Porgy and Bess An American Wozzeck

Porgy and Bess: An American Wozzeck 3
resemblances ought to be considered coincidental, I maintain that in Porgy and Bess

the number is sufficiently great for coincidence to be implausible.
Gershwins admiration for Wozzeck and the Lyric Suite has been noted by many.
From the time of his 1928 visit to Berg in Vienna, Gershwin clearly held Berg in
high esteem. He possessed an autograph excerpt of the Lyric Suite, along with scores
of that work and Wozzeck, the latter reputed to be one of his prize possessions.6 His
interest in Wozzeck had not diminished in 1931 when he journeyed to Philadelphia
specifically in order to hear one of the American premiere performances. Some
have commented, usually in passing, on affinities between Porgy and Bess and
Wozzeck. Joan Peyser observes without elaborating, There is ample evidence in
Porgy and Bess that Wozzeck impressed [Gershwin].7 Allen Forte has examined
shared features of the lullabies in each opera and Gershwins use of the octatonic
scale, a usage Forte terms the strongest musical link between Gershwin and Berg.
These links are sufficient for Forte to conclude that Gershwin understood certain
features of Bergs music, at least in some very specific, but perhaps partly in an aurally
and intuitive way.8 Other observers, including John Johnson in his dissertation on
Porgy, have noted that both operas have out-of-tune barroom pianos, fugues, and
numerous leitmotives.9 Raymond Knapp offers a persuasive comparison of how
Gershwin and Berg use the onstage piano to depict the poverty and powerlessness
of the characters. Because the pianos both enter by repeating the music just played by
the orchestra, the reduction in forces provides implicit commentary, juxtaposing
a powerful larger force and its trivial echo within a low-life urban setting.10 Wayne
Shirley has found that, as in Wozzeck, in the first production of Porgy and Bess there
was an onstage band that was subsequently omitted.11
Beyond the presence in both operas of a lullaby, a fugue, a mock sermon, and
an out-of-tune upright piano, the greater relevance of these parallels and others is
to be found in the ways in which Gershwin situated them in comparable musical
contexts. Given the ample evidence that Gershwin was acquainted with Wozzeck, I
assume him to have been aware of the dramatic as well as musical points shared by
Bergs opera and his. Indications in his music acknowledge this common ground,
regardless of the substantial stylistic differences. My comparison is based on the
version Gershwin published in the 1935 piano vocal score and thus does not take
6
According to Oscar Levant, A Smattering of Ignorance (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co.,
1940),Gershwin treasured the piano score of Wozzeck and was deeply impressed by the opera when
he journeyed to Philadelphia for the performance under Stokowski in 1931 (155).
7
Joan Peyser, The Memory of All That: The Life of George Gershwin (New York: Simon & Schuster,
1993), 230. Steven Gilbert does not specify Wozzeck, but he considers Bergs influence strong: There
is another affinity, on the surface less likely but potentially more profound, with a composer [Berg]
whose very soul was opera. This is from the conclusion of his chapter on Porgy and Bess in The Music
of Gershwin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 206.
8
Allen Forte, Reflections Upon the Gershwin-Berg Connection, The Musical Quarterly 83
(1999): 159 and 165.
9
Johnson, Gershwins American Folk Opera, vol. 1, 15254.
10
Raymond Knapp, The American Musical and the Formation of National Identity (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 2005), 199.
11
Private communication from Wayne Shirley, who informed me that in the first production, the
band played onstage at the end of Act 2, sc. 1, R10718, inclusive.
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4 Reynolds
into account the cuts he made later as a result of rehearsals and performances
in Boston and New York.12 For Gershwins knowledge of Wozzeck there were at
least three sources: the piano-vocal score from 1926, Bergs own commentary on
the opera, published in English in the November 1927 edition of Modern Music,
and Willi Reichs article A Guide to Wozzeck, also published in Modern Music,
November 1931. A fourth source, the American premiere performance on 19 March
1931, that Gershwin attended in Philadelphia, could doubtless be added to this list.
Of these sources, the piano-vocal score was certainly the most important, but
Reichs Guide to it provided Gershwin not only an insightful introduction to
Wozzeck but also to his thoughts on strategies for composing a successful opera in
general.
Many of the musical resemblances mark elements of drama that are present in
both plots (Appendix 1 presents a list of similarities between the two operas). Be-
cause the story of Porgy and Bess was based on the novel Porgy by DuBose Heyward
(1925) and the subsequent play that Heyward and his wife, Dorothy, staged in 1927,
many of these dramaturgical moments existed before the operatic version. These
include such central moments in the stories as the murders, which are accompa-
nied in both operas by lengthy pedals (Appendix 1, no. 5). Likewise, the drownings
(Appendix 1, no. 11): as Wozzeck slips into the lake, Berg supplied chromatic rising
six-note chords in quintuplets; for Jakes drowning, Gershwin wrote storm music
that grows to a climax with chromatic six-note chords in sextuplets. Above the
chromaticisms played in the orchestra, the singers onstage speak: Clara cries out,
Oh Jake, Jake, and the Doctor and Captain (Hauptmann) comments on suspicious
sounds coming from the lake. Dramatically the settings have completely opposite
characters: in Porgy the storm music is fast and loud, and in Wozzeck the scene is a
clear, still moonlit night; thus the dynamics never get above pianissimo. For each of
these moments, Gershwins musical debts to Berg involve significant turns of plot
that were already present in Wozzeck and in both the novel and play versions of Porgy.
In some cases, however, Gershwin constructed musical links to Wozzeck at mo-
ments of the narrative that had not existed in the Heywards Porgy, suggesting
that Gershwin drew on dramatic as well as musical ideas from Wozzeck. The mock
sermon (Appendix 1, no. 8) is one such moment; another is signaled by one of
Gershwins few motivic allusions to Wozzeck, an allusion made despite the vast
stylistic gulf between Gershwins melodic world and Bergs. After Bess has given in
to Crowns violent advances, she sings, I wants to stay here, but I aint worthy, to
the motive that Berg had assigned Marie, in exactly the same circumstance; namely,
remorse after having been forced to have sex with a violent man. As shown in
Example 1, Marie sings Bin ich ein schlecht Mensch (Am I a bad person?) to four
rising thirds that span a major ninth.
When she returns within moments to answer her own question, Ich bin doch
ein schlecht Mensch (I am indeed a bad person), she sings the motive in retrograde
with the same pitches later used by Gershwin, excepting one chromatic inflection,
D-flat in place of C. Motive, text, and context (to which I will return) are all at
12
On these cuts, see Charles Hamm, The Theatre Guild Production of Porgy and Bess, Journal
of the American Musicological Society 40/3 (Autumn 1987): 495532.
Example 1a) Berg, Wozzeck, Act 2, sc. 1, mm. 105106
Example 1b) Gershwin, Porgy and Bess, Act 2, sc. 3, R210
Example 1c) Wozzeck, Act 2, sc. 1, mm. 12628
Example 1. Examples 1a and 1c from Berg WOZZECK C 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Vienna. English
Translation
C 1952 by Alfred A. Kalmus, London, W1.
C renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission
of European American Music Distributors LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition A.G. Vienna.
Example 1b from Porgy and Bess, by George Gershwin, Dubose and Dorothy Heyward, and Ira Gershwin.

C 1935 (Renewed 1962) George Gershwin Music, Ira Gershwin Music, and Dubose & Dorothy Heyward
Memorial Fund Publishing.
play in this allusion.13 Gershwin was clearly capable of appreciating the retrograde
treatment, since he devised a retrograde theme of his own in the crap game music.
Neither this text nor any other expression of unworthiness occurred at this point in
the novel and play Porgy. As such it is a moment in which the musical and dramatic
influence of Wozzeck is particularly evident.
Aside from individual musical gestures such as these, Porgy and Bess also contains
extended passages that combine related dramatic events with a more encompassing
indebtedness of musical structure and context. Appendix 1 is a list of the numerous
similarities between the two operas, including those between the lullabies, the
fugues, the sermons, and the scenes in which Bess and Marie are attacked sexually.
To summarize:
r The lullabies each follow music played onstage in fast duple meter and, at their
conclusions, a new motive of central importance is briefly introduced, a motive

that later accompanies death; further, the lullabies recur multiple times, with
analogous variations introduced in their reprises.
r The fugues are preceded by extended music in which the fugal ideas are presented
and developed in advance.
r The mock sermons share internal details and occur in the midst of dancing and
choral singing.
r Bess and Marie are coerced into having sex in scenes that relate in pacing, pitch,
and counterpoint.
13
For this to have been an actual allusion requires that Gershwin had access to a translation (or
translator) of the libretto for Wozzeck. The program for the Philadelphia production included a full
translation into English by Reginald Allen. See Barry Brisk, Leopold Stokowski and Wozzeck: An
American Premiere in 1931, Opera Quarterly 5/1 (Spring 1987): 7182, esp. 7677.
6 Reynolds
Evidence that Gershwin intended these debts to Wozzeck, that he expressed a

