TR 082

U.S.
Fire Administration/Technical Report Series
Special Report:
Operational Considerations
for Highrise Firefighting
USFA-TR-082/April 1996
U.S. Fire Administration Fire Investigations Program
T
he U.S. Fire Administration develops reports on selected major fires throughout the country.
The fires usually involve multiple deaths or a large loss of property. But the primary criterion
for deciding to do a report is whether it will result in significant lessons learned. In some
cases these lessons bring to light new knowledge about fire--the effect of building construction or
contents, human behavior in fire, etc. In other cases, the lessons are not new but are serious enough
to highlight once again, with yet another fire tragedy report. In some cases, special reports are devel-
oped to discuss events, drills, or new technologies which are of interest to the fire service.
The reports are sent to fire magazines and are distributed at National and Regional fire meetings. The
International Association of Fire Chiefs assists the USFA in disseminating the findings throughout the
fire service. On a continuing basis the reports are available on request from the USFA; announce-
ments of their availability are published widely in fire journals and newsletters.
This body of work provides detailed information on the nature of the fire problem for policymakers
who must decide on allocations of resources between fire and other pressing problems, and within
the fire service to improve codes and code enforcement, training, public fire education, building
technology, and other related areas.
The Fire Administration, which has no regulatory authority, sends an experienced fire investigator
into a community after a major incident only after having conferred with the local fire authorities
to insure that the assistance and presence of the USFA would be supportive and would in no way
interfere with any review of the incident they are themselves conducting. The intent is not to arrive
during the event or even immediately after, but rather after the dust settles, so that a complete and
objective review of all the important aspects of the incident can be made. Local authorities review
the USFAs report while it is in draft. The USFA investigator or team is available to local authorities
should they wish to request technical assistance for their own investigation.
For additional copies of this report write to the U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Avenue,
Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727. The report is available on the Administrations Web site at http://
www.usfa.dhs.gov/
Special Report:
Operational Considerations for
Highrise Firefighting
Investigated by: Reade Bush

J. Gordon Routley
This is Report 082 of the Major Fires Investigation Project conducted

by Varley-Campbell and Associates, Inc./TriData Corporation under
contract EME-94-C-4423 to the United States Fire Administration,
Federal Emergency Management Agency.
Department of Homeland Security

United States Fire Administration
National Fire Data Center
U.S. Fire Administration
Mission Statement
As an entity of the Department of Homeland

Security, the mission of the USFA is to re-
duce life and economic losses due to fire
and related emergencies, through leader-
ship, advocacy, coordination, and support.
We serve the Nation independently, in co-
ordination with other Federal agencies,
and in partnership with fire protection and
emergency service communities. With a
commitment to excellence, we provide pub-
lic education, training, technology, and data
initiatives.
TAble OF COnTenTS
OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SUMMARY OF KEY ISSUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
PART I: BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON RECENT MAJOR HIGHRISE FIRES . . . . . . . . . . . 3
PART II: MAJOR PROBLEMS NOTED DURING RECENT HIGHIRISE FIRES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
WATER SUPPLY IN HIGHRISE BUILDINGS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
FAILURE OF COMPONENTS OF A FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
EVACUATION OF OCCUPANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
PART III: ADDRESSING MAJOR HIGHRISE FIREFIGHTING PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
HIGHRISE STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
HIGHRISE PRE-FIRE PLANNING AND SYSTEM INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
TRAINING IN FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
OCCUPANT EVACUATION TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Appendix A: Sample Highrise Standard Operating Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Appendix B: Excerpt from Vancouver Fire Department Highrise Pre-Fire Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Special Report:
Operational Considerations for
Highrise Firefighting
OVeRVIeW
Highrise buildings exist in virtually every mid- to large-size city and even in some relatively small
jurisdictions across the United States. Highrises vary in age, size, height, construction, occupancy
type, and design features, including the types of fire protection systems that are installed in them.
Fires in highrise buildings can present severe challenges to all types of fire departments. Every fire
department that could respond to this type of incident should be prepared to operate in this complex
environment.
Fires in highrise buildings generally require more complicated operational approaches than most
structure fires. Tasks that are normally considered routine for most fire departments, such as locating
and attacking the fire, evacuating occupants, and performing ventilation can become very difficult in
highrises. Operations are affected by several specific challenges:
Access to floor levels that are beyond the reach of aerial apparatus is generally limited to the
interior stairways. The use of elevators is usually restricted or prohibited because of safety
concerns.
Hundreds or even thousands of occupants may be exposed to the products of combustion
while they are evacuating or unable to descend past a fire on a lower floor. Their exits may
be limited to two narrow stairways, which are also the only access for firefighters coming up
to assist with evacuation and to fight the fire.
The ability to contain and control the fire is increasingly dependent on the construction of the
building and the ability of sprinkler and/or standpipe systems to deliver water to the fire area.
Ventilation can be much more complicated and critical in highrises than in other types of
structures. Vertical ventilation is often limited to stairways or elevator shafts, both of which
may also have to be used to evacuate occupants. Horizontal ventilation, by breaking out win-
dows, presents the risk of falling glass to those outside the building. The stack effect causes
smoke to rise rapidly through the vertical passages and accumulate on upper floors.
Reflex time, or the amount of time it takes to react and take action, is usually much higher
in highrise buildings than in non-highrise buildings. It often takes longer to travel from the
ground floor to the fire floor than it takes to respond from the fire station to the building.
Firefighters may have to climb dozens of floors before they can even reach the fire floor.
Communications, command, and control can be very difficult in a highrise fire. Radio trans-
missions through a buildings concrete and steel infrastructure may be compromised. The
size and complexity of these buildings require large forces of firefighters and well coordi-
nated operations in a very complex tactical environment. Effective coordination and control
of strategy and tactics are essential.

