibovitch, Le Museon 74 (1961), 461-66, who
now regards the texts as Semitic, and Sir Alan Gardiner, Journal of Egyptian
Archaeology 48 (1962), 45-48. We should also mention the articles by A. Van
den Branden, Al-Mashriq (1958), 361--<)7, and Oriens Antiquus, I (1962), 197-
214, in which he attempts to decipher Proto-Sinaitic on the basis of Proto-Arabic
scripts and Arabic vocabulary, with most unsatisfactory results, from my point
of view.
Plates 37 and 38, No. 295) drawings of four sides of a little
prism about 2 4 em. high, together with photographs of three
sides (see Figs. 2-3). In I937 three faces of the prism were
photographed at the Palestine Museum, when it was found to
be in a very soft and friable state. One face seems to have been
inadvertently overlooked by the photographer. In I 94 7 Miss
Tufnell wrote again to the Museum, but the photographer de-
cided that the object was by this time in such poor condition that
nothing could be doneY Even with the photographs and draw-
ings now available more can be recognized. Counting prism faces
from the right, we have the name and titulary of Amenophis II
(ca. I436-I4I3 B.C.) in perfect condition. The second prism
face contains the figure, name and partial titulary of the chief
god Amiin-Re': "Amiin-Re', lord of years (nb rnp.wt)." The
third face contains the standing figure of Pta}:l, god of Memphis,
with his mummiform body and human head, holding the w3
staff in front of him, just as in our Proto-Sinaitic steliform text
No. 3 5 I. In front of the god is a vertical inscription in Proto-
Sinai tic characters, reading ['] rv 1) GT, corresponding to the
divine appellation 1) GNT in No. 353 (Note that in Palestinian
place-names in the Amarna Tablets and Egyptian sources we
find more spellings as Ginti than as Git(t)i, while at Ugarit only
Gt appears. 12 The original form of the word for "winepress" was,
of course, gintu/ i.) The divinity in question is probably the
Semitic equivalent of Eg. Shesmu (Ssmw), a Memphite deity of
Pta}:l's entourage who was regarded as special patron of the wine-
press.13 Since it can be demonstrated that the 'Apiru and other
peoples of Asiatic origin were the chief vintagers in the north-
eastern Delta during the Late Bronze Age, 14 it is only natural that
11
I owe these and other details to the kindness of Miss Tufnell, who wrote
me in detail Sept. 5th, 1958.
12
Cf. the list in the index to Virolleaud, Palais Royal d'Ugarit, II, 227, which
lists nearly thirty place-names of which Gt is the first component.
18
See H . Bonnet, Reallexikon der agyptischen Religionsgeschichte (1952), 679ff.
The cult of this god goes back to the Pyramid Age, and - at least in early times
-he was also patron of the olive press and involved in mummification rites. To
the Semites he was apparently only a form of his immediate chief, Ptal:J..
"Note that the 'Apiru are represented in texts of the early fifteenth century
as vintagers; see Save-Soderbergh, Orientalia Suecana, I, 5-14, and G. Posener
in J. Bottero, Le probleme des ljabiru (1954), 166ff. On this subject note the
THE DECIPHERMENT 5
they should have adopted Shesmu as one of their principal deities.
The divinity represented on the fourth prism face is certainly
Asiatic, and may well have been ReshephP It is hard to tell
whether the name is in Egyptian hieroglyphs or in alphabetic
Canaanite.
As soon as the first examples of Proto-Sinaitic writing had been
studied, it became apparent to Petrie and others that the char-
acters, which were schematic in outline and linear in form, were
so limited in number that an alphabetic script was indicated. It
was also widely assumed that these inscriptions, coming from
Sinai, where the Egyptians were known to have encountered
Semites, were in a Semitic dialect.
Granted that Semitic, and presumably Northwest-Semitic, was
the language of the texts, there was further epigraphic informa-
tion relevant to decipherment. First, the fact that the early
Semitic alphabet was purely consonantal, was proved by the
agreement of the early Phoenician inscriptions from Byblos, pub-
lished since 1923, with the early South-Arabic inscriptions on
this point. Second, Max Burchardt 16 and others had demon-
strated fn;>m Egyptian transcriptions that early Northwest-Semitic
still distinguished several phonemes that had coalesced with other
sounds in later periods. This view was confirmed by the dis-
covery and decipherment (1930) of Ugaritic, which had twenty-
seven consonantal graphemes besides two additional signs for
'aleph and a second samekh. It was further supported by the dis-
covery of the Ugaritic abecedaries and other texts, which proved
that five consonants were lost about the thirteenth century B.C.,
leaving precisely the twenty-two Phoenician-Hebrew consonants
in place of the older twenty-seven. Unfortunately, however, many
biblical evidence adduced in my Harper Torchbook, The Biblical Period from
Abraham to Ezra (1963), nff. See also below, n. 36.
"'The draughtsman has missed a number of points in the photo: the clear
'nb sign hanging from the divinity's right hand (so also Miss Tufnell); the bent
left arm holding an upright spear at a distance; the cap with a fillet holding it
in place above a bearded ( ?) face. All these are characteristic of the bearded
Resheph with a similar cap on the well-known British Museum stele (Pritchard,
The Ancient Near East in Pictures [1954], fig. 473, with descriptive text on p.
304).
16
Die altkanaanaischen Fremdworte und Eigennamen im Aegyptischen, I
(1909), especially the indexed table on p. 52. See also my discussion in Journal of
the Palestine Oriental Society 6 (1926), 82.
attempts at deciphering Proto-Sinaitic assumed vowel-letters and
a reduced consonantal phonemic inventory like that of Biblical
Hebrew. 17
Meanwhile the Proto-Sinaitic texts, which had been rather
isolated, were joined by early alphabetic inscriptions from Syria-
Palestine which were clearly earlier or later than the Proto-
Sinaitic forms (see the list of twelve such selected items below).
Since these new finds could be dated archaeologically to the
late Middle Bronze (Gezer, Lachish) or the Late Bronze Age
( Shechem/ 8 Lachish, etc.), they served to confirm Petrie's dating
of the Proto-Sinaitic material in the fifteenth century B.C., on
the basis of Egyptian finds at Serabit el-Khadem. 19 This approxi-
mate date enables us to use evidence from historical linguistics,
especially in the light of Ugaritic and other nearly contemporary
material. The Sinaitic texts clearly antedate the loss of inflectional
endings (preserved in Ugaritic and in Amarna Canaanite) and
the accompanying shift in accent. 20 If we follow Gardiner's
chronology, the texts would date before the loss of mimation. 21
I attempted to find mimation in my 1935 decipherment, while
I still followed Gardiner's chronology, but in 1948 I had to aban-
don that position, for reasons explained at the time; my 1948
decipherment, like the present study, does not yield any mima-
tion.
Since the Proto-Sinaitic texts are not themselves homogeneous
palaeographically, but show marked evolution in their script, 22 we
may tentatively date them between ca. 1550 and 1450 B.C.-
probably between ca. 1525 and ca. 1475 (see below). This general
date is confirmed by the Lachish prism, as shown above. The
17
See the writer's discussion in Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society IS
(1935)' 335-36.
18
See below.
19
For discussion of chronology see my remarks in BASOR no (1948), 9-10,
and J. Leibovitch, Le Museon 76 (1963), 201-203, with an "Additional note" by
the writer, 203-205, in reply to the article by Gardiner cited above, n. 10, in which
Sir Alan maintained his Xllth Dynasty date for the texts.
20
See Z. Harris, Development of the Canaanite Dialects (New Haven, 1939),
so, 59-60.
21
See Harris, op. cit., 32-33.
22
Probably beginning with the Gerster text (ca. 1525) and ending with the
sphinx (ca. 1475).
THE DECIPHERMENT 7
evidence from palaeography is now more significant than all other
data in this respect.
That the script was acrophonic, as suggested by Gardiner, has
been further supported by recent studies of the development of
Canaanite writing 23 and by an Ugaritic bilingual giving simpli-
fied names of letters. 24 The coincidence of Proto-Sinaitic forms
and later Semitic names of letters, such as the serpent, Proto-
Sinaitic N, Ethiopic nahiis (Heb. niiJ:tiis, Ugaritic nJ:ts, 25 "ser-
pent") for older *naJ:tas/6 provides independent confirmation
which, together with the traceable palaeographic development,
makes the scepticism of Gelb and Rallo seem quite unwarranted. 27
(See Figure 1 )
However, in the course of extending Gardiner's decipherment,
use of the acrophonic principle has seldom been of primary
value. The writer's approach has been essentially combinatory,
within the framework of pertinent linguistic phenomena as far
as they can be reconstructed by comparative and historical analy-
sis. A phoneme count is of little use, owing to the limited
amount of material and the high proportion of repetition in the
texts.
The following decipherment yields a grammatical structure
and vocabulary which fully agree with what is known about
more or less contemporary Northwest-Semitic dialects. There
23
See F. M. Cross, Jr., BASOR 134 (1954), 15-24.
See Cross and T. 0. Lambdin, BASOR 160 (1960), 21-26 .
.. See Ch. Virolleaud, Comptes rendus de I'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres (1962), 106, 108.
26
See the early discussion by M. Lid2barski, Ephemeris fiir semitische Epigraphik,
I (1902), 132.
27
Against the use of the acrophonic principle see especially I. J. Gelb, A Study
of Writing (Chicago, 1952, new ed. and paperback, 1963), passim (especially
138ff.), with an excellent bibliography, and W. W. Hallo, Jour. Bib. Lit., 77
(1958), 324-38. Gelb, though extremely well informed, has neglected to mention
the Egyptian enigmatic or cryptographic system so vigorously debated in detail
by the late Etienne Drioton and H. W. Fairman; on its largely acrophonic char-
acter see Drioton, Annales du Service des Antiquites de I'Egypte, 40 (1940), pp.
305-429, passim, and recently Erik Iversen's emphatic insistence on the impor-
tance of the acrophonic principle in interpreting Egyptian cryptographic writing
in his study, Papyrus Carlsberg Nr. VII: Fragments of a Hieroglyphic Dictionary
(Danish Academy of Sciences: Hist.-fil. Skrifter, Vol. 3, No. 2, Copenhagen, 1958),
8. Since the cryptographic system in question can be shown to go back to the
Eleventh Dynasty and to have remained in use through the New Kingdom, a priori
rejection of the acrophonic principle in a script so obviously influenced by Egyp-
tian is gratuitous.
are some possible indications of relative archaism, such as the
unassimilated n and perhaps the dominance of the s-causative
in a dialect used so far south. All this would be in accord with
our provisional date between ca. 1550 and ca. 1450 B.C. Further-
more, the divine names, place-names and personal names are
nearly all otherwise attested in second-millennium texts; the few
remaining names occur in later times or belong to well-known
types. No decipherment that does not meet these requirements
has much chance of being correct.
During the analysis of the individual texts and the prepara-
tion of copies, all characters in the inscriptions have been care-
fully checked and rechecked with the available photographs,
drawings, squeezes and contextual evidence. The author is par-
ticularly indebted to Msgr. Patrick Skehan of the Catholic Uni-
versity of America, who kindly put Father Butin's squeezes at
his disposal. These squeezes have been invaluable. In addition,
the author drew upon his own firsthand examination of many
of the texts during his 1947-1948 visits to Cairo and Seriibit
el-Khadem. Dr. Huffman has spared no pains in redrawing
nearly all the inscriptions on the basis of all available sources of
information. A few have been recopied or retouched since Dr.
Huffmon left Baltimore for Chicago.
It is important to note that our texts do not mark separation
between words, so that word division is generally mine. Further-
more, although the normal arrangement of the texts is in single
vertical columns read from top to bottom (several examples),
or in series of such vertical columns read from right to left
(numerous examples), other arrangements are found. One text
with vertical columns appears to be best interpr~ted reading
from left to right (No. 363), being thus comparable to some
horizontally inscribed lines that must be read from left to right
(No. 345 and Nos. 346, 357 in part). Another text is arranged
in horizontal lines and reads right to left from the top down (No.
349). The longer Gerster text, arranged in vertical columns, reads
from right to left, but the third column runs upward boustrophe-
don (see below). Apart from these general considerations, it
should be pointed out that the lineation is not precise, so that a
text may run down and then go back up slightly and even circle
THE DECIPHERMENT 9
around, very much as in later North-Arabian graffiti. Acciden-