desire to compose an American Wozzeck, will lead in turn to the critical issue of
how we are to understand his use of Wozzeck. In what sense did Bergs opera serve
Gershwin as a model? It is one thing for Gershwin to use an earlier work as a technical
or pedagogical aid to help him in this ambitious and, for him, new undertaking,
but quite another to exploit it for a source of allusions that would affect how Porgy
and Bess might be understood. The distinction is not simply a matter of deciding
whether or not Gershwin sought assistance in matters of compositional technique
or allusive sources for his music ideas; the distinction also has implications for
speculation about whether Gershwins intention was that some of his audience
would recognize moments of indebtedness.
The Lullabies
Of all the moments that can be compared, the richest is between the lullabies
Summertime and Madel, was fangst Du jetzt an? that Clara and Marie sing
to their infants as they rock them. Allen Forte has examined certain connections
in detail, beginning with the observation that the two arias share certain char-
acteristics. Of these, perhaps the most apparent are the two-chord oscillation and
the contour similarity of the opening melodic figures that set Summertime and
Madel, respectively. Moreover, the voice leading of the oscillating chords is similar:
those of Gershwin progress by parallel whole steps . . . while Bergs are connected by
half step, the two upper parts moving in contrary direction to the lower two.14 Forte
shows as well that one of the chords occurs in both, the first chord in Summertime
and the harmony that sets du in the Berg lullaby (B, D, F-sharp, G-sharp, plus C-
sharp in the Berg).15 To these characteristics I will add the following: both lullabies
have two verses, and verse two is set to a varied repeat that commences at roughly
the same moment (Bergs in m. 17, Gershwins in m. 18).
These resemblances are of limited interest in part because they are themselves
limited: clearly, Gershwin did not need assistance writing a lullaby, and the style
of a German expressionist lullaby would be of no great relevance to the African
American milieu Gershwin wanted to create. But additional traits suggest what
Gershwin felt he could learn from Berg. First, both lullabies return more than once
in the opera, and because these returns each make analogous adjustments, the
ways in which they return are significant (Appendix 2 compares the lullabies and
their reprises). Second, the lullabies have comparable musical-dramatic settings.
They are preceded by music that ensures maximum contrast: in Porgy, Clara sings
the lullaby after the Jasbo Brown Blues in cut C, performed with an onstage
piano, while in Wozzeck Maries lullaby follows the military music, a raucous march
in 4/4 with an onstage band.16 The blues grow in intensity and volume from
piano to fortissimo, while the military march crescendos rapidly from pianissimo
to fortissimo and eventually fff. Berg and Gershwin provide short introductions to
their lullabies, Berg for nine slow measures, Gershwin for thirteen fast measures,
14
Forte, Reflections, 15354.
15
Ibid.
16
Although Gershwin referred to Jazzbo Brown, I follow the spelling Jasbo used in the
typescript libretto, the published score, and earlier references by Heyward.
although the music shifts definitively nine measures before, just as the stage lights
focus on Clara. Both composers prepare the first note of the lullaby by sustaining
it beforehand, Berg for seven measures, Gershwin for five and a half, and both
conclude the introduction with two high pitches orchestrated to achieve the same
sort of color: Berg scores his for celesta and Gershwin for theater-pit bells. This
orchestration returns to begin the second verse.
The parallels in approach to the lullabies are followed by others at the conclusion.
While Marie and Clara sing their final measures, the orchestra (and in Porgy and
Bess, also the choir) descend by half step, either for a fifth or a tritone (Wozzeck,
Act 1, mm. 398403; Porgy, Act 1, R21+2). Following the last cadence, the arias
exploit a fragment of the opening melody as the source of an instrumental coda.
The melodic fragment appears twice and then quickly twice more in a compressed,
elided form pitched an octave lower. Berg and Gershwin then introduce a motive of
central importance that eventually becomes associated with death. As Willi Reich
described it for Wozzeck, from the instrumental coda a cadential transition . . . is
developed as an ending, one of the most important motifs of the opera. The open
fifths represent the somewhat aimless waiting of Marie, a waiting that is terminated
only by her death.17 Indeed, this is the motive to which Berg returns just as Wozzeck
stabs Marie in the neck with a knife and gasps Todt! Reich further observes, The
repetition of [this motif] is interrupted by the swiftly intruding figure of Wozzeck
suddenly knocking at the window.18 Gershwin, in turn, follows his lullaby with the
first statement of the fight music, the motive that soon enough builds to Crowns
murder of Robbins and, later in Act 3, to Porgys murder of Crown. But in its
initial statement, as in Wozzeck, this motive breaks off for Mingo, Sporting Life,
and others to play craps. This is one of the best examples of a practice that Steven
Gilbert observed in Porgy and Bess: The later emergence of motives and themes
from material stated early in the opera. These motives and themes not only recur;
they precur.19 Reichs detailed analysis of Wozzeck provided an explanation of a
process Gershwin found useful for his own purposes.
Both operas thus have the following events in succession: a dance or march
played on stage in loud 4/4 or cut time, followed by a lullaby (with various points
in common) and subsequently a brief truncated statement of a central motive.
These introductory statements then give way to an extended segment of music
without arias, songs, or any of Bergs repetition-based instrumental forms. After
Reich describes the interruption of the motive associated with Marie, he continues:
From here on the musical structure abandons all formal schemes of unity and
suggests the free, unconstrained technique of composition of the post-Wagnerian
style, which was so prone to develop long stretches of the text in this manner, using
the leitmotif only as a means of support. I emphasize this particular idiosyncrasy
here, because it is the only place in Wozzeck where it occurs.20 Gershwin reacted
accordingly. Between the introduction of the fight motive and the next large vocal
17
Willi Reich, A Guide to Wozzeck,The Musical Quarterly 38/2 (1952): 10. This had previously
been published in Modern Music, November 1931.
18
Ibid.
19
Gilbert, The Music of Gershwin, 194.
20
Reich, A Guide to Wozzeck, 1011.
8 Reynolds
number (Jakes A Woman Is a Sometimes Thing), he wrote 182 measures of small

units, either recitative or melodic segments of up to twenty-one measures. His
leitmotives figure heavily in this section.
In Porgy and Bess, the next two statements of the lullaby were additions to the
opera; that is, in the play Porgy the lullaby had appeared only twice, once each in
the first and final acts. The kindred variations between the multiple reprises of the
lullabies by Berg and Gershwin thus introduce into Porgy dramatic as well as musical
elements from Wozzeck. Although less prolonged, Gershwins musical shadowing
of Berg is nevertheless evident because of some changes that appear in both operas,
shown in Appendix 2. At the first return there is only one verse, sung against an
active, blatantly intrusive counterpoint (impassioned craps shooters in Porgy and
Bess, a fortissimo violin line marked wild in Wozzeck), and the lullaby fails utterly;
that is, the baby does not fall asleep. Also, in this reprise and the next, the orchestral
preparation of the singers first note is shortened, and shortened comparably: one
or two measures for the first reprise, three for the second (Appendix 2, no. 3).
The second reprises also have musical interjections, in this case disconnected
outbursts that import sounds from the surrounding musical context: in Porgy, the
lullaby follows a musical depiction of wind, gusts of wind then arise every few
measures within the lullaby, and the wind resumes momentarily at the end. This
device emulates a sequence in Wozzeck in which a polka precedes Wozzecks paro-
distic rendition, the pianist repeatedly attempts to play during Wozzecks singing,
and the polka starts anew when Wozzeck breaks off. Lastly, the final reprises of the
lullaby are sung not by Clara and Marie but by Bess and Wozzeck. Since this vocal
transfer also occurred in the play, it does not by itself indicate anything about Bergs
potential influence on Gershwin. But significantly, Gershwin and Berg once again
exit the lullaby as they had the first time, by recalling the same portentous motives
they had introduced after the first lullabies. Moreover, another detail of Bergs last
reprise is taken over literally by Gershwin, namely the segue to the lullaby from an
out-of-tune onstage piano playing 2/4 music. This sequence he adopted for the first
statement in Porgy, Act 1, sc. 1.
The Fugues
Although the crap game fugue has justifiably been compared to the fight fugue
in Wagners Die Meistersinger, it also shares several elements with the fugue in
Wozzeck (Appendix 1, no. 3b).21 Like Wagners fugue, it has incessant, strongly
accented sixteenth-note motion in the orchestra while the singers react to the
onstage tussle. Wagners fugue was perhaps dramatically better than Gershwins for
being shorter, 79 mm. of 2/4 rather than 111, but in its extended length, Gershwins
fugue had roughly the same dimensions as Bergs, which runs for sixty mm. of
4/4. More significant, Berg and Gershwin both precede their fugues with extended
free-form introductions of the themes that appear in the fugue (Appendix 1, no.
3a). Berg labeled this scene Fantasia and Fugue and presented three themes for
development in the fantasy before bringing them together in the fugue. The crap
game fugue in Porgy also has two of its themes presented in an extended fantasylike
treatment immediately before fusing them together in the fugue. In both operas
21
Johnson, Gershwins American Folk Opera, vol. 2, 525 n. 145.
Example 2a) Porgy, Act 1, sc. 1, R93 4
Example 2b) Wozzeck, Act 1, sc. 1, mm. 46
Example 2. Example 2a from Porgy and Bess, by George Gershwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, and Ira
Gershwin. C 1935 (Renewed 1962) George Gershwin Music, Ira Gershwin Music, and Dubose & Dorothy Hey-
ward Memorial Fund Publishing. Example 2b from Berg WOZZECK C 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Vienna.
English Translation
C 1952 by Alfred A. Kalmus, London, W1. C renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permi-
ssion of European American Music Distributors LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition A.G. Vienna.
one of the leitmotives treated in this pre-fugal section belongs to a male adversary,
that is, Crown (the motive first introduced in Act 1, R83+10) and the Captain
(Hauptmann); moreover, Gershwin, like Berg, presents precisely this motive once
in inversion against itself (Wozzeck, Act 2, m. 322, Porgy and Bess, I, R107+6ff). The
dimensions of the fantasies are comparable: the 254 measures in Porgy are primarily
in 2/4 and Wozzeck has 115 measures of 3/4 and 4/4. The developmental fantasies
lead into the fugues with a pedal, 3 measures of 4/4 in Wozzeck and 6 measures of
2/4 in Porgy; and both of these pedals culminate in a major seventh with a singer
adding a minor second above the lower pedal tone.
Gershwins less pervasive counterpoint is difficult to compare to Bergs, but
in addition to presenting Crowns leitmotive in inversion, Gershwins crap game
theme includes a melodic palindrome that compares to the retrograde figures heard
in Wozzeck. Indeed, this idea loosely echoes Bergs Hauptmann motive, especially
in the rhythms and pitches of the last notes, shown in Example 2. Wayne Shirley,
who has noticed the resemblance between these two themes, concluded that this
motivic debt was highlighted by Gershwin, by virtue of how he emulated Bergs
orchestration. While Berg assigned the motive to an English horn, Gershwin scored
it for several instruments, but almost always assigned the English horn one dynamic
level higher than the other instruments (a shading no recorded performance has
achieved).22 Also suggestive is that when this theme returns in augmentation in the
fantasy and fugue, it has a palindromic shape that may have inspired Gershwins
retrograde treatment, shown in Example 3.
22
Letter from Wayne Shirley to the author, 18 January 2005. I am very grateful to Shirley for
sharing with me his thoughts and also several pages from his yet unpublished edition of the opera.
Shirley also has compared the retrograde use of this theme to Bergs retrograde techniques in the third
movement of the Lyric Suite. In his Rotating Porgy and Bess, in The Gershwin Style: New Looks at
the Music of George Gershwin, ed. Wayne Schneider (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 34
10 Reynolds
Example 3a) Porgy, Act 1, sc. 1, R94 4: Crap game theme with retrograde
Example 3b) Wozzeck, Act 2, sc. 2, mm. 17173
Example 3. Example 3a from Porgy and Bess, by George Gershwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, and
Ira Gershwin.
C 1935 (Renewed 1962) George Gershwin Music, Ira Gershwin Music, and Dubose & Dorothy
Heyward Memorial Fund Publishing. Example 3b from Berg WOZZECK C 1931 by Universal Edition A.G.,
Vienna. English Translation
C 1952 by Alfred A. Kalmus, London, W1.
C renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used
by permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition
A.G. Vienna.
Sermons and Abductions