2 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series
Firefighters must rely on the built-in fire protection systems to help them control a fire and protect
occupants. It is essential for highrise building fire protection systems to work properly. Several
major fires have occurred in highrise buildings where fire protection systems failed to work properly,
creating situations where some of the most experienced and well- equipped fire departments could
not control the fires. Several of these fires presented extremely challenging tactical and logistical
problems.
The lessons learned from these and other highrise fires have established that automatic sprinklers are
the most effective way to prevent a major highrise fire. Fire departments must work to ensure that
all highrise fire protection systems are tested regularly and function properly. They must prepare for
the challenges of highrise fires by developing distinct standard operating procedures for highrise
incidents and conducting realistic training.
This report first provides a brief overview of several major highrise fires that have occurred over the
past decade. The second section discusses three problem areas of which have been noted in several
recent highrise fires:
1. Water supply
2. Functionality of fire protection systems
3. Occupant evacuation
The third area of this report discusses how some of these problems can be addressed and even
eliminated through the use of highrise standard operating procedures, inspection programs, and
occupant evacuation training.
SUMMARY OF KeY ISSUeS

ISSUE COMMENT
Highrise SOPs Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are needed for highrise buildings because
of the special challenges presented and the strategies and tactics that must be
employed to perform safely and effectively in a highrise environment.
Highrise Operational Training The infrequent occurrence of highrise fires relative to other types of fires in most
cities necessitates special highrise training drills for firefighters.
Knowledge of Fire Protection Systems Fire departments must be familiar with the capabilities, limitations, and designs
of the fire protection systems that they will rely on during a fire. Effective tactical
operations may depend on the functionality of these built-in systems.
Pre-fire Plans for Highrises Pre-fire plans are essential for highrise buildings. These plans should address, at
a minimum, the types and capabilities of the mechanical fire protection systems,
the layout of the building, locations of stairwells and elevators, and evacuation
considerations.
Inspection and Testing of Fire Protection Fire departments should work closely with building management to ensure that all
Systems fire protection systems are tested on a regular basis.
Failure of One or More Components of a Fire departments should anticipate what would happen if one or more com-
Highrise Fire Protection System ponents of a highrises fire protection system were to fail. They should have
contingency plans in place in case a system fails to work properly.
USFA-TR-082/April 1996 3
ISSUE COMMENT
Pressure Reducing Devices Problems with pressure reducing devices have been noted in several major
highrise fires in the United States. The consequences of these problems have
been inadequate water pressure or volume from the standpipe systems to fight
the fires.
Highrise Hose and Nozzle Combinations Many highrise standpipe systems are designed around the concept of the fire
department using a specific combination of hoses and nozzles. The use of other
combinations can create serious problems.
Highrise Automatic Sprinklers Very few fire departments have the capability to rapidly extinguish a large volume
of fire that is above the reach of aerial streams. Properly maintained sprinkler
systems have proven successful in controlling and extinguishing these fires and
protecting building occupants.
Compartmentation Compartmentation in highrise buildings is important to help contain a fire, but
sprinklers provide the best protection.
Evacuation of Occupants Highrise building occupants rely on the construction of the building and the
functionality of fire protection systems to protect them during a fire. Occupant
evacuation training is essential to a workable response in an emergency. Such
training should include existing drills, information on building layout, when to stay
in place, and so forth.
PART I: bACKGROUnD InFORMATIOn On ReCenT MAJOR HIGHRISe FIReS