tally omitted letters or groups may be inserted between lines or
in even more unexpected places. In some cases an individual
sign seems to be intended to be read in both of the two columns
between which it stands. All these phenomena may be paralleled
in Thamudic and Safaitic graffiti from Hellenistic-Roman times. 28
28
For a wealth of recently published material see, e.g., A. Van den Branden,
Les inscriptions thamoudeennes (1950) and Les textes thamoudeens de Philby,
I-II (1956); G. L. Harding and E. Littmann, Some Thamudic Inscriptions from
the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1952); F. V. Winnett, Safaitic Inscriptions
from Jordan (1957).
Phoh. Schematic Ea.rly North- Ea.rly South Eo.rly Let- Meaning of
Value Forms west Semitic Sern(Uc ter Ne~mes Names
)
'tf ~ /j. (llrt~) :} (13t~) b 17 o~mme) 'o.lp- ox-head
b D tJ 0 (17th) k:1 (13th) n b~t- house
g \_ /'-...(15th)> (12th) 11 go.ml- throw-stick
d ..->:fr q 4 (1oth) S< ( J~rnme) digs- ftsh
4 == ...::;:::. ? ~ N (Jo.mm~) ? ?
h ~ '-t: =f (toth) y h~(?) man c~lling
w ~ y Y(lOth) (1) (?'usee/ fory) w8(wo_;v) mace
z ? "f(tt.th) I (1otA) X ~e(n-) ?
~ .m: t3 III Qill) /:1 (loth) ttl h~(t-) fence(?)
b ~ ~ ? ~ (Jamrne) bo.( ) hank of yarn
t ? /1:::> (tbtl.) tBcot~ ffi te(t-) spLndle?
y ~ ~(13th) 'l(1otn)
k
l
\lV *\J)
? p e_ ,.!>
\!!.!.) (l'ftn) \J.IQ3t:JY
7 (14-th) ~ 03t!>) /
'?(o;-i9w)
nn
[., (Jo.mme)
'jo.d-
kapp-
lamcl-
a.rm
palm
ox-goad.
m /VVIN NV\ M (t>th) ~ 03th) ~ (9th)~(3th)
,\
mem- water
}') t...._,.r- <(111-th) 16~th) t, ~ r nobs- snake
5
c ~
?
<::::> 0 (12th) O~oth) .
:FQoth)
*~
0
(.Samk-~ ?
"&n- eye
g 10 6 (15th) 1l 7J(JC).mme) ga. ( ) ?
F' lb d) ) (loti,) 00 pi.Jt-(?) corner'?
~/?- "i-'1" tv Qot.h) ~'f ~o.(d-) plant
d. ? ? B ? ?
'l CP 8 ex:> (11j.tJ.) ? Qoth) ? 4' (Jo.m h1e) 9,U(.P-) ?
r r:>
~ 0 (ibtl.-il,.tl,) ) ( na1s- head of tno.n
sir. w 3 (13th) w(ioth) ) ~ tahn- co~nposite bow
v
s n n ? n r'\ (Ja.mme) ? ?
t -t + X(13th) X T (3co..me) t8(taw) owners ma.rk
Schema.tLc Table of Proto-5LnQi.ti.c Characters

FIG. I.
CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND

INFERENCES
AssuMING the general correctness of my decipherment, it is now

possible to draw some historical inferences from the content of
the inscriptions and the circumstances of discovery. As already
pointed out, there has been a great change since 1948, when my
chronological discussion was largely based on archaeological con-
text and Egyptian stylistic parallels. Now we can set the Proto-
Sinaitic inscriptions squarely in an evolutionary sequence of letter
forms beginning in the 17th century B.C. and extending down
into the Iron Age. The following table of the dozen most sig-
nificant items or groups, arranged according to their approximate
dates, illustrates the situation in 1965. The Proto-Sinaitic group
follows the Lachish dagger and precedes the Lachish prism; both
of the latter items are dated quite independently of palaeography.
r. Gezer (sherd from offering stand, ca. 17th century B.C.).

Read vertically (BASOR 58 [1935], 28f.) [ ]K-(?)-B[ ].
2. Lachish (dagger blade, ca. I6oo-1550 according to tomb con-
text). I read 'f(I)-R-N-Z(!) =Alalab Turranza, D. J. Wise-
man, The Alalakh Tablets, No. 139 :3r (Index of Personal Names,
pp. 15off.). The name is Hurrian; for the two elements, tur- and
-anza, see Gelb, Purves and MacRae, Nuzi Personal Names,
269ff. and 201ff. Both the Alalab IV and Nuzi names date from
the I 5th Century.
3 Sinai (Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions, ca. 1525-1475 B.C.).
4 Lachish (little prism, between 1435 and 1423 B.C.). See
above.
5 Shechem (soft limestone incantatory plaque, ca. 1450-1400).
I read [ ... t]rbv rgm m'r [t .. . ], "[ ... shall] come to pass the
words of [this] curse." Note that rgm > Heb. r'm, "noise, voice";
Accad. rigmu, also meaning "noise, voice," and Ugar. rgm,
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND INFERENCES 11
"word," both show normal dissimilation. Note that m'r[t] ap-
pears in Hebrew as m' erdt, "curse (of)." I have hitherto been
led to adopt too.early a date by overreliance on the quilted edging
of the robe of the divinity shown on the plaque. But since the
edging is so exaggerated, I suspect that it has been influenced
by the serpent-goddess type (Tell Beit Mirsim D), and can be
used only as a rough terminus a quo. (The edging in question
was at the height of fashion during the reign of Niqmepub at
Aleppo and Alalab, about r6oo B.C.) Judging from the forms
of letters a date in the second half of the r 5th century is reason-
able. The inscription was carved roughly from left to right along
the margin.
6. The St. Louis seal cylinder (14th century, well dated by Goetze,
BASOR 129 (1953), 8-11). I read '[bl 'rqy "Shobal the Arkite"
(see F. M. Cross, Jr., BASOR r68 (1962), 12).
7 Byblos (Fragment of funerary slab, 14th-13th century). See
most recently BASOR 116 (1949), 12-14.
8. Lachish (votive ewer and bowl, ca. 1235 B.C.). See F. M.
Cross, Jr., in BASOR 134 (1954), 2off.
9 Megiddo (gold ring, Megiddo Tombs, 173-176, found with
pottery from final phase of Late Bronze II, second half of 13th
century). Read probably l-'st Bky, "belonging to the wife of
Bikay ("Man of the Mastix Tree"; the tree is Heb. biikii', Eg.
bika', with the personal name Bika'i, etc., well attested in 13th
century Egyptian).
ro. El-Kharf,r, near Bethlehem (javelin head, twelfth century).
The vertical inscription reads /;? 'bd-lb't, "luck of 'Abd-Lab'at."
See F. M. Cross, Jr., and J. T. Milik, BASOR 134 (1954),' 5-15,
and S. Iwry, Jour. Am. Or. Soc. 8r (r96r), 27ff.
rr. Revadim (seal with four letters, ca. 12th century). See F. M.
Cross, Jr., BASOR r68 (1962), 12-18.
r 2. Beth-Shemesh ( ostracon, with both sides carelessly inscribed,
twelfth-eleventh centuries). The horizontal (right-to-left) in-
scription on the obverse contains two clearly written names:
Gm'n and Ifnn (biblical If iinun).
-
0
_.
""
+
CJ
FIG. 2. Four sides of a paste prism (r.4
em. high) from Lachish (Courtesy of the
Trustees of Sir Henry Well come).- See
Fig. J.
FIG. 3 Sides I, 3 and 4 (right to left) of Lachish Prism (Courtesy