Like the fugue, the mock sermon It aint necessarily so is an addition to the opera
that had not existed in the novel or in the play, and is one of the Broadwayesque
song texts that Ira Gershwin wrote, evidently with little or no input from Heyward.
Wozzeck seems musically and textually a model. Gershwins marking that this
sermon should be sung Happily, with humour may have been influenced by
Reichs description of Bergs setting as a good-natured parody of a sermon,23 and
so, in order to create a mood appropriate for these irreverent spoofs, the sermons
n. 30, Shirley noted his first impressions of seeing Gershwins sketches: When I first saw sketch B
I immediately thought of this section of the Lyric Suite.
23
both take place in the context of dancing and choral singing. The African American
counterpart of the dance and stage band in Wozzeck is the dance accompanied by
African drums; and as Bergs choir sings Halli, Hallo, Gershwins vocalizes on Ha
da da. Leading in to the sermon itself, the composers both write a brief section in
5/4 to accompany two vocal lines that are essentially one voice, Gershwins because
the two parts sing in unison, Bergs because the two voices seldom sing together.
For this section Berg composed a bass ostinato that repeats twelve times in sixteen
measures, Gershwin a midrange ostinato that repeats nineteen times in twenty-two
measures (Appendix 1, no. 8).
The poetic structure of the mock sermons is in both cases a succession of examples
that illustrate an initial thesis. In the sermon that George Gershwin commissioned
from his brother Ira, Sporting Life presents five improbable stories from the Bible
as evidence of why it aint necessarily so. In Wozzeck, the First Apprentice asks
rhetorically Why, then is man? and answers, It is good so. He then lists occu-
pations that depend on other human beings: the farmer, the caskmaker, the tailor,
the doctor, etc. The sermons are both in 4/4 time and include quarter-note triplet
motion, Gershwin pervasively, Berg twice. Berg and Gershwin also create duple
syncopations within triplets by adding grace notes to a line that in any case already
oscillates between two notes. After listening to the sermon the dancers resume. This
event leads in Wozzeck to the idiots omen of death and in Porgy and Bess, to Serena
shaming the dancers while the orchestra plays an additive rhythmic motive (in the
right hand of the piano vocal score) that is related to the rhythmic-chordal motive
that accompanies the deaths of Crown and Robbins.
The scenes in which Crown forces sex on Bess and the Drum Major does the
same to Marie have some of the closest dramatic parallels between the two operas
(Appendix 1, no. 9). Reichs description of this scenes significance in Wozzeck befits
the situation in Porgy: It is the most important in the development of the plot, for
here Marie is seduced by the Drum-Major, an event that is the immediate cause
of the conflict and tragic catastrophe.24 Gershwins portrayal of Bess succumbing
to Crown has numerous points in common with the rapid-paced structure that
Berg devised to depict the struggle between the Drum Major and Marie. The
indebtedness commences at the outset when Marie and Bess meet their seducers,
but is particularly strong at the violent moments when the women desperately
attempt to break away. When Marie and the Drum Major start to talk, Berg creates
a sense of foreboding by composing the beginning of the scene over a bass line
that descends steadily by step, usually a half-step or two, each measure. As shown
in Example 4, there are really two descents, one across twenty measures, another
over six. Likewise from the moment Bess meets Crown, Gershwins bass line sinks
gradually over forty-one measures, also in two segments, the first of which uses an
octatonic scale.
By the end of this section, Berg has arrived at the turning point when Marie tries
to defend herself, a pivotal moment that takes longer to reach in Porgy and Bess. Thus
whereas each segment of Bergs setting has a counterpart in Gershwins, Porgy and
Bess also contains a lengthy middle section that has no model in Wozzeck. Bergs in-
fluence resumes as Bess sings, Take yo hands off me, and Marie Lass mich! Both
24
Ibid., 12.
12 Reynolds
Example 4a) Wozzeck, Act 1, sc. 5, bass line reduction
Example 4b) Porgy and Bess, Act 2, sc. 2, bass line reduction
Example 4. Example 4a from Berg WOZZECK C 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Vienna. English Translation

C 1952 by Alfred A. Kalmus, London, W1. C renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European
American Music Distributors LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition A.G. Vienna. Example 4b from
Porgy and Bess, by George Gershwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, and Ira Gershwin. C 1935 (Renewed
1962) George Gershwin Music, Ira Gershwin Music, and Dubose & Dorothy Heyward Memorial Fund Publishing.
women enter on high F-sharp, and the intense brief struggles commence. Doubtless
symbolic of the womens resistance, Berg and Gershwin follow these exclamations
with imitative counterpoint at the third, both writing motives essentially on scale
degrees 5 and 1, with four entries over rhythmic chordal pedals. At the moment the
women yield, the thirds come together and the texture shifts to a scale of parallel
triads accompanied by triplets moving in the same direction. Throughout this sec-
tion, the musical dimensions are virtually identical: the matching stage directions
Her arms close around him and sie sturzt in seine Arme lead rapidly to exit,
curtain fall, and scene end. Gershwins studious attention to Bergs handling of this
dramatic encounter extends, as Example 1 shows, to the arias that follow, where
Bess and Marie sing nearly identical motives to express unworthiness and remorse.
Other Parallels
The influence of Willi Reichs commentary is evident in two other Bergian aspects
of Porgy and Bess: harmony and relative balance of the three acts. Many writers
have noted the complexity of Gershwins harmonic vocabulary in Porgy and Bess
and in works written in the preceding years. The thickening of dissonance has been
attributed to Joseph Schillingers teachings, but it had begun before then, in the
1920s, about the time Gershwin discovered the music of Stravinsky, Debussy, and
Ravel. I agree with David Schiff that in Porgy and Bess the harmony often sounds
like Bergs, an assessment that need not be limited to Wozzeck but could encompass
other works such as the Lyric Suite, which Gershwin knew well.25 Nevertheless, one
chord from Wozzeck warrants particular scrutiny, both because of Reichs reference
25
David Schiff, Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 38.
Examples 5a, 5b, and 5c) Wozzeck, recurring chord
Example 5. From Berg WOZZECK C 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Vienna. English Translation
C 1952 by
Alfred A. Kalmus, London, W1. C renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European American
Music Distributors LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition A.G. Vienna.
Example 6a) Porgy, recurring chord, Act 1, R11
Example 6b) Porgy, chord in Act 1, R83 + 2; Act 2, R169; Act 2, R255 + 2
Example 6. From Porgy and Bess, by George Gershwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, and Ira Gershwin.