Between 1977 and 1996, 16 firefighters died from traumatic injuries suffered in highrise fires in
the U.S.1 Even though this figure is small compared to the total of 2,277 firefighters who have died
in the line of duty since 1977, it is significant because of the relatively small proportion of actual
highrise fires to other fires. (Table 1 lists traumatic firefighter fatalities in highrise fires between
1977 and 1996 compiled by the NFPA.)
Several major highrise fires in the past decade have demonstrated the complexities of fighting these
fires and the potential for major problems due to the failure of one or more components of the
buildings fire protection systems. These incidents also show how the presence of a properly main-
tained and functioning automatic sprinkler system could have minimized the damage and the num-
ber of firefighter and occupant fatalities.
Meridian Plaza Fire--On February 23, 1991, a fire in the 38-story Meridian Plaza building in Philadelphia
killed three firefighters and one occupant. It was the largest and most costly highrise office building
fire in modem American history, destroying eight floors before being extinguished by ten sprinkler
heads on the 30th floor.
The fire broke out on a Saturday evening on the 22nd floor in a pile of oil-soaked rags. A smoke
detector on the 22nd floor detected the fire, but due to incomplete coverage, the fire was already well
advanced before the detector was activated. The building was partially sprinklered, but none of the
floors between the 22nd and 30th had sprinklers.
1
Traumatic Firefighter Fatalities in Highrise Office Buildings in the United States, 1977 - Present. National Fire Protection
Association, February, 1995.
Suppression operations were compromised by problems with pressure-reducing valves, which were
improperly set and provided inadequate pressure for fire attack using 1 3/4 inch hose and automatic
fog nozzles. Firefighters attempted to resolve this problem by boosting the pressure in the stand-
pipe system using pumpers, but the valves prevented the standpipe outlet pressure from increasing.
Firefighters did not have the tools or expertise needed to adjust the valve settings.
They then stretched 5-inch supply line up the stairwell to the 22nd floor, which took nearly one
hour. By this time, the fire was extending vertically by lapping from window to window.
Firefighting operations were also compromised when the fire burned through the buildings main
electrical feed, short circuiting the buildings entire power system. The primary and back-up elec-
trical feeds were installed in a common, unprotected shaft. All lighting, elevators, pumps, fans and
other electrical devices were rendered inoperable as a result of this system failure.
A crew of three firefighters conducting ventilation operations became disoriented and ran out of air
on the 28th floor before rescue teams could locate them. These three firefighters died from asphyxi-
ation above the fire floors.
Once a water supply was established, using the 5-inch hoseline as a standpipe, firefighters attempted
to knock down the fire, but the volume of fire on multiple large area floors was too large for han-
dlines to be effective. Ten hours after the fire began, all crews were withdrawn from the building.
Efforts were made to control the fire using masterstreams directed from adjacent buildings, but
the fire continued to extend vertically until it reached the 30th floor. Nine hours later, the fire was
controlled by 10 sprinklers that had been installed on the 30th floor. The estimated total dollar loss
from this fire was over $2 billion, including litigation costs.
First Interstate Bank Fire--On the night of May 4, 1988, a fire destroyed five floors of the 62-story First
Interstate Bank building in downtown Los Angeles. The fire department arrived on the scene to find
heavy fire on the 9th or 10th floor which was spreading vertically. The departments response had
been delayed by several minutes due to late notification by building personnel who had unsuccess-
fully attempted to reset the buildings alarm system three times.
Firefighters initiated an interior attack from the stairwells, but were initially hampered by low water
pressure. On the night of the fire, contractors working on the installation of a sprinkler system on
an upper floor had shut down the buildings fire pump and drained the risers. Three fire pump-
ers charged the standpipe system. The building fire pumps were reactivated by contractors soon
thereafter.
Even after the attack began, conditions deteriorated rapidly as smoke filled the stairwells. While
crews tried to extinguish the fire on floors 12 and 13, additional crews were deployed above the fire
to prepare to stop the vertical advance. Fire department officials estimated that over 2,500 gallons
per minute was delivered via multiple handlines and that it took nearly 400 firefighters rotating
through attack and support functions to control the fire.
At the time of the fire, contractors were connecting a new sprinkler system on the 58th floor to the
riser and had shut down the buildings fire pump and drained the riser. The retrofit installation was
90 percent completed including the floors that burned. However, the valves were closed between
the standpipe riser and the sprinkler system on each floor. Building officials and the contractors had
decided not to activate the system until it was fully installed, even though installation had been com-
pleted on most floors. After the water supply was restored, firefighters had to contend with problems
involving some of the pressure reducing valves which were installed on standpipe risers to control
outlet pressures (the building had a single zone system for all 62 floors). Improperly set pressure
reducing valves allowed excess pressures to reach the hoselines; some of them burst handlines, while
others were difficult to control.
Firefighters could not use elevators because fire department policy prohibited their use. All equip-
ment (including over 300 air cylinders) had to be carried up stairs to fight the fire. The buildings
electrical system and internal communications systems also failed, primarily due to water damage.
Several occupants were rescued from the roof by helicopter. A crew of firefighters was flown to the
roof to access the stairwells and rescue other trapped occupants. These efforts were unsuccessful
because the stair shafts had become virtual chimneys. The electrical failure shut down stairwell pres-
surization fans. Stairwell doors, kept ajar by handlines, allowed for infiltration of smoke. One of the
rescue teams had to be rescued by a second team.
A civilian security guard who took an elevator to the fire floor to investigate the alarm was the only fatality.
Fourteen firefighters were injured in the fire. The fire caused an estimated $450 million in damages.
Bankers Trust Fire--On the night of January 31, 1993, a fire destroyed two floors of the unsprinklered
42 story Bankers Trust building in New York City. The fire is believed to have broken out in the ple-
num space on the sixth floor. Fire quickly spread through the common plenum space and involved
the floor area as the ceiling collapsed.
Firefighters initiated an aggressive interior attack, but despite the aggressive efforts of over 400 very
experienced highrise firefighters, the fire extended vertically to the next floor through exterior win-
dows. Doors held ajar by hoselines allowed smoke and heat to enter the stair shafts. Heavy fire, heat,
and smoke conditions forced firefighters to withdraw and an exterior attack was mounted. Elevated
streams directed from aerial platforms ultimately controlled the fire. Firefighters probably would not
have been able to control this fire had it occurred several floors higher, above the reach of exterior
aerial apparatus. The fire caused an estimated $10 million in damage.
World Trade Center Bombing--On February 26, 1993, a terrorist truck bomb exploded in the under-
ground garage of the 110 story World Trade Center in New York. The massive explosion sparked sev-
eral car fires and destroyed most of the buildings primary and backup emergency systems. Smoke
infiltrated the stair shafts because doors at the basement level were blown off and pressurization fans
could not operate due to the destruction of the electrical systems.
This event demonstrated the magnitude of problems that result when there is a complete failure of
the emergency systems in a highrise building. Thousands of occupants were trapped on office floors,
many of which were filling with smoke that was rising through the stair shafts. Others were trapped
in elevators which stopped when the power was interrupted. Many of the occupants suffered smoke
inhalation while descending from as high as the 110th floor in the smoke-filled stairways. In these
conditions, the majority of the occupants would have been safer staying in their work areas where
smoke conditions were less severe.
The FDNY was able to control the fires in about one hour which eliminated the source of the smoke.
The incident could have been much worse had there been other fires on higher level floors. These
fires probably would have been very destructive and difficult, if not impossible, to extinguish since
the main water supply systems were incapacitated by the explosion.
Table 1. Traumatic Firefighter Fatalities in Highrise Buildings