of the Trustees of Sir Henry Well come). -See Fig. 2.
Thanks to the work of J. Leibovitch (see above and note 19),
it appears highly probable that Text No. 345 on the wingless
sphinx from the J:Iaili,or temple belongs to the reign of J:Iatshepsut
(1483-1468 B.C.). A date about 1475 is thus established for this
object as well as for the broken sphinx statuettes, Nos. 347 and
34 7a. To the same phase probably belong the cuboid figure from
the temple (No. 346) and the steliform text, No. 349, both of
which are dedicated to Ba'lat. Palaeographically, the oldest text
is clearly Gerster, No. 2, with its archaic D and especially J;.I;
note also that it does not resemble any other preserved text in
formulation. The reference to the "mines of Wawat" in No. 351
indicates that some, at least, of the texts which follow the domi-
nant formulation are to be dated well after the occupation of
Wawat by Kemose (see below, on No. 351), since the Semitic
miners can scarcely have been sent to Nubia as state slaves before
then. On the other hand, it seems unlikely that Hyksos captives
(see below) should have been sent to Sinai to work under ex-
traordinarily difficult cmiditions until after Amosis had occupied
the Hyksos fortresses at the southern fringe of Palestine toward
the end of his reign, i.e., after about 1550-1540 at earliest, ac-
cording to Richard A. Parker (Bibliotheca Orientalis, 1964, 65).
A date between ca. r 52 5 and 14 75 thus appears reasonable, with
maximum range of a century, ca. 1550-1450.
In view of the presence of at least three Egyptian personal
names in the Proto-Sinaitic texts, of Semitic equivalents or appel-
lations of at least five Egyptian deities (Pta}:l = El, J:Iat}:lor =
Ba'lat, Shesmu = Dhu ginti, Osiris = Dhu ladeyu mar'Uu, and
Anubis= Dhu tanni), 29 and especially of at least half a dozen
Egyptian sculptures and line-drawings- with no Asiatic elements
- it appears certain that the miners came to Sinai from Egypt,
or carried on a long tradition of Northwest-Semitic settlers in
Egypt. From these facts, combined with the now established
date of the inscriptions, we may safely infer that they belonged
to the recently conquered Hyksos elements of the population.
The bearing of the new documents on Biblical tradition is con-
siderable, though indirect; we shall obviously have to await addi-
29
Cf. my remarks in my Harper Torchbook, The Biblical Period from Abra-
ham to Ezra ( r 963) , 13 ; and below in this study.
tional documentation before attempting any true synthesis. What
we learn from Sinai about the language, culture, and especially
the religion of the Semites in Egypt at the end of the Hyksos
period, definitely supports the traditional view that there was
substantial continuity between the Semites in Northern Egypt
during the Hyksos age 30 and under the Pharaohs of the early
Nineteenth Dynasty. In other words, there was presumably little
basic change in the nature of Semitic life in Egypt during the two
centuries between our inscriptions and the Exodus. To be sure,
there were new fashions and new situations, such as the Aten
revolution and the transfer of the Egyptian capital from Thebes
to Tanis-Rameses. New lots of Semitic captives and refugees
brought new influences from Asia, and, as I have strongly insisted
in recent years, there was normal overland intercourse between
the Hebrews and Canaanites in Egypt and their relatives in Pales-
tin'e.31 All were subjects of the same Egyptian empire!
These documents throw much light on the continuity of lan-
guage, practices and ideas. Many Hebrew words, idioms and
personal names appear already at Serabi~; see the Glossary below.
This fact is particularly noticeable in sacrificial terminology
(though Ugaritic usage is still closer, as might be expected from
its nearness in time). Our Serabi~ vocabulary throws light on the
background of patriarchal religious tradition; see particularly
the important study by Frank M. Cross, Jr., on "Yahweh and
the God of the Patriarchs," 32 where much of the relevant material
is collected. Cross was the first to note the obvious identity of
'l 4- 'lm with 'El 'olam in Gen. 21:33 (in a letter to me dated
Nov. 6, 1957). He also discusses the various appellations of El
as "god of mercy," 4-tb (dhu-thObi) at Serabi~, 'El d-p'ed at
Ugarit, 'El raJ;,um we-J;,annun, etc., in Hebrew.
We shall certainly learn a great deal eventually about the
funerary beliefs and practices of the Hebrews in the Patriarchal
Age from new Proto-Sinaitic material and closer analysis of the
80
It must be remembered that early biblical names appear among the Hyksos
(e.g., Ya'qob [full form Ya'qub-'al] and lfur), as well as among Semitic captives
in Egypt just before the first Hyksos conquest (see my discussion in Jour. Am.
Or. Soc. 74, 222-223 and especially 232ff.).
81
See my Harper Torchbook (n. 29), xoff., 32ff.
88
Harvard Theological Review 65 (1962), 225-59 and especially 238ff.
Serabit inscriptions. In 1948 I had a very easy time proving
that the so-called "sleeping shelters" were the remains of burial
cairns (bamot), where a number of funerary inscriptions were
first discovered. 33 There may be a reference to a hero cult in
Nos. 352 and 364, but the translation is uncertain. Since the
miners could not procure sacrificial animals themselves, they had
to resort to imploring those who could obtain the animals to
show the deceased miners this last kindness. Animals available
in the wilds of Sinai were picked for this purpose: wild cows,
wild ewes and fatlings (i.e., young male animals which could be
fattened). The divinities usually invoked were El and his con-
sort Asherah (apparently identified with a Nubian serpent-god-
dess) ,3 4 as well as the lady ljatl).or. It is impossible, however, to
separate "He in Whose Charge Is the Meadow" 35 from Osiris,
lord of the Field (or Meadow) of l3rw, the Egyptian Elysium;
it is equally difficult to distinguish between ''Lord of the J acka'ls"
and the Egyptian jackal gods Anubis or Wep-wawet. The "Lord
of the Winepress" is especially significant.36
It is quite possible that the reference to Egypt as the "iron
smeltery" ( kur barzel), in passages attributed to Solomon and
Jeremiah and certainly familiar to the Deuteronomist, actually
goes back to traditions of state slavery in the mines of the New
88
See BASOR no (1948), I off., and Vetus Testamentum 9 (1959), 248ff.
"'See especially BASOR no (1948), 17, and below, Text No. 351.
80
It is not impossible that the enigmatic 'El de'ot, used as an appellation of
Yahweh in the "Prayer of Hannah" (I Sam. 2 :3) should be read 'El re'ilt, "God of
Pasturage," and is connected with l)u ladeyu mar'itu; ladeyu stands for older
*ladayhu (see Glossary below). Note that the word mar'itu, "pasturage," is also
found in Hebrew, Aramaic and Accadian (meritu) . The word re'ut actually occurs
in Hebrew only in the sense of "female companion," but this meaning was pre-
sumably derived from "pasturage." Parallels are numerous; note especially Eth.
mar'iiwe, "bridegroom," and mar'lit, "bride"; El is the divine shepherd, as often
in the Bible.
36
See Text No. 353, as well as Glossary, s.v. gnt. This divinity is particularly
significant in view of the now well-established fact that the 'Apiru turned to
viticulture and viniculture when the caravan trade became slack. This shift is
independently attested by the evidence brought together by Sii.ve-Soderbergh and
myself; see above, n. 14. Whether Dhu gi(n)ti also reflects the Northwest-Semitic
wine-god Tirsu (Hazor, Ugarit; the name is the source of Ugar. tr! and Heb.
tiriH) we do not know, but it seems plausible. For the god Tirsu see my remarks
on the name 'Abdi-Tirsi, spelled mER-tir-si at Hazor and ER-ti-ir-si at Ugarit
(PRU III, No. 16.257, iv: 8), in BASOR 139 (1955), 18. For the Ugaritic word for
"wine" see Virolleaud, Comptes Rendus, Acad. des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres,
1962, III. The divine name without an ending would be *Tiriis in Canaanite,
Kingdom. 37 Sinai and Wawat in the early Eighteenth Dynasty
were scarcely the only cases of forced mining activity. Texts
No. 350, 352, 356 and 374 clearly or probably allude to the
sufferings of the miners.
We have not yet mentioned one int~iguing but still elusive
problem: the date of the introduction of the Northwest-Semitic
linear alphabet. I had hoped to have clear evidence from my
efforts to decipher the hieroglyphiform alphabet on Hyksos
scarabs of the early Semitic phase before the establishment of
the Fifteenth Dynasty about 1650 B.C., but my results are still
spotty and may, therefore, be misleading. Suffice it to say that
this supposed alphabet can scarcely be earlier than the Thir-
teenth Dynasty (18th century B.C.). Recent discoveries make
it probable that the Ugaritic alphabet and its South-Canaanite
counterpart go back to a common source which may be a good
deal older than the 14th century B.C. 38 Since the order of letters
and even their names imitated the order and names (judging
from the objects represented, on the acrophonic principle) of
the linear alphabet/ 9 we may ultimately find ourselves forced
back into the Twelfth Dynasty for the origin of our alphabet.
Dies diem docebit!
like Ba'al from ba'lu, lfadiid from Haddu and Dagan from *Dagnu. In Phoenician
(and North Israelite) these names became Hiidiid (Adiidos) and Dagon. Hence
tiriis from *Tiras would be normal.
87
Needless to say, the word for "iron" has presumably replaced a word for
"copper," just as camels have replaced donkeys in some passages in Genesis. The
word kftr was borrowed in Egyptian, where kura, kurya (with the determinative
for ship), Ugar. kry (not wry) probably meant "refinery ship" like the 13th-
century ship recently excavated by George Bass off the southwestern coast of
Anatolia and like the Hebrew 'oniy6t tarSis, which I have rendered "refinery ships"
(BASOR 83 [I94I], 21ff.). For the Egyptian word [spelled syllabically ku-ra,
ku-ur, ku-ur-ya (pl.)] see M. Burchardt, Die altkanaaniiischen Fremdworte ...
im Aegyptischen, II (I91o), No. 997 (to which should probably be added the occur-
rences of the qur ship in No. 912 (but not No. 921). For Ugar. "wry" see my
remarks in the Festschrift Alfred Bertholet (1950), 5, n. 3; K and W are very
often confused in Ugaritic.
""See BASOR 173 (1964), 53
10
See notes 23 and 24 for recent literature.
No. 349, traced from photograph and collated with
original.
W.F.A.
No. 357, traced from Butin's facsimile copy and corrected from
the original and photographs of it.
FIG. 4 The 1948 drawings of Nos. 349 and 357 with minor revisions.
--
----------- .. .
u
~f
350
0 s
!l//!1/!h'
lS
~_J
1f
353 5 10
3SZ
ArP""' ~cale o 5
FIG. S
f/1/IJ P&v (':'.. Q I') -1
a\ b-
/
,__f{, I
0
"-
~~
./
I
I
-...a ...:..
/ "---'- IVl
0H
' ' ---:;::::.
/
/ /
/
....
... --------------
--- -
// (
- / \
)~~-) ~
I ~~
L ----- ~\ {)~
llr
!
: "" '--- ______,______________~
) ------- 0' ~
+r+ '\\\\\\\\\
't
!Si
f
A.,m. '""
!L-------
L.........J /
I
~'1 -+- -,.
I
I\
I~\.
-r I
I
I ---._(
f LfJ - I
I I
I
I
Q I
\
'
I <_ 't!ttt!
n \\
'r~
.1--........J
1I
\ 'f- _)
'-, +
J'
~1 \
II
374 --;------..)
FIG. 8.
CHAPTER III
THE TEXTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION
Text No. 345 (on two sides of a female sphinx) [Fig. 5]

Location: J:Iatl,tor temple (now British Museum, 41748)
The text is drawn from the photographs in Grimme (Tafeln 4-5),
taken before the inscription was chalked in. The photographs in
Gardiner, 1916, are presumably the same (but with only one
view of each side). They are taken from a slight angle.
Right side of the sphinx (left to right) :
M' HB 'L [T] "Swear to give a sacrifice"
Left side of the sphinx (continuation) (left to right) :
N1YB(?)J:I1 LB'LT "in order that we may sacrifice
to Baalath"
m' hb 'l[t] nrjbJ:t l-B'lt
Note that the left side of the sphinx has been scraped, perhaps
to fit a certain location, so that the bottoms of the letters have
disappeared. The suggested restoration agrees with the remaining
traces (the markings above the left side of B are somewhat more
faint and do not accord with any known letter) and seems to be
the only possibility that makes sense. Elsewhere in these texts
we have t' (y), "offering," and hb 'lt, "bring a sacrifice," instead
of rjbJ:t, "sacrifice," but note that a century or so later, at Ugarit
(Text RSh 2), we find the expressions t' nt'y, "the offering which
we offer," and dbJ:tn ndb/:t, "our sacrifice which we sacrifice,"
alternating in a way that suggests their essential synonymity.
Text No. 346a-b (on top, front and side of a cuboid statuette)
[Fig. 6]
Location: J:Iatl,tor temple (now Cairo Museum, 38268)
The text is drawn from the photographs in Grimme (Tafeln 6-
10, esp. Tafeln 9-10). For the relationship of the top to the front
note esp. Grimme, Tafel 6.
THE TEXTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION 17
Column I (running vertically along the left shoulder and on to
the front):
])LDY MR'T (du-ladeyu mar'itu) "0 (thou) in whose care is
the meadow (or pasturage)"
Column II (running vertically along the left shoulder and,
after a break, continuing from left to right, curving down, on
the front), continuation:
'L N['M] MT(N) LB'LT "on behalf of N[u'mu], a gift
for Baalath"
Column I I I (running vertically down on the right side, then
up and down), continuation:
'L N'M RB NQBN[M] "on behalf of Nu'mu, chief of
the miner [ s] "
Texts Nos. 347, 347a (two female sphinx heads, one with upper
chest preserved) [Fig. 6]
Location: J:Iatl:wr temple (now Brussels, Musee du Cinquan-
tenaire)
Text 347 is drawn from Butin, 1932 (Pl. XIII).
TNT "gift"
We may perhaps restore TNT [LB'LT], in apparent agree-
ment with text 347a. The reading and interpretation follow G.
Ryckmans.
Text 347a is drawn from Butin, 1932 (Pl. XIII); see also
Grimme, Tafel 12. The text on the left shoulder reads:
LB['LT]
We can probably restore [TNT] in the center, under the head,
as supported by various traces. The reading is not clear, however,
from any of the photographs.
Text No. 348

Location: Wadi Magharah
This text was seen by E. H. Palmer in the Wadi Magharah during
his 1868-69 Sinai expedition and was published from his squeeze
by R. Weill, Recueil des inscriptions egyptiennes du Sinal (Paris,
I904), I54, no. 44 (drawing), although its true character was
not recognized until later. The text has not been located since
and the squeeze does not seem to be acceptable in quality. For the
best copy (drawn from Palmer's squeeze) see Gardiner, I9I6, IS,
and Pl. III, and Gardiner-Peet, I9I7, Pl. LXXXIII. According
to Butin, I928, 167, Gardiner's photograph was taken from Pal-
mer's squeeze; I follow Butin's readings (with my own render-
ing, of course) :
. . . M]TT-M HB 'LT "[ . . . ] his [la]dy. Bring a
sacrifice I "
Text No. 349 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 4]

Location: Near entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum,
525II)
My 1948 copy is here reproduced (Fig. 4), with slight changes
in lines 5 and 7; it is based on prolonged inspection with a
flashlight in the Cairo Museum, checked by available photo-
graphs and the drawings of Leibovitch and Butin. The transla-
tion has been changed in detail since 1948. Note that this is
the only steliform text written exclusively in horizontal right-to-
left lines.
Line I 'NT J,;;rrrn Line 5 rn TPlT
2 RB NQBNM rL BN1 [H '?]
'I['] 6 [LY?]T'
3 'RK M L T[N J) T]
rB'LT1 7 rn TPTl L
4 r'Ll 'IJN 1) [B'LT?]
rT,[' Tl
1
'nt 4-t' 2 rb nqbnm H'] 3 'rk-m l-B'lt 4 'l '!Jn 4-H' 1]
11
' t't l-bn[h '?]
8
[ly?H' t[n 4-1] 7 ' t't l-[B'lt?]
1
Thou, 0 offerer, 2 (or) chief miner, an offering 3 prepare for
Ba'lat, 4 on behalf of Abena,- 0 offerer,- an 5 offering of
a wild ewe. <On> behalf of [his] son, 6 [Elya]tu'(?), gi[ve,
Ooffer]er, 7 awildewefor [Ba'lat(?)].
The formulas employed in this text are partly paralleled and
elucidated by similar expressions and formulas in Nos. 346a-b,
347-347a, 365b and 374 Needless to say, it is possible that one
or more of our restorations may be wrong, especially since it is
obvious that the scribe who drew up the text to be copied by
the stonecutter was not formally educated. It is possible that
the word for "wild ewe" was plural, but most unlikely in view
of the quasi-legal character of sacrificial texts, where precise
numbers would be expected.