to it and because of the use Gershwin made of it. A central sonority in Wozzeck, as
Allen Forte, George Perle, and others have recognized, is a seventh or ninth chord
with an added sharp 4, often spelled as a G-major chord made dissonant with a
C-sharp or D-flat. Perle termed this G9 sharp11 chord (also G-flat9 sharp11) the
principal referential chord of the work as a whole.26 It begins and ends the first
scene and each of the three acts, as shown in Example 5, Act 1, m. 6; m. 171; and
the end of Act 1, mm. 71617. Reich had already labeled this chord the equivalent
of a tonal center for the opera, pointing out that Berg made each act steer its way
toward one and the same final chord in a sort of cadence to rest there as on a tonic.27
This chord is also prominent in Porgy and Bess, where it often appears spelled
on G with a C-sharp or D-flat. Occurring first in the Jasbo Brown Blues that begin
Act 1 (Example 6a, Act 1, R11), it returns frequently as the first chord of the motive
associated with Crown and death (Example 6b, Act 1, R83+2; Act 2, R169; and
Act 2, R255+2).
26
George Perle, The Operas of Alban Berg, vol. 1, Wozzeck (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1980), 133; and Forte, Reflections upon the Gershwin-Berg Connection, 159.
27
14 Reynolds
When this motive accompanies Crowns murdering Robbins and later Porgys
killing Crown, Gershwin transposes the chord to E-flat and A, emphasizing its
tritone symmetries. Granted, Gershwin and other composers had discovered this
chord before Porgy and Bess, and it can also be related to the Petrushka chord, which
Gershwin had used years earlier in An American in Paris (1928).28 But the influence
of Berg lies as much in the use of the chord as in the actual notes. While it is not
the principal referential chord of the operathat distinction goes instead to the
fourth chord that begins and ends the opera and many individual scenesit turns
up at many of the operas most dramatic moments.
Reich also discussed the relative length of the acts and something of their ABA
formal relationship to each other: The first and third acts reveal definite structural
parallels. [They are] shorter by far than the weightier middle act. . . . While the
second act . . . is a completely integrated musical structure from the last to the first
measure, the form of the first and third is much freer.29 In comparison, the middle
act of Porgy and Bess is the longest and has the most arias and duets (nine), and Acts
1 and 3 have structural parallels, including a return to the opening music near the
end. As Lawrence Starr remarked, Scene 1 of the last act presents a recapitulation of
the most important, and directly associated, musical and dramatic ideas presented
in scene 1 of the first act.30 These outer acts have as well a greater percentage of
recitative-like and arioso passages.
The model of Berg may have extended beyond the actual writing of the opera.
Once the performances had begun, Gershwin pursued two promotional steps that
Berg had taken before him: a public written statement of his goals in composing
Porgy and Bess, and an orchestral suite of excerpts from the opera. Berg had written
a brief account of what he had hoped to achieve with Wozzeck, an essay published in
English as A Word about Wozzeck.31 Berg, motivated by a desire to answer critics,
denied accusations that he had attempted to reform the structure of opera.32
Several key points that Berg makes in this essay find echoes in the short explanatory
article Gershwin contributed to the New York Times.33 Self-conscious modernists
that they both were, they emphasized the newness of their achievements while at
the same time qualifying that claim to avoid any suggestion that they had created
novelty for noveltys sake.
Berg: The appearance of these forms in opera was to some degree unusual, even new.
Nevertheless novelty, pathbreaking, was not my conscious intention.
28
On Gershwins use of the Petrushka chord, see Forte, Reflections Upon the Gershwin-Berg
Connection, 16162.
29
30
Lawrence Starr, Toward a Reevaluation of Gershwins Porgy and Bess, American Music 2/1
(Spring 1984): 32.
31
Alban Berg, A Word about Wozzeck, Modern Music (1927); repr. as a postscript to Reich, A
Guide to Wozzeck, 2021.
32
Ibid., 20.
33
Rhapsody in Catfish Row: Mr. Gershwin Tells the Origin and Scheme for His Music in That
New Folk Opera Called Porgy and Bess, New York Times, 20 October 1935; repr. in Armitage, George
Gershwin, 7277.
Gershwin: [Porgy and Bess] brings to the operatic form elements that have never appeared
in opera. . . . If, in doing this, I have created a new form, which combines opera with theatre,
this new form has come quite naturally out of the material.
And they both assert their goal of writing good music that was music for the
theater.
Berg: I simply wanted to compose good music . . . . Other than that . . . my only
intention . . . was to give to the theater what belongs to the theater.
Gershwin: I am not ashamed of writing songs at any time so long as they are good songs.
In Porgy and Bess I realized I was writing an opera for the theatre.
More important than the similarity of the individual thoughts expressed here is the
unprecedented stepfor Gershwinof answering his critics publicly, a step he may
have taken in the awareness that Berg had also responded in print to journalistic
criticism.
Bergs precedent is important as well for the orchestral suite based on the opera.
As Berg assembled three concert excerpts from Wozzeck, the Drei Bruchstucke aus
Wozzeck, so Gershwin also extracted several numbers as an orchestral composi-
tion, which he never published, however. He titled this five-movement composition
Suite from Porgy and Bess, incorporating many of the segments he had cut from
the Boston and New York performances, such as the Jasbo Brown Blues leading
in to Summertime, portions of the fugue and hurricane music, and the childrens
chorus.34 These sections are all among those that had been modeled on Wozzeck.
Johnson has noted that Gershwin passed up an opportunity to cobble together a
medley of the most popular hits from the opera, instead unconventionally selecting
many of the more intellectually challenging passages: The unusual shape of the
Suite suggests that he had particularly strong feelings about this material.35 For his
Suite, which was likely inspired in part by Bergs example, Gershwin drew together
some of his most Bergian moments.
Gershwins numerous debts to Bergs music necessitate a reevaluation of what
Gershwin might have learned at the hands of New York Citys composition guru,
Joseph Schillinger. Many stylistic details that have been presumed to originate in
study sessions with Schillinger can now also be attributed to the example of Berg,
not only the music of Wozzeck but also that of the Lyric Suite. In an article reviewing
the claims of Schillingers influence on Porgy and Bess, Paul Nauert concludes
that the evidence for Gershwins debt to Schillinger was strongest in the cyclic
harmony of Gone, Gone, Gone and the elaborate rhythmic patterning of Leavin
for the Promise Lan. Other moments, such as the fugue, the additive chords
leading up to Summertime, and various rhythmic devices also have possible
sources in Schillingers method.36 But if Gershwin studied Wozzeck closely enough
34
See Johnson, Gershwins American Folk Opera, vol. 2, 59799. This work has been known as
the Catfish Row Suite since Ira Gershwin gave it that name in 1958.
35
Ibid., 598.
36
Paul Nauert, Theory and Practice in Porgy and Bess: The Gershwin-Schillinger Connection,
The Musical Quarterly 78/1 (Spring 1994): 933. See also Warren Brodsky, Joseph Schillinger (1895
1943): Music Science Promethean, American Music 21 (2003): 4573.
16 Reynolds
to learn from his structural designs, then surely Berg offers an alternative, or
more likely a complementary, source for many of the ideas usually credited to
Schillinger.37 Schillingers attraction for Gershwin may have been enhanced by the
obvious overlap in Bergs style and Schillingers system, a possibility that Forte
has also suspected: Gershwin hoped his studies with Schillinger might bring him
closer to the kind of modern concert music he so obviously admired in the works
of Berg.38 Gershwins aspirations to compose with an American voice that was
the technical equal of his European contemporaries (or his European-educated
American contemporaries) predated his studies with Schillinger by many years;
these aspirations are also not the result of his 1928 pilgrimage to Europe in the
hopes of studying with Ravel or Berg. Rather it was his fascination with dissonant
counterpoint and modernist rhythmic patterns that led him first to Berg and
subsequently to Schillinger.
For much of Porgy, Gershwin had no need to ask what Berg had done before
him. Because he was setting English rather than German, because he needed to
draw on American popular and folk musical forms rather than on German forms,
Gershwin had nothing to learn from Berg about melody and text setting. In these
areas he was already an acknowledged master. The examples that I have presented
here suggest that Gershwin carefully studied Bergs approach to scene construction
(i.e., how to integrate a song into an evolving, ongoing musical context), and his
techniques of unification across great stretches of time (i.e., how to repeat ideas,
whether motives or larger units). He turned to Wozzeck for musical guidance at
several dramatically significant moments of the opera. The murder of Robbins, the
drowning of Jake, the lullaby and its reprises, the abductions of Bess and Marie, the
fugue and crap game music, and several other events all derive details of structure
from Wozzeck. That some of these moments had not existed in either Heywards
novel Porgy or the subsequent play further suggests that Gershwin considered these
elements to have been particularly effective. The mock sermon in Porgy and Bess
has no precedent in the Heyward play Porgy, nor do the multiple repetitions of the
lullaby or the importance of children (and childrens chorus) at the end. For these
and for numerous musical details, Berg was Gershwins model.
Corroboration for this conclusion comes from two previously uncited sources: a
recollection by William Rosar and an interview with Gershwin. First, a secondhand
37
Among these are the following: the additive fourth chords preceding Summertime appear
in Wozzeck (I, mm. 62123) over a similar syncopated rhythm; chromatic wedges with outer voices
spreading outward by half step are common in both, but the first instances in each opera share
numerous pitches (Porgy and Bess, I, sc. 1, beginning at R7+1; and Wozzeck, I, mm. 25256); also
occurring frequently, rhythmic deceleration (or acceleration) in which note values increase (or de-
crease) incrementally, as when triplet sixteenths slow to triplet eighths and then to a pair of eighth
notes (e.g., Porgy and Bess, I, sc. 2, R1872; and Wozzeck, I, m. 711); what Schillinger calls interference
between melodic grouping and attack rhythm, a technique present in both operas in a variety of
disjunct patterns, as when a four-note melodic figure repeats within a rhythmic sextuplet pattern, so
that the attack-point continually shifts within the pattern (e.g., Porgy and Bess,, II, sc. 4, R238+5; and
Wozzeck, III, mm. 27879); and complex metric textures, as triplet sixteenths against thirty-second
notes grouped in fours (e.g., Porgy and Bess, I, sc. 1, beginning at R1081; and Wozzeck, III, beginning
at m. 90. In this case there are other links of motive and pattern, including their graphic representation
on three staves in the piano-vocal score).
38
Forte, Reflections, 164.
report from Rosar, a scholar of film music and an acquaintance of Edward B. Eddie
Powell, a Hollywood orchestrator who was a confidant of Gershwins during the
period in which Gershwin began to compose Porgy and Bess. In the 1930s Powell,
along with Gershwin, was a student of Joseph Schillinger, and also according to
Rosar, the person Gershwin hired to orchestrate his musical Let Em Eat Cake.39
Rosar also claims that Gershwin wanted Powell to orchestrate Porgy for him as well,
but that Powell instead went to Hollywood in summer 1934 when he was offered
work there by Eddie Cantor. Decades later Rosar and Powell went together to a
performance of Porgy and Bess that the Houston Grand Opera staged in Los Angeles
on 18 June 1977. Based on notes Rosar made immediately after this performance,
Rosar remembers Powell saying that Gershwin wanted to write it like Wozzeck, an
American Wozzeck. Rosars communication to me needs to be quoted more fully:
Going over my notes just now, I finally remembered Powells exact words with respect to
Porgy: He [Gershwin] wanted to write it like Wozzeck, an American Wozzeck. I remember
how perplexed I was by that. In fact, I didnt believe him, because I remembered reading
how Gershwin boasted that he was influenced by Ravel and Debussy in writing An Amer-
ican in Paris, but, as someone commented, for all intents and purposes the influence was
imperceptible, and it just seemed like Gershwin was name-dropping.40
Rosars recollection, it must be noted, is secondhand information with a pre-