in the U.S., 1977 to 1996
Date Location Description
May 10, 1977 Baltimore, Maryland 37 story office Firefighter found dead in elevator stopped on the
building fire floor. He was not wearing protective clothing
or carrying or using SCBA. Elevator malfunction
possibly involved.
May 19, 1977 Omaha, Nebraska 8 story vacant Firefighter who was assisting in the lobby of hotel
the hotel after performing interior operations
without SCBA died from a heart attack.
June 14, 1979 New York City, New York 20 story depart- Firefighter became separated from other crew
ment store members and ran out of air and died from asphyxi-
ation. The search for the lost firefighter was
hampered by extreme heat and smoke conditions.
September 22, 1981 Chicago, Illinois 38 story office building Two firefighters died after becoming lost in extreme
heat and smoke conditions. One fell into an eleva-
tor shaft, and the other also fell while attempting to
rescue his comrade.
August 12, 1984 Newark, New Jersey 14 story office A firefighter became disoriented and lost in heavy
building smoke conditions, and ran out of air.
December 1, 1984 New York City, New York 13 story office A firefighter performing search and ventilation
building operations on the floor above the fire died after
running out of air.
February 23, 1991 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 38 story office Three firefighters became disoriented on the upper
building floors of the building and died after running out of
air.
February 5, 1992 Indianapolis, Indiana 9 story hotel Two firefighters operating handlines on the third
floor died of injuries suffered when caught by rapid
fire growth.
February 24, 1993 White Plains, New York 12 story apart- A firefighter died from asphyxiation after becoming
ment building trapped in an elevator while trying to gain access to
the fire floor..
August 14, 1993 San Francisco, California 20 story apart- A firefighter died from bum injuries suffered while
ment building forcing entry to a third floor apartment.
April 11, 1994 Memphis, Tennessee 11 story apartment Two firefighters died from smoke inhalation after
building exiting an elevator on the fire floor and becoming
disoriented.
January 6, 1996 New York City, New York 13 story apart- One firefighter died from facial and respiratory inju-
ment building ries suffered while forcing entry to an apartment.
PART II: MAJOR PRObleMS nOTeD DURInG ReCenT HIGHIRISe FIReS