Location: Near entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum,
525 17)
The text is drawn from Butin, 1932 (Pl. XIV), with com-
parison of the photographs in Grimme and Butin, 1928, all
of which help to clarify some of the letters. Note that fragments
from the upper right-hand side of the "stele" have been lost and
are not given in all the photographs. Two columns of the text
are partially preserved. I failed to recognize the third letter of
the first column as a good ij:, apparently with three loops, as in
Gerster No. 1, until the plates had all been mounted; the outline
has been inserted in Fig. 5 The resulting translation gives a
vivid picture of the wretched situation of the miners. Unfor-
tunately, it appears impossible to reconstruct the seated figure of
a divinity, clad in a long robe, at the left of the inscription.
Column I (right column, running vertically) :
'L rij:L~ 1 [N] rB 1TrK1 NQB
Column II (left column, restoring according to the formula):
[M]' HrB 1 ['LT]
i 'l rltl,1'1[n] rb1trk 1 nqb ii [m]' hb ['lt]
i 0 my god, rrescue1 [me] rfrom 1 the interior of the mine.
ii [Swe]ar to bring [a sacrifice].

Location: Entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum, 52514)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, 1932, aided by
the photographs in Butin, 1928, and Grimme. The inscription
presumably began above the inserted shrine of Pta~ (with the
characteristic figure of the god inside) and continued in the two
vertical columns to the left. According to the formula one may
restore:
[:0 TB 'T] "[0 Merciful One, with]
Column I: :OT BTN MT NQB WWT
the Serpent Lady, lords of the
mine(s) of Wawat,
Column II: M' [HB] 'LT swear [to bring] a sacrifice"
Note the ligature of Wand Tat the bottom of Column I. The
reading Wwt naturally transcribes Egyptian W3w3t, name of a
well-known district of Nubia between the First and Second Cat-
aracts, familiar from the beginning of the Sixth Dynasty down
into the middle of the Twenty-first. For detailed references to
Wawat see the indices to Breasted, Ancient Records, V, 102b,
and Torgny Save-Soderbergh, Agypten und N ubi en ( 1941), 27oa.
Since precious stone is expressly said to have come from Wawat,
there is no difficulty here, especially since turquoise is among the
stones in question. It should be added that all this part of Nubia
was in Egyptian hands from early in the reign of Amosis and
probably even from the latter part of his brother Kemose's short
reign, as indicated by the finds of W. K. Simpson at Toshka
(where two rock inscriptions of Kemose have now been found,
over fifty miles downstream from the Second Cataract); see
Expedition 4 (1962), 42, 45. Captured Hyksos prisoners may
well have been forced to work in the mines of lower Nubia from
the middle of the sixteenth century or earlier down to the time
of our texts. The divinities in question presumably reflect a
mixture of Semitic, Egyptian and Nubian religious ideas. The
name W3w3t is not Egyptian but is spelled in Old Kingdom con-
sonantal orthography; there is no reason why final t should be
feminine and therefore no longer pronounced about 1500 B.C.

Location: Entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum, 52510)
The text is drawn from Grimme, Tafel 18, aided by the photo-
graphs in Butin, 1928, 1932. The inscription is written in four
columns, but at least one sign is apparently intended for both
columns (', cols. i-ii). The "fish" in the lower part of cols. i-ii is
lightly carved and secondary to the text.
Column I: 'T' BN ?:R Col. Ill: M[N:ij:T(?) M'
['J?:N H]B 'LT
Col. II: MTT' LTT Col. IV: [ 'R]IJT
LB['T(M)
T]NN
Pp bn ~r [']~n ii mU' ltt lb['t(m) t]nn. iii m[nlzt(?) m' h]b
'lt iv [ 'r]lzt
i 'ltha' son of Zur, give me an oracle (Heb. 'a~eni). ii Thou who
didst save [me] from two lio[nesses, gr]ant me a iii r[esting-
place(?). Swear to bri]ng a sacrifice iv [ a wild] cow.
Note that in Column I the required' of [']?:N may perhaps be
partly preserved at the very front part of the "fish." Near the
tail of the "fish" one can perhaps recognize traces of the horns
of the 'of LB ['T(M)]. The second Tis clear in one photo. For
the syntax of [t]nn m[nltt(?)] see especially Aqhat II D, 6:27ff.:
'ers J;ym w-'atnk, blmt w-'asll;k, "Ask life and I will give (it)
thee, immortality and I will grant (it) thee," as first pointed out
by H. L. Ginsberg. The text appears to be a prayer to a dead
hero, conceivably identical with North-Arabic 'Ita', Greek Ethaos,
attested during the first centuries of our era. For the reading cf.
BN ~R in No. 364.

Location: Entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum, 52515 or
5 2 5 1 3)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, 1932, with
comparison of the photographs in Grimme (especially) and
Butin, 1928. The text is written in three columns, with the usual
right-to-left column order.
Col. I: l)T BTN MTM HB 'LT
Col. II: [L]PN 1) TN SM 'Rij:T [LPN]
Col. III: :0 GNT SM 'I'T L GLYN(?)
i 4t-Mn mt<t>-m hb 'lt ii[l]pn 4-tn sm 'r!Jt [lpn] m 4-gnt sm
f t l-Glyn.
0 Serpent Lady, his (!) mistress, bring a sacrifice, [be] fore the
Lord of Jackals present a wild cow, [before] the Lord of the
Winepress present a wild ewe on behalf of Gulyan(?).
For :0-GT as an appellation of Ptal).=El, see Lachish IV, Plate
38, No. 295 (discussed above). Note that the end of Column III
is uncertain. Probably read Glyn, as a personal name (see glos-
sary). The G can scarcely be B, since the stroke below the "box"
touches the edge of the incised "box." The name Glynis attested
at Ugarit and in the Bible (Gen. 36:23) .

Location: Entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum, 525ro;
partly lost)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, 1928, as
completed by the photographs in Gardiner, 1916, and Grimme.
Note that none of the photographs shows all the fragments of
the right column which were preserved (some of which became
lost before 1928), so that a composite drawing must be made.
In addition, the photographs in Gardiner, 1916, and Grimme,
show the two halves of the face of the stele at different scales
and from separate photographs.
Column I: M HB 'LT ". . . (swear) to bring a sac-
rifice."
Column II: H
Note: the M in Col. I, considerably larger than the other

characters, may well be unrelated to the inscription below.

Location: Entrance to Mine L (now Cairo Museum, 52513 or
52515)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, 1932, as com-
pared with the photographs in Butin, 1928. Parts of two columns
of text are preserved.
Column I: s(?)N~LN(?) "Rescue me(?), 0 chief of the
RB m[iners],
N[QBNM]
Column II: M['(?)] HB sw [ear] to bring an offering.
'LT[ ]
Note the presumed ligature, RB, in Column I, suggested by
the unusually oblong shape of Band the rounded top. For a clear
example of a ligature see the note to No. 351. The bottom of
Col. I as preserved is apparently chipped along the line of the
last N preserved.
Text No. 357 (carved on rock wall) [Fig. 4]

Location: Mine L (in situ)
My 1948 drawing is reproduced with a few modifications. With
one exception the reading is the same, but there are some changes
in the translation. (This was the inscription which I collated
with the greatest care in January, 1948, and on which I based
the 1948 decipherment.)
Vertical line: 'nt Tpn dk-m l-'bb mn VIII(?)
H orizontalline: Sm" mr' rb '[prm (?)].
Thou, 0 Shaphan, collect from 'Ababa eight(?) minas (of tur-
quoise). Shimea, groom of the chief of the car [ avaneers (?)].
This inscription deals with purely mundane matters, in appar-
ent contrast to the great majority of the Proto-Sinaitic texts.
Ababa had presumably contracted a gambling (or other) debt to
Shimea, which Shaphan was expected to collect. The latter may
have been chief miner. The preposition l often meant "from" in
Ugaritic as well as in Phoenician and early Hebrew. The expres-
sion for "eight minas" is written exactly as in Egyptian ( mn in
singular, followed by eight vertical strokes in two rows). Since
the only state laborers of foreign origin at the mines would prob-
ably be the miners and the caravaneers (both of which categories
are listed in the Egyptian monuments of the Twelfth Dynasty
from Sinai), it stands to reason that we must complete the last
word as indicated. For details see the glossary.
Text No. 358 [Fig. 9]

Location: Inside Mine M (in situ)
The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze.
Column I: 'L :0 'LM "El (god) of eternity"
Column II: [ ] L
The correct reading was first pointed out by Frank M. Cross,
Jr. (Harvard Theological Review 55 [1962], 238). The second
column is broken off; the apparent letter above L seems unique,
although it is perhaps a variant of ~- The possible K to the left
of the L is unlikely.

Location: Not given (now Cairo Museum, 52516)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, 1932. Only part
of the inscription is preserved.
] 'BM [ Apparently a personal name, perhaps
something like 'Abi-ma-['el], Gen. 10:28.
Note that Cowley, 1929 (p. 217), gave the text (his No. 36o)
as L'BM [ ] , on the basis of a photograph provided by Gardiner
(the photograph has not been published). If correct, Cowley's
reading would indicate that a portion of the text was subsequently
lost. See Butin, 1932, 132, r85-86.

Location: Cairn on ridge (now Cairo Museum)
The text consists of one column on the right side of a stele-like
slab. The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze. Note that the in-
scription was added after the slab had already been eroded, so
that the upper part of the text is not evenly spaced. The text
was presumably left unfinished.
:0 TB 'T :OT BTN MT "0 Merciful One with the
Serpent Lady, lords "

Location: Near Mine N (now Cairo Museum)
The text, found on an ''undetached small rock," is drawn from
the photograph in Butin, 1932. Note that columns I-II must be
combined in accordance with the usual formula:
Column /: :.0 TB BTN }
MT 4-lb rjt btn mt-m hrb 1
Col. II: ])T M HrB1 r<p [t]
r'V[T]
"0 Merciful One, 0 Serpent Lady, (his) two lords, bring a
sacri f [ice] "
Col. III: TN[?]M[ ]
Col. IV: B[ ]
Apparently the engraver accidentally omitted ])T after 1) TB
and then, noting his error, carved the two letters to the left of
Col. I, following them with the continuation of the inscription
which began in Col. I. The case is extreme but absolutely clear;
it warns us that we may expect similar incongruities (from our
point of view) elsewhere.