sumed lapse of forty or more years between Gershwins alleged comment to Powell
(their discussion would have taken place either in 1933 before Powell left New
York or a few years later in Los Angeles) and then an additional twenty-seven years
between Powells statement to Rosar and Rosars e-mail to me. Whether or not Rosar
has remembered Powells exact wordsand after so many years that hardly seems
likelythe import of Powells revelation was memorable because its claim was so
improbable; and it is credible both because it accurately describes the relationship
of Porgy and Bess to Wozzeck and because of Gershwins documented esteem for
Berg and Wozzeck.
Second, buttressing our knowledge of Gershwins high regard for Berg in general
and Wozzeck in particular is an overlooked interview with Gershwin that took
place on 19 June 1928, immediately upon Gershwins return from Europe. The
interview was reported the very next day in the New York Morning Telegraph,
under a headline that is extraordinary because it already refers to Berg as an opera
composer: Gershwin Finds Great Opera Artist, and, in smaller print, Returning
on Majestic Composer Tells of Thrills Abroad.41 The article begins:
39
Powells own interest in Berg at the time (communicated to me by William Rosar) may explain
an observation about the orchestration of Let Em Eat Cake made by Robert Kimball and Alfred
Simon in The Gershwins (New York: Atheneum, 1973), 155: The Let Em Eat Cake overture [1933]
is particularly adventurous, recalling in its opening some of the orchestral color and near-atonal
harmonies of Alban Bergs Wozzeck. My thanks to Richard Crawford for calling this to my attention.
40
William Rosar to the author, 24 November 2004. I am indebted to Rosar for a series of e-mails
about Powell and Gershwin. Rosar has already written about what Powell and Gershwin may have
learned from Joseph Schillinger; see his letter to the editor of The Musical Quarterly 80/1 (Spring
1996): 18284.
41
Morning Telegraph, 20 June 1928, 1. My thanks to Lawrence Stewart for his transcription of this
1928 article.
18 Reynolds
Like a chap who first has seen the wonders of Paris and its mysteries came George Gershwin
yesterday on the steamer Majestic. He said he had the time of his life, meeting everybody in
music.
When he was asked about how he felt at Paris, when the concerto [in F] was played
with orchestra, he said that Dimetri [sic] Tiomkin had been wonderful, first in arranging
for the performance with Goltschmann conducting, and then in the way he had played it.
In the second movement, he said that he had a thrill when he heard how beautifully the
woodwinds and brasses played.
In other words, Gershwin was more excited by the way Tiomkin had played and the
orchestra had worked than he was about George Gershwin being heard at the Paris Opera.
There was no affectation about this. It was the real artist.
Then he glowingly told of the discovery he had made abroad. He had found a great
composer! Alban Berg is his name, a pupil of Schoenberg, and the composer of an opera,
but more particularly of a new string Lyric Quartette. He went all over Europe talking
about Berg and he will continue to do so in America. Already he has interested Stokowski,
conductor of the Philadelphia Orchestra, to play some works of Berg.
The significance of the last paragraph is twofold: Gershwin knew of Wozzeck and ad-
mired it long before beginning studies with Schillinger; and Gershwins attendance
at the Philadelphia premiere of Wozzeck was spurred by more than idle curiosity.
He may have been the first to urge Stokowski to perform it.42
What does Gershwins desire to compose an American Wozzeck mean for how
we interpret the many points of correspondence? A few years before beginning Porgy
and Bess, Gershwin described how he learned to compose songs, and his remarks
from 1930 suggest that his emulation of Wozzeck was primarily pedagogical:
I learned to write music by studying the most successful songs published. At
nineteen I could write a song that sounded so much like Jerome Kern that he
wouldnt know whether he or I had written it. But imitation can only go so far.
The young songwriter may start by imitating a successful composer he admires,
but he must break away as soon as he has learned the maestros strong points and
technique.43 What served a young songwriter in his teens worked as well for a
novice composer embarking on his first opera. Indeed, despite the quantity and
subtlety of Gershwins musical debts, relatively few of them may be considered
musical allusions. If an allusion were simply an intentional reference to another
work made by means of a resemblance, then all of Gershwins references to Wozzeck
would qualify, because the scope is sufficient to indicate that they are the result
of Gershwins knowledge of Bergs piano vocal score. But an allusion is also a
reference made with the intention of shaping the meaning conveyed to any who
recognize the reference. Both the intent to shape meaning and the expectation
of writing for an audience are important conditions. Relatively few of Gershwins
debts to Wozzeck easily satisfy these criteria.44 When Bess sings I wants to stay
42
But he was not the last. Barry Brisk reports that Stokowskis assistant conductor Sylvan Levin
claims credit for suggesting to Stokowski that he stage Wozzeck. It is easy enough to imagine that both
Gershwin and Levin, and perhaps others as well, independently lobbied Stokowski on behalf of Berg.
See Brisk, Leopold Stokowski and Wozzeck, 71.
43
Gershwin, Making Music, in the New York Sunday World Magazine, 4 May 1930; repr. in
Gershwin in His Time: A Biographical Scrapbook, 19191937, ed. Gregory R. Suriano (New York:
Gramercy Books, 1998), 77.
44
See Christopher Reynolds, Motives for Allusion: Context and Content in Nineteenth-Century
Music (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003). I elaborate on this definition on pp. 57.
here, but I aint worthy, the context and the audibility of the motive make it
a straightforward allusion to Maries motive at Bin ich ein schlecht Mensch
(shown in Example 1). There is an audiencehowever smallcapable of recog-
nizing this allusion and enjoying Gershwins wit. But is this also true of the first
lullaby (including its preparation and the music which follows it) or of the scene
in which Crown assaults Bess, both of them scenes with extended parallels in
Wozzeck?
There are other instances of influence and indebtedness in Porgy and Bess that
can be brought to bear on this question. Two non-motivic debts have already been
mentioned: the cries of the Strawberry Woman that many recognized early on as
influenced by an analogous moment in Charpentiers Louise; and the crap game
fugue, which Johnson has compared to Wagners fight fugue in Die Meistersinger.
That neither involves motives or themes is irrelevant for the question of allusion,
because motives are but one means of marking a resemblance; similarities of mu-
sical structure and dramatic moment convey enough information for listeners to
note the resemblance and to assess the significance of that resemblance for their
interpretation. It is reasonable to conclude in both of these cases that Gershwin
makes assimilative allusions to the earlier works, that he accepts the meanings
and the authority of Charpentiers cries and Wagners fugue and creates moments
similar enough for others to make the connection.
Two additional references have not been recognized previously. Both, like these
just discussed, are strongly assimilative, one of them close enough in motive to be
considered a quotation. Among Eastwood Lanes Five American Dances for Piano is
one titled The Crap Shooters: A Negro Dance.45 The main theme of this dance
provided Gershwin with a model for the beginning of his crap game theme, for the
three measures that precede the Bergian motive he also presents in retrograde. As
shown in Example 7, these measures compare closely in key (C minor and E-flat
major), in tempo, and in dynamic (piano). The motive is a syncopated sixteenth-
note figure that occurs three times. As in the allusions to Charpentier and Wagner,
Gershwins music adheres to the original association, in this case, a crap game.
That Gershwin knew of Eastwood Lane (18791951) is beyond question. Lane also
resided in Manhattan, working as a pianist, composer, and from 1914 to 1935,
as an assistant director at the Wanamaker Auditorium concerts. Paul Whiteman
performed several of Lanes works, including three arranged by Ferde Grofe at a
Carnegie Hall concert on 17 November 1924 that featured the Rhapsody in Blue
with Gershwin at the piano. The next day the critic of the New York Times, Olin
Downes, lambasted this concert because, arriving late, he had missed Lanes pieces,
which he had particularly wanted to hear. 46
The other motivic debt, almost a quotation, is to Alfred Newmans film score for
the King Vidor film Street Scene (1931). A faithful rendition of Elmer Rices Pulitzer
Prizewinning play from 1929, Street Scene takes place in a run-down Manhattan
45
Eastwood Lane, Five American Dances for Piano (New York: J. Fischer & Bro., 1919).
46
Don Rayno, Paul Whiteman: Pioneer in American Music, 18901930, vol. 1 (Lanham, Md.:
Scarecrow Press, 2003), 100, 103, and 398. See Olin Downess choleric review in the New York Times,
16 November 1924, 30. Much of this review is quoted in Rayno, Paul Whiteman, 103.
20 Reynolds
Example 7a) Eastwood Lane, The Crap Shooters: A Negro Dance, mm. 13
Example 7b) Porgy, Act 1, R91, beginning of crap game theme
Example 7. Example 7a from Five American Dances, by Eastwood Lane. C 1919 J. Fischer, New York.
Example 7b from Porgy & Bess, by George Gershwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, and Ira Gershwin.

C 1935 (Renewed 1962) George Gershwin Music, Ira Gershwin Music, and DuBose & Dorothy Heyward
brownstone during the heat of summer. It depicts working-class life in New York
City in the kind of unglamorous, unsentimentalized light that ten years later came to
typify film noir. A womans affair leads to a bloody end when her alcoholic husband
returns home unexpectedly and shoots her and her lover dead. After directing
several Gershwin shows on Broadway during the 1920s, Newman composed the
Gershwinesque score for Street Scene soon after he moved to Hollywood in 1930
to become director of music for United Artists. His score became as successful as
the film itself, appearing soon in an arrangement for piano,47 subsequently as an
orchestral composition called Sentimental Rhapsody, and then recycled in other
movies. The bluesy principal theme of the movie and the piano arrangement is
very close to the main theme of Porgys imposing Act 2 love duet with Bess, Bess,
You Is My Woman Now (Examples 8a and b). Both are primarily in D major,
in 4/4 and marked by Newman Quasi Andante and by Gershwin both as Andante
cantabile (in the full score) and Andantino cantabile (in the piano vocal-score).48
As in his allusion to Eastwood Lanes composition, the text of the allusive source
provides fertile imagery for interpreting the parallel context of the motives use
47
Alfred Newman, Street Scene (New York: Robbins Music Corporation, 1933).
48
Thanks again to Wayne Shirley for information about the full score. Gershwins text, which was
not present in the Heyward play or novel and was written primarily by his brother Ira, may also allude
to Street Scene. The phrase Mornin time an evnin time, is set to a falling fifth with repetitions
on the lower note, a motive that Newman uses as his first contrasting theme; moreover, the film is
also organized around different times of day, an organization reflected in the piano arrangement by
the parenthetical designations Morning, Afternoon, and Night. For an analysis of the duet, see
Lawrence Starr, Gershwins Bess, You Is My Woman Now: The Sophistication and Subtlety of a
Great Tune, The Musical Quarterly 72/4 (1986): 42948.
8a) Alfred Newman, Street Scene, main theme
8b) Porgy, Act 2, R98, at return of main theme in D major
Example 8. Example 8a from Street Scene, by Alfred Newman. C 1933 Robbins Music Corporation.
Example 8b from Porgy and Bess, by George Gershwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, and Ira Gershwin.

within Porgy and Bess. Certainly the association lends a perilous, foreboding tinge
to the love duet that fits well with the expectations that Dubose Heywards narrative
has already created. We know, after all (or at least can surmise), that Bess will soon
enough be singing a duet with Crown, and that murder will follow.49
In contrast to these few assimilative allusions, most of the structural debts listed
in Appendix 1 show no indication of being designed to affect how a sensitive listener
might interpret individual scenes in Porgy and Bess. On the contrary, evidence of
Gershwins attempts to obscure his indebtedness abounds, but lies chiefly in his
avoidance of motivic or thematic references. When Robert Schumann devised allu-
sions that distanced themselves from the original by careful variation of dynamics,
tempo, meter, character, and the like, he did so to create contrastive allusions,
allusions that allowed for an ironic or other oppositional reading.50 There is little
comparable evident in Gershwins efforts to distance Porgy from Wozzeck, with
the result that, taken one by one, the indebted moments and scenes in Porgy and
Bess often do not strike me as allusiveat least, individually. There is nothing in
Bergs sermon that leads me to a different interpretation of Gershwins; nothing in
Bergs Lullaby that will make one hear Gershwins in a different light; nothing in the
drowning in Wozzeck that alters the impact of that in Porgy.
49
Among other potential sources of influence, the African American dialect songs of Lily Strick-
land, a South Carolinian, seem particularly close to Gershwins style, particularly in the recitative-like
sections.
50
See Reynolds, Motives for Allusion, chap. 4, Contrastive Allusions.
22 Reynolds
But on a global level, the effect of scene after indebted scene creates a different
impression. The allusive sum is greater than that of its component parts. Although
Carolyn Abbates analysis of Debussys debt to Tristan und Isolde addresses a different
degree of dependence, it is still relevant: It [Tristan] was manipulated by the
composer to become a sort of hidden commentary on Pelleas, and thereby became
more than merely an obvious model for the later opera.51 A hidden commentary
is too much to claim for the bond between Gershwins Porgy and Bergs Wozzeck,
less for the greater distance between the musical languages than for an important
distinction between the intended audiences. Debussy could assume that many, if
not most, of his listeners would know Wagners operas, and Gershwin, writing for
a less classically literate public, wrote for an audience that would have virtually no
knowledge of Bergs music. The audiences for the two operas, culturally separate for
several generations, have only recently begun to overlap. Also, I have the impression
that at least in some of his Berg-inspired moments, Gershwin did aim to create a
contrastive statement, one that he articulated in his New York Times essay. Implicitly
contrasting American opera and culture with European, Gershwin stressed the role
of humor: Humor is an important part of American life, and an American opera
without humor could not possibly run the gamut of American expression.52 As
with the mock sermon, the Banjo Song I Got Plenty o Nuttin can be heard
as a lighthearted counterpart to a grimly significant moment in Wozzeck, namely,
Wozzecks aria Wir arme Leut. An anguished cry, this air has a text that begins
with a declaration of poverty (Poor folk like us! Money, you see, Sir, money! With
no money . . . ), shifts to an argument about how easy it is for wealthy people to
be virtuous (If I were a gentleman, Sir, and wore a top hat . . . ), and concludes
with a bleak prophecy that even in heaven poor people will have it hard: But Im
only a simple soul. Folk like us always are unfortunate in this world and the other
world! I think if we got into heaven, wed have to be thunder-makers.53 Porgys ode
to pennilessness could not be more different. Porgy happily admits his state (Oh,
I got plenty o nuttin, An nuttins plenty fo me), then pities the fate of wealthy
people who necessarily live in fear (De folks wid plenty o plenty got a lock on
dey door/Seems wid plenty you sure got to worry how to keep de debble away),
and concludes with his own view of life in heaven: I got my gal, got my song, got
Hebben de whole day long. No use complainin! Nothing in the music signals this
allusion. Only in the context of the other similarities is it possible to suggest that
Berg inspired both Gershwins, George and Ira.
It is no surprise that Gershwin created a work billed as an American folk opera by
lifting ideas from a quintessentially Germanic opera: first because by the 1930s the
lines of artistic influence had long been crossing the Atlantic in both directions; and
second because Gershwin had from the beginning of his education been schooled
in European traditions. Louis Gruenberg, among others, was also attempting to
mix black music with musical innovations from Europe (The Daniel Jazz and
51
Carolyn Abbate, Tristan in the Composition of Pelleas, 19th-Century Music 5/2 (1981): 141.
52
George Gershwin, Rhapsody in Catfish Row, New York Times, 20 October 1935; repr. in
Armitage, George Gershwin, 73.
53
This translation is by Eric Blackall and Vida Harford, from Alban Berg, Wozzeck, English
National Opera Guide 42 (London: J. Calder, 1990), 6263.
The Creation are both written for a modified Pierrot ensemble in the immediate
aftermath of Gruenberg conducting the New York premiere of Pierrot Lunaire).
Gershwins friend Isaac Goldberg broached this issue when he described Gershwins
special musical position in this country. As Gershwin does not condescend to
popular music, neither does he aspire to the higher forms; music, to him, is
music.54 Goldbergs then commonplace equation of low with popular and high
with serious might be paraphrased: because Gershwin does not condescend to
American music, neither does he aspire to European music. In light of Gershwins
dependence on Berg, it seems more accurate to say that Gershwin esteemed both
American popular and European art music for different reasons. As his ambitions
as a composer evolved (as distinct from his identity as a songwriter), so did his
aspirations to be worthy of comparison to the likes of Ravel and Berg. Porgy and Bess
is evidence that Gershwin believed a European post-Wagnerian voice was essential
to tell the story of African Americans in South Carolina properly. Because Porgy and
Bess is, as Raymond Knapp put it, at bottom a story told by whites and for whites,
the European voice is inevitable. Because the Gershwins and the Heywards were
white, the novel and the opera were quickly criticized by African Americans for
engaging in racial stereotyping, a criticism that Gruenberg also experienced in his
setting of Eugene ONeills The Emperor Jones (1933).55 Against these accusations
Bergs opera offered Gershwin no protection, no model. The poor and destitute of
Buechners tale were culturally and racially indistinct from author and composer;
thus Berg faced no charges of condescension or cultural appropriation.
Gershwin aimed to write music that would survive, as he stated unambiguously
in his 1935 New York Times essay on Porgy and Bess. I chose the form I have used
for Porgy and Bess because I believe that music lives only when it is in serious form.
When I wrote the Rhapsody in Blue I took blues and put them in a larger and
more serious form. That was twelve years ago and the Rhapsody in Blue is still very
much alive, whereas if I had taken the same themes and put them in songs they
would have been gone years ago.56 The notion that music that lives only when it
is serious was for Gershwin a long-held belief. He had expressed virtually the same
thought five years earlier: An entire composition written in jazz could not live,
and also the only kinds of music which endure are those which possess form in
the universal sense and folk music. All else dies.57
Here in one sentence is Gershwins explanation of why Porgy and Bess can be
at once an American folk opera and an American Wozzeck. Only by combining
American folk content with form in the universal sense could he create a music
that he felt would endure. Charles Hamm, discussing the problems of creating an
image of Gershwin that goes beyond the protective biographical accounts of family
54
Isaac Goldberg, George Gershwin and American Music: From Tin Pan Alley to Opera House and
Symphony Hall (Girard, Kans.: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1936), 27.
55
Knapp, The American Musical, 196. David Metzler discusses representations of race in Gru-
enbergs opera in A Wall of Darkness Dividing the World: Blackness and Whiteness in Louis
Gruenbergs The Emperor Jones, Cambridge Opera Journal 7/1 (March 1995): 5572.
56
George Gershwin, Rhapsody in Catfish Row, New York Times, 20 October 1935; repr. in
Armitage, George Gershwin, 74.
57
Gershwin, The Composer in the Machine Age, 267 and 266.
24 Reynolds
friends and acquaintances, also cited Gershwins New York Times article on Porgy
as well as his essay on The Composer in the Mechanical Age, concluding that
nothing more than these tantalizing scraps of information are available to help us
reconstruct Gershwins ideology.58 But a score the size of Porgy and Bess reveals a
great deal about the ideals and methods of its composer: one who found inspiration
in Berg, Wagner, Charpentier, and Ravel, as well as composers such as Eastwood Lane
and Alfred Newman; who carefully studied a variety of black American musics; who
found no contradiction in juxtaposing the learned written contrapuntal techniques
of the musical avant-garde and the sophisticated oral contrapuntal practices of
unschooled descendants of slaves; who believed with many on the political left that
the plight of the dispossessed was worthy material for an opera. Evident in all is a
belief that musical assimilations of this magnitude were a fitting expression of an
American culture of assimilation.
Appendix 1
Comparison of Musical Parallels Between Porgy and Bess and Wozzeck
The events are ordered according to their appearance in Porgy and Bess. Locations
within the piano-vocal scores are specified by rehearsal number in Porgy and by
measure number in Wozzeck.
Porgy and Bess Wozzeck
1. I, sc. 1 (R1724): Claras Lullaby I, sc. 3 (372416): Maries Lullaby
follows Jasbo Brown Blues (cut C) follows military march (4/4)
with onstage piano, music with onstage band, music
crescendos from p to ff crescendos from pp to fff
introduction begins 13 (9) mm. before introduction begins 9 mm. before
lullaby first note prepared 6 mm. lullaby first note prepared 7 mm.
intro ends with 2 high notes played by intro ends with 2 high notes played by
bells (and piano) celesta
opening chords similar/same (Forte) opening chords similar/same (Forte)
varied repeat after 17 mm. varied repeat after 16 mm.
ends with chromatic descent in orch and choir ends with chromatic descent in orchestra
instr. coda based on beginning motive instr. coda based on beginning motive
4 statements (1+1+2 shortened, elided) 4 statements (1+1+2 shortened, elided)
leads to first fight (death) motive; leads to first Maries Aimless Waiting
interrupted (death) motive; interrupted
lengthy period without formal schemes lengthy period without formal schemes
2. I, sc. 1 (at R5154): Claras Lullaby reprise II, sc. 1 (4359): Maries Lullaby reprise
first note prepared 11/2 mm. first note prepared 21/2 mm.
one verse only one verse only
sung against active counterpoint sung against active counterpoint
baby does not fall asleep baby does not fall asleep
3a. I, sc. 1 (at R91127), Fantasy and Fugue II, sc. 2 (171285), Fantasia and Fugue
Crap game fantasy on 2 fugue themes Fantasia on 3 fugue themes
includes Crown motive includes Hauptmann motive
58
Hamm, Towards a New Reading of Gershwin, in The Gershwin Style: New Looks at the Music
of George Gershwin, 10.
Crap game motive resembles Hauptmann