Location: Cairn above Mine L (now Cairo Museum)
The text, which is very fragmentary, is drawn from the photo-
graph in Butin, 1932. Although only two signs are fully pre-
served, they are clearly written and furnish good examples of
the orthography.
[ ] 'I:I [?]
Note that the sequence 'I:I is common in Egyptian; one could
suggest a number of names, such as i~3 (older '~3), "warrior,"
in the Middle and especially in the New Kingdom, both alone
and as first element in longer names (Ranke, Die agyptischen Per-
sonennamen, p. 44, Nos. 6ff.), or i,'l}ms, "Amosis," either in full
or in hypocoristic form ( l'1}, ibid., p. r 2, No. 13). The full
name was common in the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries and
became particularly common after Amosis' conquest of all Egypt.
Text No. 363 [Fig. ro]

Location: Cairn south of Mine L (now Cairo Museum)
The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze. Parts of four columns
are preserved on the slab. The order of the columns has been
reversed, as suggested by Dr. Huffmon; I now read from left to
right.
Col. I: H(?)N]) (?) Col. III: [M]TN NTrN1
Col. II: 'J:.IT' Col. IV: [L] 'L
i This (is what) ii 'Abuta' iii has given as [a gi] ft iv [to] El
Text No. 364 (Fig. 10]

Location: Dump in front of Mine M (now Cairo Museum)
The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze. This small fragment
appears to contain a proper name.
[ . . . ]BN ~R ['t' ( ?) ] bn ~r
See No. 3 52 for the name.
Text No. 365a [Fig. ro]

Location: Camp of the Egyptians (now Cairo Museum)
The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze. The inscription is ap-
parently a palimpsest, in that the center column is very faint and
doubtless either older or intentionally "erased." Neither of the
other two columns is completely preserved.
Col. I: [ JTTBN M' [ ] restore me; swear to bring
H[B]
Col. III: ['?]T B'LT [wi]th Ba'lat
Note: The restoration in Col. III is only one of several pos-
sibilities.
Text No. 365b (reverse of No. 365a) [Fig. ro]
The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze. Note that the carving is
clearly by a different hand than that of No. 365a, and much
more cursive. As with No. 365a, the top of the inscription is
probably not preserved.
[~]
],)
T [TN(?)] :0 T['] 'RIJT L rKl[ ]
[ ( ]
( ) (( [Give(?)] 0 offerer, a wild cow for K [ ]
R'
1J T
L
rKl
The characters at the bottom of the line must be read in the

order required by meaning, as so often in these inscriptions.

Location: Cairn south of Mine L (now Cairo Museum)
The text is drawn from Butin's squeeze. There is one vertical
column, apparently fully preserved, consisting of a personal
name.
YI;INB'L Yal).un(n)-Ba'al
Note: The ((eyes" in the B are obviously later additions, per-
haps accidental.

Location: In debris inside Mine M (now Cairo Museum,
65466)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, 1936 (Pl. 9,
Fig. 19). The first two columns are only partially preserved.
Col. /: [ ]'N Col. III: rM' 1 HB B
'LT
Col. II: T TN 1) [T' Col. IV(?): [?]T(?)T
T'T(?)]
[0 . . . . ] thou give, 0 of[ferer, a wild ewe(?)]; rswear1 to
bring a sacrifice [?]

Location: Debris inside Mine M (now Cairo Museum, 65467)
The text is drawn from the photograph in Butin, I936 (Pl. 10,
Fig. 2 I). The inscription is in four columns, all of which may
be completely preserved, but the text is obviously incomplete.
Col. /: 'RI)T Col. III: TLT GBT
Col. II: MP'DT Col. IV: MD'T PNM
'rljtm p'dt ln gbt md't pnm
Two wild cows (as) a (sacrifice for) mercy, three fatlings (as) an
offering before him (He b. piinemo).
Gerster, No. 1 [Fig. II]

Wadi Na~b (Sinai), above Bir Na~b (in situ)
This text was discovered by Dr. Georg Gerster of ZUrich, who
wrote me about it on 7th March, I96o, offering me at the sam~
time the right to publish it in BASOR. I ceded this right to
]. Leibovitch, who published the new text in Le Museon 74
(I 96 I), 46 I -66; see also Sir Alan Gardiner's last paper in
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 48 (I96I), 46Iff. There has
been some question on the part of all students as to whether the
weathered remains at the right belong to our text or are Egyp-
tian. Since they include the outlines of a rectangular panel with
a rounded corner and a cartouche suggesting the name of the
fifteenth ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty, Sekhem-re'-khu-tawi,
who reigned over three years and has left numerous monuments
(ca. q6o B.C.), the latter alternative is far the more probable.
Since no familiar formula appears to be used in our text, I was
for a time inclined to think that the text had been chalked in.
This view was wrong, as I have been assured by Dr. Gerster, so
I have taken the photographed traces at face value, with plausible
results. The text is archaic in comparison with the latest monu-
ments of our series - especially those that come from the temple
of I:Iatl}.or at Serabit. The lowest preserved sign in Col. III has
three loops like the Egyptian character from which it was copied;
the fish in Col. I is remarkably detailed. The sign above the fish,
which I long took to be an antelope, is definitely an ox-head;
I suspect ancient "retouching" of the horns, since there seem to
be traces of the ox horns (very clear in the third sign). The fish,
the goad (twice) and the W are all drawn vertically instead of
horizontally. I now read (the third person of the suffix is normal
honorific) :
'D '[L] TrN1 L I:IWR1 [N]J:.I 'LW
0 father E[l], gra[nt] to (my) companion [re]st beside him!
[Perhaps better, "0 father E[l], gra[nt] to Heber re[st] beside
him!" Heber appears as the name of an early clan of Asher and
as the name of a Kenite family or person in the twelfth century
B.C.]
Gerster, No. 2
Location: Wadi N~b (in situ)
The presence of Proto-Sinaitic signs here, already hinted at by
Cerny, was confirmed by Dr. Gerster, who reported that the signs,
immediately to the right of the inscription of Amenemmes III,
are less weathered than that text and are apparently later. The
text, photographs of which have been published by Gerster,
Leibovitch, and Gardiner, has a clear ' and, perhaps, also M and
', although the latter signs, if such, are badly eroded.
Note also the following items listed by Butin:
No. 355 (steliform). Location: Entrance to Mine L (now lost)
This small fragment of a text undoubtedly comes from the upper
left-hand corner (note the rounded edge of the stele), but no
part of the text is clear. It may only be random alphabetiform
doodling. For a photograph of the text see Gardiner, 1916, Pl. V.
No. 366. A fragment of a text with the reading M .. (see
Butin, I932, p. I9S). For a photograph see Butin, I932, Pl.
XXIII.
No. 368. Steliform, almost completely defaced, but with the
traces of several letters at the upper left. Photograph in Butin,
I932, Pl. XXIV.
No. 369. An Egyptian (!) inscription; see Butin, I936, p. 3I,
n. I.
No. 370. A defaced rock, which may have been inscribed,
having two possible cases of 'f. Photograph in Butin, I932, Pl.
XXIII.
No. 3 7 I. This is a rock fragment with a drawing of a bird and
two possible Proto-Sinaitic signs. Photograph in Butin, I932,
Pl. XXI.
Nos. 372a, b. Possible workman's marks; photographs in
Butin, I932, Pl. XXVI.
No. 373 Not an inscription. Photograph in Butin, I932, Pl.
XVI.
Some other very dubious "inscriptions" are reported by Butin,
I932, pp. I99-2oo, and Butin, I936, p. 42 (figs. 22, I8, and 20
respectively) .
CHAPTER IV
GRAMMATICAL SKETCH
A. PHONOLOGY: INVENTORY OF GRAPHEMES.
' b g d d h w I; !J y k l m n ' g ~~~ p q r s/t s t

Not yet known: s, f/,; known from later South-Canaanite texts:
z(?), t(?). Apart from nine characters (' b h l m n ' r t)
whose values are rather obvious and have been generally accepted,
the following list gives the Proto-Sinaitic consonants with citation
of most words or roots in which they occur. These words and
roots are in turn listed and discussed in the Glossary, Chapter V.
g gnt, gt (Lachish prism); form continues in North and

South Semitic.
d 'd, dk, ldy, md't, p'dt.
rj rj (masc.), rjt (fern.), f)bl;, hnf)(?).
w Wwt (place-name), 'lw.
}J Yl;nb'l, db!;, l;br, 'I; (personal name), Ifnn (Beth-shemesh).
!J '!Jn, '!Jt' (personal names), 'r!Jt (common).
y Yl;nb'l, ldy, Glyn.
k 'rk, tk, dk.
g gbt, Glyn, rgm (Shechem plaque).
$ 1. *~-~r (in bn ~r) (personal name).
2. *~-sn#(?).
p p'dt, pn, 'fpn (personal name).
q nqb, nqbn-(m), 'rqy (St. Louis seal).
s sm" (personal name)' sn#(?).
t I. *s-sm.
2. *t-btn, mt, mW (yt'), t't, tb, #!, k', tt, 'fpn, 't'.
I) Merging of consonants
a) Proto-Semitic ~ and ~ are represented by the same
grapheme and presumably had coalesced. These two
sounds were still distinguished in Ugaritic, but they
fell together in Hebrew, Phoenician and Old Aramaic
(at first). It is still quite uncertain whether had
fallen together with them in Proto-Sinaitic or not.
b) Proto-Semitic t and s are represented by the same
grapheme. The grouping *t plus *s, on the one hand,
and *s, on the other, contrary to most Northwest-
Semitic languages (which either distinguish *t from
*s and *s, taken together [Amorite, Ugaritic, and
Aramaic, in different ways], or group *t and *s versus
*s [Hebrew]), is precisely that grouping of the sibilants
found in New Kingdom Egyptian transcriptions of
Canaanite names and words from Phoenicia and
(Western) Palestine; see W. F. Albright in JPOS 14
(1934), 108, with reference to the views of H. Bauer,
and in BASOR no (1948), 15, n. 42.
2) Assimilation and non-assimilation
a) Preformative *s of the Shaphel is assimilated to initial
*t of the verbal root in *satibni> *tatibni, and in
*masoti' (for *masawti') > *matoti'. This is regular
in Ugaritic; see Gordon, Ugaritic Manual, S 28.
b) N does not always assimilate to a following dental or
spirant. Without assimilation note *'ant ('nt), *gint
(gnt), and *san#l (sn#). However, with assimilation
we may note *ti(n)t (tt). Note also gt=*gi(n)t in
the Lachish Prism. For a similar interchange note
git(t)i and ginti in place-names in the Amarna letters.
3) Contraction of diphthongs
It is clear that diphthongs were regularly contracted just
as in contemporary South Canaanite (Amarna, Egyptian
transcriptions) and Ugaritic. Among examples from our
texts we may cite *'olam ('lm), Heb. 'oliim from a prob-
able augmentative *'awlam [like Kawtar in Aram. and
Arab.> Ugar. Kotar (transcribed Kusar in Accadian) and
Heb. Kosiir(ot) > Phoen. Kusor (Greek Chusor); Aram.
'al(a)ma > Arab. 'iilam is a typical hyper-correction
(back-formation)]; *tok (tk) =Heb. tok <*tawk (tiiwek).
Similarly, *ladeyu (ldy) comes from *ladayhu<*la-ya-
dayhu; see Glossary. Note also *Job (tb) for *tawb, lit.
GRAMMATICAL SKETCH 33
"turning," as well as a number of feminine nouns such as
*'oUt ('lt) =Heb. 'olii, "burnt offering" (both are active
participles like Can. !;,omit [Amarna ftumit-] and Ugar.
*J;,amitu, Heb. J;,omii, "wall of a town"), *gabU (gbt),
plur. *gabOt, all exhibit vocalic contraction (and perhaps
also the influence of analogy in the vocalization of the
penultimate syllable) ; note that the reduction of an
original plural *gabiyot to *gabOt is like the Hebrew shift
of *J;,omiyot, "walls," to J;,omot, where Ugaritic still had
*J;,amiyat and Phoenician probably *J;,omiyot. Exactly the
same reduction took place in Accadian in cases like
rabitu, plur. rabliti (older rabiati).
B. MORPHOLOGY (in general only fully preserved forms are cited;