motive and is scored for Eng. horn Hauptmann motive with Eng. horn
254 mm. (mostly 2/4) 115 mm. (mostly 3/4 and 4/4)
fugue preceded by 6 mm. pedal fugue preceded by 3 mm. pedal
which intensifies to M7 (DC-sharp) which intensifies to M7 (AG-sharp)
with a sung m2 (E-flat) above pedal with a sung m2 (B-flat) above pedal
3b. Fight Fugue (at R12745) = 111 mm. of 2/4 Fugue (286362) = 60 mm. of 4/4
fantasy and fugue on same motives fantasy and fugue on same motives
fantasy includes counterpoint by inversion fugue includes counterpoint by inversion
on Crown motive on Hauptmann motive
4. I, sc. 1 (at R118R118 + 3) motivic allusion II, sc. 1 (11623)
Triadic recitative over G-major triad Triadic recitative over C-major triad
Triad lasts 4 mm. of 4/4 Triad lasts 8 mm. of 2/4
Porgy prays for craps win Wozzeck hands Marie his wages
Line steps down from BF-sharp Line steps down from BD-sharp
B-flats on triplets B-flats on triplets
Dynamics: fp Dynamics: sudden shift from fffpp
marked colla parte marked ganz frei im Takt
5. I, sc. 1 (at R139+4 144): Murder of Robbin III, sc. 2 (97121): Murder of Marie
low pedal (C-sharpD) for 24 mm. low pedal (B) for 25 mm.
after Crown kills Robbins as and after Wozzeck kills Marie
6. I, sc. 1 (at R14548): bass ostinato II, sc. 4 (589605): bass ostinato
15 mm. under a dialogue 16 mm. under a dialogue
moderate tempo (Andante con moto) moderate tempo (Massig)
ostinato scored for strings ostinato scored for strings
7. II, sc. 1 (beginningR1): imitative motive III, sc. 1 (37): imitative motive
G, D, F, E-flat, E, B-flat (5 of 6 notes = identical) G, D, F, E-flat, G, B-flat
returns (at R612), (at R 6163) returns (1013), and at Fugue (5257)
Canonic entries at minor third (G, B-flat, D, E) Fugal entries on G, E-flat, G, B-flat
at first appearance, last notes held at first appearance, last notes held
8. II, sc. 2 (begin): Mock Sermon and Context II, sc. 4: Mock Sermon and Context
Dance, African drums (beginning of sceneR129) Dance, stage band (480559)
Chorus and Dance (at R129131) Chorus (56089) 7/4 (Halli, Hallo)
Chorus and Dance (at R13132) Dance (589603) over duet in 5/4
in 5/4 (Ha da da)
Mock Sermon (at R132137 + 13) Mock Sermon (60535)
4/4 with triplet quarter notes (passim) C, triplet quarter notes (6068, 618)
duplets in triplets with grace notes (R137) duplets in triplets, grace notes (6212)
Dance continues (R137) Dance continues (65084)
Serena shames wicked chillen of the devil Idiot smells blood and foretells death
(at R137 + 14) (66568)
9. II, sc. 2: Crown abducts Bess I, sc. 5: Drum Major abducts Marie
(at R145150 + 7, beginning): (66793, scene beginning):
duet over stepwise descending bass duet over stepwise descending bass

(at R16570+4, scene end): (692717, scene end):
Bess from high F-sharp: Take yo hands off me Marie from high F-sharp: Lass mich!
6 mm.: canon at m3 over G pedal 51/2 mm.: imitation at M3 over F-sharp
4 entries pedal 4 entries
Bess yields: ascending parallel triads
9 mm.: last lines of dialogue 10 mm.: last lines of dialogue
Marie yields: descending parallel triads
26 Reynolds
exit into woods: 6 mm. (2/4) to curtain exit into house: 31/2 mm. (4/4) to curtain
5 mm. from curtain to end of scene curtain falls over last 21/2 mm. of scene
10. II, sc. 3 (R210212ff): Besss remorse II, sc. 1 (105106): Maries remorse
Bess: I wants to stay here, but Marie: Bin ich ein schlecht Mensch?
I aint worthy (FACEG) (EG-sharpB-sharpD- sharpF-sharp)
11. II, sc. 3 (at R22429): Hurricane, Jake drowns III, sc. 4/iii (284): Wozzeck drowns
Begins four-note chromaticisms Begins six-note chromaticisms
Climax on six-note chromaticisms (= Invention on six-note chord)
Clara speaks over orchestra Doktor and Hauptmann speak over orch.
Preceded by 7 mm. pedal on E Preceded by 6 mm. pedal on C
and migrating ostinato (up a m3) and migrating ostinato (up a m3)
4 statements (1+1+2 shortened) 4 statements (1+1+2 shortened)
under last sung lines before drowning under last sung lines before drowning
12. II, sc. 4 (at R24043): Claras Lullaby reprise III, sc. 3 (145153): Maries Lullaby
Sung by Wozzeck, parodistic
preceded by 3 mm. pedal on first note preceded by 31/2 mm. pedal on first note
Follows musical depiction of wind Follows polka onstage piano
wind music continues in lullaby stage piano interjects in lullaby
and resumes at end and polka resumes at end
13. III, sc. 1 (at R1821): Claras Lullaby reprise III, sc. 3 (14553): Maries Lullaby
Sung by Bess Sung by Wozzeck, parodistic
Follows death of Clara Follows death of Marie
As first time: leads to fight (death) motive As first time: leads to Maries Aimless
(at R22ff) Waiting (death) motive (15253)
14. III, sc. 3 (at R11216) Childrens Chorus III, sc. 5 (37275) Childrens Chorus
near beginning of last scene after Bess leaves begins last scene after Wozzecks death
Appendix 2
Comparison of the Lullabies and Their Reprises
Porgy and Bess Wozzeck
1. I, sc. 1 (at R1724): Claras Lullaby I, sc. 3 (372416): Maries Lullaby
follows Jasbo Brown Blues (cut C) follows military march (4/4)
with onstage piano, music with onstage band, music
crescendos from p to ff crescendos from pp to fff
introduction begins 13 (9) mm. before introduction begins 9 mm. before
lullaby first note prepared 6 mm. lullaby first note prepared 7 mm.
intro ends with 2 high notes played by intro ends with 2 high notes played by
bells (and piano) celesta
opening chords similar/same (Forte) opening chords similar/same (Forte)
varied repeat after 17 mm. varied repeat after 16 mm.
ends with chromatic descent in orch and choir ends with chromatic descent in orchestra
instr. coda based on beginning motive instr. coda based on beginning motive
4 statements (1+1+2 shortened, elided) 4 statements (1+1+2 shortened, elided)
leads to first fight (death) motive; leads to first Maries Aimless Waiting
interrupted (death) motive; interrupted
lengthy period without formal schemes lengthy period without formal schemes
2. I, sc. 1 (at R5154): Claras Lullaby reprise II, sc. 1 (4359): Maries Lullaby reprise
first note prepared 11/2 mm. first note prepared 21/2 mm.
one verse only one verse only
sung against active counterpoint sung against active counterpoint

baby does not fall asleep baby does not fall asleep
3. II, sc. 4 (at R24043): Claras Lullaby reprise III, sc. 3 (145-153): Maries Lullaby
Sung by Wozzeck, parodistic
preceded by 3 mm. pedal on first note preceded by 31/2 mm. pedal on first note
Follows musical depiction of wind Follows polka onstage piano
wind music continues in lullaby onstage piano interjects in lullaby
and resumes at end and polka resumes at end
4. III, sc. 1 (at R1821): Claras Lullaby reprise III, sc. 3 (14553): Maries Lullaby
Sung by Bess Sung by Wozzeck, parodistic
Follows death of Clara Follows death of Marie
As first time: leads to fight (death) motive As first time: leads to Maries Aimless
(at R22ff) Waiting (death) motive (15253)
(Segue from onstage piano playing 2/4 music to lullaby occurs also in Porgy, Act 1, sc. 1)
References
Abbate, Carolyn. Tristan in the Composition of Pelleas. 19th-Century Music 5/2
(Autumn 1981): 11741.
Armitage, Merle, ed. George Gershwin. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1938.
Berg, Alban. Wozzeck, English National Opera Guide 42, trans. Eric Blackall and
Vida Harford. London: J. Calder, 1990.
Brisk, Barry. Leopold Stokowski and Wozzeck: An American Premiere in 1931.
Opera Quarterly 5/1 (Spring 1987): 7182.
Brodsky, Warren. Joseph Schillinger (18951943): Music Science Promethean.
American Music 21/1 (Spring 2003): 4573.
Brown, Maurice. Suggesting a Dramatic Declaration of Independence. In Sayler,
Revolt in the Arts: A Survey of the Creation, Distribution and Appreciation of Art
in America, 2059.
Crawford, Richard. It Aint Necessarily Soul: Gershwins Porgy and Bess as a Sym-
bol. Anuario Interamericano de Investigacion Musical 8 (1972): 1738.
Forte, Allen. Reflections Upon the Gershwin-Berg Connection. The Musical Quar-
terly 83/2 (Summer 1999): 15068.
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Arts: A Survey of the Creation, Distribution and Appreciation of Art in America,
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. Making Music. Sunday World Magazine (New York), 4 May 1930. Repr.
in Suriano, Gershwin in His Time: A Biographical Scrapbook, 19191937, 77.
. Rhapsody in Catfish Row: Mr. Gershwin Tells the Origin and Scheme for
His Music in That New Folk Opera Called Porgy and Bess. New York Times, 20
October 1935. Repr. in Armitage, George Gershwin, 7277.
Gilbert, Steven. The Music of Gershwin. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
Goldberg, Isaac. George Gershwin and American Music: From Tin Pan Alley to Opera
House and Symphony Hall. Girard, Kans.: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1936.
Hamm, Charles. Towards a New Reading of Gershwin. In The Gershwin Style:
New Looks at the Music of George Gershwin, ed. Wayne Schneider, 318. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
28 Reynolds
. The Theatre Guild Production of Porgy and Bess. Journal of the American
Musicological Society 40/3 (Autumn 1987): 495532.
Johnson, John A. Gershwins American Folk Opera: The Genesis, Style, and Rep-
utation of Porgy and Bess (1935). Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1996.
Kimball, Robert, and Alfred Simon. The Gershwins. New York: Atheneum, 1973.
Knapp, Raymond. The American Musical and the Formation of National Identity.
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Levant, Oscar. A Smattering of Ignorance. New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1940.
Liebling, Leonard. Untitled essay. In Armitage, George Gershwin, 12325.
Metzler, David. A Wall of Darkness Dividing the World: Blackness and Whiteness
in Louis Gruenbergs The Emperor Jones. Cambridge Opera Journal 7/1 (March
1995): 5572.
Nauert, Paul. Theory and Practice in Porgy and Bess: The Gershwin-Schillinger
Connection. The Musical Quarterly 78/1 (Spring 1994): 933.
Perle, George. The Operas of Alban Berg. Vol. 1, Wozzeck. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1980.
Peyser, Joan. The Memory of All That: The Life of George Gershwin. New York: Simon
& Schuster, 1993.
Rayno, Don. Paul Whiteman: Pioneer in American Music. Vol. 1, 18901930. Lan-
ham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003.
Reich, Willi. A Guide to Wozzeck. The Musical Quarterly 38/1 (1952): 121.
Reynolds, Christopher. Motives for Allusion: Context and Content in Nineteenth-
Century Music. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003.
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18284.
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Appreciation of Art in America. New York: Brentanos, 1930.
Schneider, Wayne, ed. The Gershwin Style: New Looks at the Music of George Gersh-
win. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Shirley, Wayne. Rotating Porgy and Bess. In Schneider, The Gershwin Style: New
Looks at the Music of George Gershwin, 2134.
Schiff, David. Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1997.
Starr, Lawrence. Gershwins Bess, You Is My Woman Now: The Sophistication
and Subtlety of a Great Tune. The Musical Quarterly 72/4 (1986): 42948.
. Toward a Reevaluation of Gershwins Porgy and Bess. American Music
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October 1935.

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Porgy and Bess: An American Wozzeck 3

resemblances ought to be considered coincidental, I maintain that in Porgy and Bess

Example 1a) Berg, Wozzeck, Act 2, sc. 1, mm. 105106

Example 1b) Gershwin, Porgy and Bess, Act 2, sc. 3, R210

Example 1c) Wozzeck, Act 2, sc. 1, mm. 12628

conclusions, a new motive of central importance is briefly introduced, a motive

Evidence that Gershwin intended these debts to Wozzeck, that he expressed a

number (Jakes A Woman Is a Sometimes Thing), he wrote 182 measures of small

Example 2a) Porgy, Act 1, sc. 1, R93 4

Example 2b) Wozzeck, Act 1, sc. 1, mm. 46

Example 3b) Wozzeck, Act 2, sc. 2, mm. 17173

Sermons and Abductions

Example 4a) Wozzeck, Act 1, sc. 5, bass line reduction

Examples 5a, 5b, and 5c) Wozzeck, recurring chord

Example 6a) Porgy, recurring chord, Act 1, R11

Rosars recollection, it must be noted, is secondhand information with a pre-

Example 7b) Porgy, Act 1, R91, beginning of crap game theme

8a) Alfred Newman, Street Scene, main theme

8b) Porgy, Act 2, R98, at return of main theme in D major

Crap game motive resembles Hauptmann

sung against active counterpoint sung against active counterpoint

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