for occurrences see the Glossary)
1) Pronouns
Owing to the paucity of texts we have only *'anta ('nt),
2nd masc. sing., among independent pronouns. There are
several cases of suffixed n with verbs, especially ['] ?n
(*w/y'?) and Ubn, in both of which we have the 1st per.
sing. Quite instructive is the appearance of alternative
3rd masc. sing. suffixes y and win *ladeyu (ldy) for *lad-
ayhu and *'alew ('lw) for *'aleu<*'alayhu, respectively.
The former underlies the standard Phoenician suffix 3rd
masc. sing. y and the latter agrees with corresponding
Hebrew forms ending in ew (Massoretic iiw, as in 'aliiw,
piiniiw). For discussions of these forms and their develop-
ment see especially Frank M. Cross, Jr., and David Noel
Freedman, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 10 (1951),
22 8-30, and their book, Early Hebrew Orthography
(1952), especially 11ff., 47, 68ff., as well as J. Friedrich,
Phonizisch-punische Grammatik (1951), 13, 46. It must
be remembered that the orthography of the linear Ca-"
naanite alphabet can scarcely have been fixed this early,
and that it is still more unlikely that the miners would
have been familiar with any such standardization if it
already existed.
Just before completing the present study, I realized that
I should have applied the evidence which Friedrich and I
had collected in the late fifties to the elucidation of a
group of forms which I had recognized in principle as
long ago as 1948. This I shall proceed to do as succinctly
as possible. In 1948 I found several cases of m as enclitic
after the word mt, which I rendered as "lord, etc.," but I
failed to understand its morphology until Friedrich had
collected a considerable number of Punic examples of m
as 3rd masc. sing. suffix (Zeits. der Deutschen Morgen-
Uindischen Gesellschaft 107 [1957], 290-292). The lat-
ter was inclined to consider the suffix as non-Semitic, but
I immediately correlated it with a number of close paral-
lels in Phoenician proper, early Northwest-Semitic and
Biblical Hebrew (unfortunately my announced plan to in-
clude a paper on this subject in the Friedrich Festschrift
could not be carried out for lack of time). The Punic
ending is -im in binim, "his son," etc., in strict accord
with vocalization in Ugaritic and at Gozan (thirteenth-
tenth centuries B.C.), where the Ugar. and Phoen. name
'bd'lm (lit. "Servant of his god," like the common Ac-
cadian (W)arad-iliSu) is vocalized 'Abdi-ilimu (see my
treatment in Anatolian Studies 6 [ 1956], p. 81 and
n. 36). Similarly, 'lm Nrgl and 'lm B'l-$dn in late Phoeni-
cian inscriptions mean " (of) his god N ergal" and " (of) his
god Ba' al-$idon" (for references see Harris, A Grammar
of the Phoenician Language [1936], p. 77). In Hebrew
panemo = pnm in No. 375 (see Glossary), kappemo,
'alemo we still have the archaizing ending mu preserved in
fossil form (recognized cautiously by Bauer and Leander,
Historische Grammatik der hebraischen Spra:che, 253, n.
I) ; it also appears in numerous previously unrecognized
forms, both verbal and nominal. Among the nominal
forms listed by Horace Hummel, Jour. Bib. Lit., 76
( 1957), 92ff., 99ff., there are nearly a dozen (all in poetic
passages) which fall into this category, and more may
now be cited. In other words, our evidence for the an-
tiquity and diffusion of the 3rd masc. sing. suffix ending
in -mu, later m where the short final vowel was dropped
and -mo where it became fossilized, is now so overwhelm-
ing that we cannot be surprised to find it in Proto-Sinaitic.
We have the following demonstrative/determinative
pronouns in Proto-Sinaitic: masc.sing. *4u (4), used pos-
sessively and as a relative pronoun; fern. sing. *gat ( gt),
documented only as a possessive; h(?)n4, "this one here"
(see Glossary for cognate forms) . There is no apparent
difference in use between these forms and the cognate
Northwest and Southwest-Semitic words; early Hebrew
had the same or closely related forms.
2) Nouns and Adjectives
Masc. sing.- bn, btn, mn, mr', mtn, mf, nqb, nqbn, 'lm,
rb, tn, l'
Masc. dual const. - mf ( m) Masc. pl.- nqbnm
Fern. sing.- 'r!Jt, gnt, md't, mr't, 'lt, gbt, p'dt, tnt, t't
Fern. dual- 'r!Jtm, lb ['t(m)] Fern. pl.- gbt
Note: Nouns designating animals include btn and tn,
which are probably common in gender and collec-
tive in number, just as in many animal and plant
names in other Semitic languages.
Other augmented forms:
a) Prefixed m-: md't (from *wd'), mr't (from *r'y), mtn
(from ntn)
b) Suffixed -n: nqbn, presumably naqban, with the -an of
nomen agentis; see Brockelmann, Grundriss, I, 393
3) Verbs
Imperative Imperfect Participle
a) Qal
2nd masc: 3rd masc:
'rk yl;n (l;nn)
m' (wm') 2nd masc:
hb (whb) ttn (ntn)
dk (dky) ISt pl:
sm (sym) ng[b]r/;1
b) s
2nd masc:
sn# mU' (w/y~')
Ub Uwb)
Note: The presence of Shaphel forms is unexpected but
causes no difficulty. The Shaphel is the normal
causative in Ugaritic, in both the older poetic and
the later prose dialects. In Hebrew we also have
rare nouns such as salhebet and sqa'riirot, and
especially the forms of the reflexive verb histal;awii.
The name *Yasaskir> *Yisaskar, "lssachar," is
also an old Shaphel; see Jour. Amer. Or. Soc. 74
(I954), 227 and n. 32. But a wider use of the
Shaphel in the Late Bronze period is indicated by
Amarna Canaanite, not only in Canaanite variations
of Accadian Shaphel forms (see E. Ebeling, "Das
Verbum der El-Amarna-Briefe," Beitrage zur As-
syriologie, VIII/ 2 [I 9 I o], 64), but also in the oc-
currence of such Canaanite Shaphel forms as su-um-
ri-ir (EA, I85.74), yu-sa-am-ri-ir (EA, I03.30),
and tu-sa-am-ri-ru (EA, 77.24) (note also [s]a?-
am-ru-ri, EA, 58.r2, and im-ru-ur, EA, I85.66).
Note that mrr, "go away, leave," attested in Uga-
ritic and Arabic, does not seem to be known in
native Accadian texts, so that the forms in question
seem to be Canaanite. Some Shaphels appear in
Amorite: e.g., in the names Sunulfra-ammu and
Sunulfra-lfalu (BASOR 78 (1940), p. 24, n. 5),
and they were not uncommon in Aramaic; the
"Amorite" names in question may be dialectal
Accadian.
4) Particles
The emphatic enclitic particle, -m, occurs twice with an
imperative: 'rk-m, dk-m
The previously adduced cases m~m and pnm have a differ-
ent explanation; see above and Glossary.
5) Prepositions
't *'itt-
b- *ba-
btk batok
l- *la-
ldy *ladeyu (cf. Arabic laday- and discus-
sion above)
[l]pn *[la]pane
'l *'al-
6) Numerals
tt, "two (fern.)"- tt lb['t(m)]
ttl, "three (masc.)"- tlt gbt
C. THE PLACE OF PROTO-SINAITIC IN NORTHWEST-SEMITIC
The language of the Proto-Sinaitic texts is Late Bronze

Northwest-Semitic, as indicated by the phonetic structure,
but does not exactly correspond with any known dialect. The
use of the Shaphel is closely paralleled by Ugaritic, but the
treatment of the sibilants agrees with South Canaanite as
known through Egyptian transcriptions. Since there seems to
be sporadic use of the Shaphel in Amarna letters from Byblos
and the hinterland further south (J)azi), and since Biblical
and Mishnaic Hebrew still preserves cases of it, the language
of the Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions is best classified as a kind
of Canaanite koine (lingua vulgaris), which had perhaps
evolved into a separate dialect. With so little textual data,
it is unsafe to extrapolate further.
GLOSSARY
'bb Probably Egyptian personal name, *'Ababa, *'Abeba,

well known in the Middle Kingdom (Ranke, p. 21:6-
xo). I much prefer this to my previous identification
with the month name 'Abib (see BASOR IIO (1948),
p. 21, n. 73) -357.
'bm[ Personal name Abimael, 362.
'd(?) *add-, "father"(?), Gerster 1. For the context, 'd '[l],
note that El is called 'ab 'adm, "father of man" at Ugarit;
cf. F. M. Cross, Jr., Harvard Theological Review 55, 240.
The word appears as 'ad in Ugaritic and as adda in Ac-
cadian texts.
Personal name, 362. Perhaps Egyptian; see above.
Personal name, 349. A!Jena(?) for A!Jiyana (PRU III,
I 94). "Our brother" less probable.
'!Jt' Personal name, 363. This is a hypocoristicon with *'a!J-

and the ending *-uta', as in Ab-du-ta, *'Abduta', from
Alalal] IV (Wiseman, The Alalakh Tablets [London,
1953], Pl. XXXV, 342.9), and 'm(m)wt', *'Ammuta',
in the Execration Texts (Sethe, e 13). Another possible
example from these texts is 'lrt', *'Iluta(') ? (Posener,
E.38), although the reading is uncertain.
'l 'El, either as divine name (probably in 363 and Gerster
1) or merely "god" (350, and in the title 'l 4 'lm, "'El of
eternity," 3 58).
['ly]t' Probably a personal name in 349; cf. 1li-esu!J for
*Eliyatu' in Old Babylonian texts and Heb. 'lys' (Elisha).
'nt *'anta, "thou (masc. sing.)," 349, 357, 374
*'ar!Jat-, "wild cow" (Ugar. 'ar!J-, Ace. ar!J-; Arab.
'ajir!Jat-, "heifer"): dual, 'r!Jtm, 37 5; collective probably
'r!J (Ugar. pl. 'ar!Jt), [352], 353, 365b.
't *'itt-, "with," 36o, [365a].
Probably a personal name in the group '~' bn ~r, which
GLOSSARY 39
may tentatively be vocalized as 'Ita' son of (bin) ~ur-
352. Note also ]bn ?r, *bin (son of) ~ur- 364. 't' may
be derived from *yt'/wt', "save" (Hebrew, Moabite, Old
South Arabic), and compared to the North-Arabian deity,
't', (Gk. Ethaos), and to is!J-, *Yit'-, a frequent element
in Amorite personal names. ~r, *~ur-, Reb. $ur, "moun-
tain" (Aram. {ura) is a well-known divine epithet in the
Old Testament and among Amorite personal names. A
$itr was prince of Midian in the 13th century (Num. 25:
15, etc.).
b *ba-, "in, with, from": 350 (btk), 374; see also m' hb
b-'lt, below.
b'lt *Ba'lat-, divine name: 345, 346, [347a), 349, 365a.
Except for the last example Ba'lat- is preceded by l-.
bn *bin-, "son," in ('t') bn ?Y, above, also in 349
*bat(a)n-, "serpent" (Reb. bsn [see Albright, HUCA
XXIII, 1 (I9SD-SI), 27], Ugar. btn, Old Aramaic btn
[see Fitzmyer JAOS 81 (1961), 198a, 218), Accad.
ba$m-) in the phrase t)t btn, "the one (fern.) of the
serpent; the Serpent Lady": 351, 353, 360, 361.
gnt *gint-, "(wine- )press" (Hebrew gitt-, Ugar. gt, inf. of
*wgn), in d gnt, "the one of/ Lord of the Winepress,"
on the Lachish Prism.
dk *dky, "levy, collect" (Accad. daku) - dk, imperative,
with enclitic -m: 357 For a similar use in Accadian, see
CAD, D, 125b.
1a. *du (masc.) demonstrative, in sense, "the one of,"
occurs in the phrases f}.-gnt, f}.-ldy mr't, f}.-'lm, d-tn, d-tb,
d-t', listed under the second word. It is also found in the
same function in all early Northwest and Southwest
Semitic languages.
(dt) 1b. *dat- (fern.) demonstrative, occurs in the phrase tjt
btn (see above, btn). Correlated with t)u in most Semitic
languages.
db}J t)b}J, "sacrifice," in the verbal form nf}.[br/J,, 1st pl. im-
perfect: 345.
wwt Geographical name, *Wawat (W3w3t), northern Nubia
-351.
See'?
hb *whb, "present" (Aram. yhb; Arab., OSA whb; cf.
Hebrew hab), in hb, imv., occurring in the phrases m'
hb (b)'lt and hb 'lt, listed below.
knd *handa, "this" (Ugar. hnd; cf. old North-Arabic dia-

lectal ha(n) . . . da, Classical hiidii, Reb. hazzeh for
*hanf)ay); probable interpretation of h(?)nd, 363. See
M. Liverani, Atti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei,
XIX (1964), 9-10.
l}br *IJ,abr-, "companion" (Reb. IJ,aber; Syr. IJ,abra; Ugar.
IJ,br, Accad. ebru)- Gerster 1. [Or a personal name,
Qeber.]
*!Jl~,
"draw out, strip; (pi'el:) rescue, save" (as in Bib.
Reb.) - 3 so, where we read r IJlf [ n], "rescue me."
yl}nb'l Personal name, *Ya!Jun(n)-Ba'al, "May Ba'al be Gra-
cious"- 367. Cf. Phoenician YIJ,nb'l (Z. Harris, Gram-
mar, 103; Lidzbarski, Handbuch, 287) and Amorite Ya-
!Ju-un-AN? (Archives royales de Mari, VII, No. 211.4)
and Ya-!Ju-un-pi-el (Simmons, JCS 14 (1960), 27, No.
54.18). For the geminate form note also Hebrew yiil}on.
See t{2).
k[ First consonant of probable personal name, 365b-.
l *la-, "to, for (the sake of), from": 345, 346, 347a, 365a
(alll-b'lt); 352, 353, 357
lb['t] *lab' at-, "lioness" (Ugar. lb'it-, Arab. labu~ at-; cf. Heb.
labi' "lioness" ["lion"?] Accad labu "lion") in tt
' ' . '
(two, fern.) lb['t(m)] -352. On the various vocaliza-
' -
tions of the words in Canaanite and Egyptian see BASOR
89 (1943), x6, n. sxa, and Jour. Bib. Lit. 63 (1944),
218, n. 75
ldy *ladeyu < *la (ya) dayhu, "in his (two) hands, in his
care"; Ugar. bd (cf. Amarna badeu, "in his hands"),
Phoen. bod (PPG 31, Boa), "in the hand[s] of"; Reb.
GLOSSARY 41
ba(d)dim, "handles"), in the phrased ldy mr't, du ladeyu
mar'itu, "the one in whose care is the meadow"- 346.
m' *wm', "swear" (Aram. ym' [Jean-Hoftijzer, ro8], Syr.
ym', Accad. wamii'u, tamii'u; cf. Arab. wm', "nod"), in
m', imv., occurring in the phrase m' kb (b )'lt, discussed
below. Assyrian mii, introducing direct discourse, may
be cognate.
m' kb 'ltjm' kb b-'lt
"swear to present/bring a sacrifice" ("swear, present a
sacrifice"): 345, [350], [351], [352], 356, [365a], and
(with the object after the preposition b-) - 3 74
md't m- noun from *wtf, "put down, deposit" (Arab., OSA),
in the sense of something put down for a deity- 3 75 It
is possible that md' t refers to a practice like Hebrew
leiJem piinim.
mn >+:man-, "mina" (Accad. manu, borrowed as Eg. mn, Ugar.
mn, Heb. mane, Aram. manya', etc.; see BASOR No.
no, 21, n. 74)- 357
m [nljt] (?) *ma [noljat] , "resting-place"; Ugar. mnlj, Heb. miino/J,
menu/Jii with same meaning; cf. identical expression,
used of God: niitdn menu'!Jii (I Kings 8:56) -352(?).
Cf. also t[n] . . . [n]lj in Gerster r, with the same
probable meaning.
mr' *maru'-, "groom" (Ugar. mr'u, mur'u [in Accadian script,
PRU, III, 234, etc.; loan-word ma-ru-'uji in New Egyp-
tian, which preserves the older vocalization [BASOR
110 (1948), 21, n. 78])- 357
mr't m- noun from *r'y, "pasture," in the sense of "meadow,
pasturage" (cf. Heb. mar'U, mir'e; Syr. mar'ita, Accad.
meritu) - 346.
mtn *mattijan-, "gift"- probably mt(n} l-B'lt in 346a, and
[m]tn ntn in 363.
m~ m~, "lord" (Ugar. title of Baal's son by a heifer), m~t,
"lady" (title of the chief wives of Keret and Danel): 351
and 360 (m~, "the [two] lords of"), 361 (m~-m, "his
[two] lords"), 348 ([m]tt-m) and 360 (m~<t>-m),
"his lady." On the forms with final m see above, pp.
33-35. I now explain the stem mt as clipped by dis-
similation from mtl l, "to be like (to), to represent" in
most Semitic languages. For Phoen. ms, "statue," cf.
South Arab. mtl, Accad. tamsilu, Arab. tamtal, etc.; for
mt, mtt, "lord, lady" cf. Heb. mosel, mimsal, "ruler,"
properly "(royal) representative."
*nw!J, as in nearly all Semitic languages ( [ n] !J in Gerster
1 ; see m [n!Jt (?) ] .
n'm Personal name from *n'm, "be pleasant, favorable," very
common in personal names. From Ugarit note N'mn,
'Adnn'm, Mlkn'm (Aistleitner, Worterbuch, p. 208),. and
note also na!Jm-, ni!Jm-, and nu!Jm-, in Amorite names in
Accadian texts from Alala.b and Mari. On Old Testa-
ment 'Ab'f,j'A~ino'am see Albright, JAOS 74 (1955), 227,
n. 35 One may vocalize Nu'mu, Na'mu, etc. In the
Sethe Execration Texts from 2oth-century Egypt it oc-
curs in the hitherto unrecognized name Ym'n'wmw, which
reflects a vocalization Yam'i-nu'mu (as pointed out to me
by Dr. Huffmon); the first element is attested elsewhere.
n~l *n~l, "draw out," S, "deliver, save (exactly like Reb.
caus. hiHU)," in s(?)n~ln(?), S imv. (with rst sing sf.)
-356.
nqb *naqbu, "mine, tunnel" (Hebrew nqb, "to tunnel" [cf.
Siloam inscription, ANET 321] and neqeb, "mine" [see
BASOR rro (1948), 13, n. 39); Arab. naqb, "tunnel,
mine," OSA, nqbt, "underground passage"), from *nqb,
"bore through"- 350, 351.
nqbn *naqbfin, "miner," from *nqb (see above), in the title rb
nqbnm (pl.), 349; rb nqbn(m), 346; rb n [ ] , 356.
'l *'al-, "on behalf of": 346 (twice), 349; "with, near":
'lw (with 3rd ms. sf.), Gerster 1.
'lm *'oliim-, "eternity" (from *'awlam-); see also above,
IV.A.3. In 'l d-'lm Heb. El '6liim (F. M. Cross, Jr.,
Harvard Theological Review 55, 236-40)- 358.
'lt *'alit-, "sacrifice, offering," from *'ly (cf. Heb. 'ala,
Ugar. s'ly, "offer [sacrifice"] = Reb. he'la). See the dis-
GLOSSARY 43
cussion in BASOR 110 (1948), 16, n. 52. This word
occurs in the phrases hb 'lt and m' hb (b- )'lt, discussed
above.
[']~ *y'~, "advise, give counsel/oracle" (Heb. y'~, Aram. y'!,
Arab. w'~, "exhort," in [']?!~n, imv. (with xst sing sf.)
-352.
'rk *'rk, "prepare" (Hebrew), in 'rk-m, imv. (with -m en-
clitic)- 349 See also the discussion in BASOR uo
(1948), 16, n. 47
gbt *gabit-, "fatling," from *gby, "be fat, thick" (Heb.,
Aram. 'by, Accad. [ ebu.] ; cf. Eth. 'by, "be large"; Arab.
gby, "be dense, stupid" [ cf. Syr.], gabab, "belly [of a
cow]"), in GlG gbt (pl.: *gabOt-) -375. (The verb 'by
is used of a fattened beast in Deut. 32:15 [eleventh cen-
tury B.C.]. Dhu-Ghabat (l>GBT), name of the chief
deity of Lil).yan (Dedan), may mean "Lord of Fatlings.")
gly(w) Personal name, Ugaritic Glyn (see PRU II, No. 35:24:
Glyn in Bn Glyn, and Edomite 'Alwan (LXX, Golijn),
Gen. 36:23)- 353
p'dt *p'dt, "mercy(?)" (cf. Ugar. p'id, in d/d-p'id [epithet of
El]; Arab. fa'ida, "benefit, good; profit, tax"; cf. also
Arab. fu'tld, "heart")- 375
pn *pan-, "face," used as preposition, "before"- 353 (l-pn,
Heb.lipne), 375 (with-mas in Psalm 11:7, piinemo, "his
[God's] face").
rb *rabb-, "great; chief," in the following titles (used as in
Aramaic, Ugaritic and later Accadian): rb nqbnm, "chief
miner," 346, 349, 356; rb '[prm(?) ], "chief cara-
vaneer"(?). In addition cf. Ugar. (and Phoen.) rb khnm,
"chief priest"; rb kzym, "chief groom"; Accad. (Ugar.),
rab mala~!/i, "chief mariner"; Accad. (Amarna) rab ~iibi,
"chief of troops." In late Assyro-Babylonian and Aramaic
there are hundreds of additional examples.
sm" Personal name (Heb. Sim'a')- 357 This is a hypo-
coristic form of Yisma"el, Ishmael. On hypocoristic -'
see Albright, JAOS 74 (1954), 227 (n. 30); Cross,
BASOR 168 (1962), 17. For the name here see BASOR
110 (1948), 21, n. 77
Usm *sym, "set, present": in sm, imv.,- 353
tk *tok from *tawk-, "midst": btk, 350.
tn *tann-, "jackal" (Heb. tann-), in d-tn, "Lord of (the)
jackal(s)"; probably Eg. Anubis [see above]- 353
tn *ntn, "give" (Heb., Aram., Amorite; cf. Accad. nadiinu
and mtn [see ad voc.]), or possibly *ytn, "give" (Ugar.,
Phoen.), in tnt, *tin(a)t, "offering," 347, 347a; also in
ntn, pf. (3rd ms.), 363, tn (imv.), 349, 374, ttn, impf.
(2nd ms.), 374
t't *ft, "wild ewe" (Ugar. fat; Old Aramaic s't [Sefire I],
s'h [Pnmw II]; Imperial Aram. t'h/t [see Dupont-Som-
mer and Starcky, Sfire, 37-8])- [349], 353 See also
BASOR 110 (1948), 16, n. 48.
~b *~wb, "turn, answer," in tb , *tob < *tawb, "turning,"
i.e. "showing mercy, restoring," with many Hebrew ex-
amples in qal of verb and in personal names, e.g., Subna-
'el [see BASOR 79 (1940), 28ff., n. 1; 82 (1941), p. 17;
123 ( 1951), 27ff.]), "Answering, Merciful (One)," oc-
curring in the phrase d-tb ('t) dt-btn, 360, 361; also in
s
Ubn, imv. (with 1st sing. sf.), 365a.
#t *taliit-, "three"- 375
I' 1) *t'y, "offer, give" (Ugar. t'y, "offer, give"; t', "gift,
offering"; cf. OSA mt'y, "oblation"), in the phrase
d-t', *du-ta ['i], "offerer" - 349 (three times, never
fully preserved), 374 (once, broken); as [t]',) imv.
- 349; as t', "offering"- 349 (three times, fully
preserved only once, in a broken context). Compare
t' dbJ;,n ndbJ;,, "an offering, our sacrifice which we
sacrifice" (RSh 2). For the equivalence with Heb.
say(y), "gift, offering," for *sa'y, as proposed by H.
L. Ginsberg, see BASOR no (1948), 15, n. 41. This
has now been confirmed by F. M. Cross's reading
Usy, "gift, offering" in the 13th-century Lachish ewer
(BASOR 134 (1954), 21), and has been further
proved by Virolleaud's 13th-century letter from
GLOSSARY 45
Ugarit (PRU II [1957], 29), where we have lY ndr
(No. 13: 13), "votive offering."
2) *y/wt', "save" (Heb., Moabite, OSA), in mU'[n],
*mato#' [ni], S participle- 352. This same root
may occur in 'l', 352, tentatively taken as a personal
name, but which could be a Qal impf., "I cry for
help."
*#tt-, from *tint-, "two (fern.),"- 352.
Personal name, *'[apan, "hyrax, coney" (Reb. Siipiin).
See also BASOR 110 (1948}, 21, n. 71.
Additional Notes for the second edition

Two valuable discussions of the material have appeared since the manuscript of
the first edition was completed in September, 1964 : The Origin and Early Evolu-
tion of the Alphabet, by Frank Moore Cross, Jr., in Eretz-Israel VIII (E. L .
Sukenik Memorial Volume, Jerusalem, 1967), 8*-24* ; and a detailed review
of the present monograph by Herbert Donner, in Journal of Semitic Studies XII
(r967), 273-81. A number of proposals for reading early Canaanite texts (new
texts and a few corrections) have been made to me by H . Goedicke, but until they
have been published, I shall not discuss them. I have numerous suggestions to
make with respect to points in the first edition, but most of them are not especially
significant, being largely concerned with defense of my published views. Below I
shall include a few of the more important items.
The most valuable contribution made by Cross in the above-cited study con-
cerns the development of the Canaanite script between the thirteenth and the tenth
century B.C., as illustrated by ostraca and especially by javelin heads and arrow-
heads used in belomancy (r8*-23*). Note that RsP-!t? in Ugaritic and Rsp-ft~
in later Phoenician refer to the underworld divinity as patron of good fortune, con-
firming the interpretation first advanced by S. I wry that b~ in these belomantic
texts refers to "luck," and is not the name of a weapon. (Cf. my Yahweh and the
Gods of Canaan, YGC [London, 1968], r2r.) There is also a challenging inter-
pretation of the Gerster inscription from Sinai (above, 28f.) as well as of the
Beth-shemesh ostracon (above, n, no. r2); Cross is probably right about the
vertical stance of the lines of characters; I doubt whether much can be made out
of the obverse (my reverse, by mistake) . My original date for the sherd was Late
Bronze, because of the paste; I now suggest a date in the thirteenth century instead
of the 12th-nth (as above, 12).
Prof. Donner's review is one of the best I have seen in recent years; I accept
most of his observations and corrections. As he notes, I have repeated as little as
possible from my fundamental essay of 1948 (BASOR no, 6-22, where the
evidence for dating and for mortuary character of most inscriptions is presented
in detail). In view of the fact that these mortuary inscriptions were found in or
very near burial cairns (with the oblong burial cavity still partly preserved in a
number of cases), there could be no doubt about their purpose.
In discussing the proposed Semitic adaptations of Egyptian appellations of divin-
ity, Donner (276.) might have recalled the unquestioned fact that all the
Proto-Sinaitic carved panels and sculptures bearing inscriptions closely follow
Egyptian models; there are no imitations of Asiatic prototypes. This alone suggests
a long period of settlement in Egypt before the period of the inscriptions in Sinai.
My translation of 'r(J.t as "wild cow" (first proposed in 1935) was actually not
based on the obvious fact that domestic cattle would scarcely be found near Serabit
el-Khadem, but rather on the then accepted translation of Accadian ar(J.u as "wild
ox" or "wild cow" by Assyriologists. The now popular rendering "cow" does not
accord with the clear evidence of the vocabularies (e.g., Jj:AR.ra = (J.ubullu XIII,
333-34 [JNES IV (1945), I72], where ab = ar(J.u and ab-silam = littu, whereas
in the Practical Vocabulary of Assur [AfO XVIII, 332, 351-52, between
words for "camel" and "elephant"] GUD.AM = ri-e-mu and GUD :AB.AM =
ar(J.u [AM is evidently added to the second equivalence to make clear that the
cow is wild]). Sum. silam is written with an ideogram for "cattle enclosure" with
the sign for "female" inside, so littu is properly "domestic cow." There is much
other confirmatory material in Sumero-Accadian literature. In Ugaritic we need
only refer to the familiar passage in the Baal Epic where the heart of Anath yearns
over Baal like that of the 'ar{J for her calf and the fat for her lamb, as she seizes
Death and destroys him. It is absurd to render the two words as anything but
"wild cow" and "wild ewe" respectively, either in Ugaritic or in Sinai. That wild
animals have much more violent reactions than tame beasts under such circum-
stances is well known. Wild cows were much more lithe than their males and could
run faster, just as Arab mares generally outrun stallions. Hence Accadian ar(J.is,
"fast," meant literally "like a wild cow."
On the Canaanite-Ugaritic divinity Tirsu/Tr[ (doubted by Donner, 277, n. 2)
see the additional confirmation brought by M . C. Astour from Ugaritic texts to
appear in Ugaritica V (JAOS 86 [1966], 284). It is clear that tiros was indeed
a word for "wine" (not for unfermented grape juice) in Hebrew, and that it was
not derived from the Semitic verb wr! at all but from the name of the wine-god.
(On the development of the Hebrew word see YGC, 16If.)
Professor Donner's objections to translating the suffix m as "his (lord)" in
Text No. 353 (his review, 278) are entirely justified; it should naturally be
"my (lord) ." The discussion of this suffix above, 33-35, has suffered by my
limitation of its personal scope; actually I should have followed my much earlier
view, demonstrated by H. D. Hummel in his basic study on enclitic mem in Hebrew
(JBL 76 [1957], 92ff.). Mitchell Dahood has also made use of this principle
in his Anchor Psalms, Vols. I and II (1966 and 1968). In a forthcoming study of
the Pyrgi inscription I shall try to demonstrate that Phoenician 'lm, when applied
to a divinity, means "my god/ goddess" as well as "his god/ goddess" and is not a
plural of majesty (for which we should expect 'lnm like Heb. 'elohim and Amarna
Accadian ilani), even in Karatepe, Statue, III, 16. In the Bronze Age the vocaliza-
tion would have been *ilimi and ilimu respectively; in later Phoenician it became
ilim in both cases (like Punic binim, "his son").
HARVARD THEOLOGICAL STUDIES
I. THE COMPOSITION AND DATE OF ACTS. By Charles Cutler
Torrey. 72 pages. 1916. (Out of print.)
II. THE PAULINE IDEA OF FAITH IN ITS RELATION TO JEWISH
AND HELLENISTIC RELIGION. By W. H. P. Hatch. 92 pages.
1917. (Out of print.)
III. EPHOD AND ARK. By William R. Arnold. 170 pages. 1917. (Out of
print.)
IV. THE GOSPEL MANUSCRIPTS OF THE GENERAL THEOLOGICAL
SEMINARY. By C. C. Edmunds and W. H. P. Hatch. 68 pages. 1918.
$1.25.
V. MACARI! ANECDOTA. By G. L. Marriott. 48 pages. 1918. (Out of
print.)
VI. THE STYLE AND LITERARY METHOD OF LUKE. By Henry J.
Cadbury. 205 pages. 1920. (Out of print.)
VII. IS MARK A ROMAN GOSPEL? By B. W. Bacon. 106 pages. 1919.
(Out of print. )
VIII. THE DEFENSOR PACIS OF MARSIGLIO OF PADUA. By Ephraim
Emerton. 81 pages. 1920. (Out of print.)
IX. AN ANSWER TO JOHN ROBINSON OF LEYDEN BY A PURITAN
FRIEND. Edited by Champlin Burrage. xiv, 94 pages. 1920. $2.00.
X. THE RUSSIAN DISSENTERS. By F. C. Conybeare. 1921. (Out uf
print.)
XI. CATALOGUE OF THE GREEK MANUSCRIPTS IN THE LIBRARY
OF THE MONASTERY OF VATOPEDI ON MT. ATHOS. By Sophro-
nios Eustratiades and Arcadios. iv, 277 pages. 1924. (Out of print.)
XII. CATALOGUE OF THE GREEK MANUSCRIPTS IN THE LIBRARY
OF THE LAURA ON MOUNT ATHOS. By Spyridon, of the Laura,
and Sophronios Eustratiades. 515 pages. 1925. (Out of print.)
XIII. A KEY TO THE COLLOQUIES OF ERASMUS. By Preserved Smith.
vi, 62 pages. 1927. $1.50.
XIV. THE SINGULAR PROBLEM OF THE EPISTLE TO THE GALA-
TIANS. By James Hardy Ropes. 46 pages. 1929. (Out of print.)
XV. SERAPION OF THMUIS: AGAINST THE MANICHEES. By Robert P.
Casey. vi, 80 pages. 1931. (Out of print.)
XVI. THE TWO TREATISES OF SERVETUS ON THE TRINITY, now first
translated into English. By Earl Morse Wilbur, D.D. xxxviii, 264 pages.
1932. $2.50.
XVII. SIX COLLATIONS OF NEW TESTAMENT MANUSCRIPTS. Edited
by Kirsopp Lake and Silva New. vi, 243 pages. 1932. $2.50.
XVIII. THE NORMAN ANONYMOUS OF 1100 A.D. TOWARD THE IDEN-
TIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF THE SO-CALLED ANONY-
MOUS OF YORK. By George Huntston Williams. xiv, 236 pages. 1951.
$2.50.
XIX. AN ESSAY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LUTHER'S THOUGHT
ON JUSTICE, LAW, AND SOCIETY. By F. Edward Cranz. xvi, 197
pages. 1958. $2.50.
XX. THE OLD TESTAMENT OF THE EARLY CHURCH. By Albert C.
Sundberg, Jr. x, 190 pages. 1964. $3.00.
XXI. A SACRED CALENDAR OF ELEUSIS. By Sterling Dow and Robert F.
Healey, S.J. 58 pages. 1965. $2.00.
XXII. THE PROTO-SINAITIC INSCRIPTIONS AND THEIR DECIPHER-
MENT. By William F. Albright. To be published.
PRINTED AT THE BARVAI\D VNIVJ!;RS.ITY I'RlNTING OFl'lCJ:

CAMBRJDGE, MASS., U.S.A.

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HARVARD THEOLOGICAL STUDIES XXII

WILLIAM FOXWELL ALBRIGHT

WILLIAM FOXWELL ALBRIGHT

II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND INFERENCES 10

III. THE TEXTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION J6

IV. GRAMMATICAL SKETCH 31

THE first inscription of the category now known as Proto-Sinaitic

around, very much as in later North-Arabian graffiti. Acciden-

Schema.tLc Table of Proto-5LnQi.ti.c Characters

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND

AssuMING the general correctness of my decipherment, it is now

r. Gezer (sherd from offering stand, ca. 17th century B.C.).

FIG. 3 Sides I, 3 and 4 (right to left) of Lachish Prism (Courtesy

THE TEXTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

Text No. 345 (on two sides of a female sphinx) [Fig. 5]

Text No. 348

Text No. 349 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 4]

Text No. 350 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 5]

Text No. 351 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 5]

Text No. 352 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 5]

Text No. 353 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 5]

Text No. 354 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 8]

Note: the M in Col. I, considerably larger than the other

Text No. 356 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 8]

Text No. 357 (carved on rock wall) [Fig. 4]

Text No. 358 [Fig. 9]

Text No. 359 [Fig. 7]

Text No. 360 [Fig. 9]

Text No. 361 [Fig. 8]

Text No. 362 [Fig. 7]

Text No. 363 [Fig. ro]

Text No. 364 (Fig. 10]

See No. 3 52 for the name.

Text No. 365a [Fig. ro]

The characters at the bottom of the line must be read in the

Text No. 367 (steliform rock panel) [Fig. 7]

Text No. 374 [Fig. 8]

Text No. 375 [Fig. 8]

Gerster, No. 1 [Fig. II]

A. PHONOLOGY: INVENTORY OF GRAPHEMES.

' b g d d h w I; !J y k l m n ' g ~~~ p q r s/t s t

g gnt, gt (Lachish prism); form continues in North and

B. MORPHOLOGY (in general only fully preserved forms are cited;

The language of the Proto-Sinaitic texts is Late Bronze

'bb Probably Egyptian personal name, *'Ababa, *'Abeba,

'!Jt' Personal name, 363. This is a hypocoristicon with *'a!J-

knd *handa, "this" (Ugar. hnd; cf. old North-Arabic dia-

Additional Notes for the second edition

PRINTED AT THE BARVAI\D VNIVJ!;RS.ITY I'RlNTING OFl'lCJ:

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'bb Probably Egyptian personal name, 'Ababa, 'Abeba,