Three major problems have emerged from recent major highrise fires across the country. These
areas are:
1. Water supply
2. Functionality of fire protection systems
3. Occupant evacuation
This section provides background information on each of these problem areas, and discusses how
these problems affected operations at recent major fires.
WATER SUPPLY IN HIGHRISE BUILDINGS

All highrise fire protection systems involve water. To fight a fire, the water must be delivered to the
floor where it is needed via standpipes.
Classes of Water Supply Systems--Standpipe systems are the main source of water supply for fighting fires
in highrise buildings. There are three classes of standpipe systems:
Class I--2-1/2-inch outlets for fire department use
Class II--1-1/2-inch hose outlets for occupant-use hose
Class III--Combination standpipe, incorporates both Class I and II into a single system
A Combined Sprinkler/Standpipe System incorporates a water supply for automatic sprinklers
with a Class III standpipe system (in some cases the occupant hose connections are not required
when automatic sprinklers are provided.)2
Until the 1970s, many building codes required either separate Class I and Class II standpipes, or a
Class III system. Many jurisdictions allowed Class II standpipe outlets for occupant use to be supplied
by the buildings domestic water system and permitted dry standpipes to meet the Class I require-
ments. The dry standpipe risers would only be charged with water when hoselines were connected
to the fire department connection (FDC). Other jurisdictions required a built-in water supply for the
Class I or Class III standpipes, which generally required one or more fire pumps to boost the pressure
from the public water system.
Since the 1970s, the trend has been to require automatic sprinkler systems in almost all new highrise
buildings. There has also been a trend to encourage or require sprinklers to be installed in existing
highrise buildings. Most new systems are installed as combined sprinkler/standpipe systems, and
many older Class I or Class III standpipe systems have been converted to combined systems to supply
water for retrofit automatic sprinkler systems.
Combined sprinkler/standpipe systems generally require a fire pump to increase the pressure com-
ing in from the public water system, in order to deliver adequate pressure at the upper levels of the
2
Note that a combined system is different from a combination system. Combination refers to a system with both
Class I and Class II outlets, whereas a combined system is an integrated standpipe/sprinkler system.
building. These pumps may be electrically driven or powered by internal combustion (generally
diesel) engines. Some codes require a backup water supply system on the premises, in case the
public water system is out of service due to an earthquake or other disruption.
Virtually all standpipe, sprinkler, or combined systems require fire department connections so that
the water supply can be augmented by fire department pumpers. In most newer buildings a single
set of connections supplies water to all of the fire protection systems in the building, while older
buildings may have a multitude of different connections that each supply water to a different area or
system within the building.3 Therefore, it is important for fire departments to have information about
the water supply and connections for each specific building. This information should be available
through a pre-fire plan system.
Pressure Reducing Devices--Pressure reducing devices prevent dangerously high discharge pressures
from hose outlets. There are two major types of pressure reducing devices that can be installed on
standpipe outlets: flow restricting devices and pressure reducing valves.
Flow restricting devices control the discharge pressure by restricting the flow to a reduced open-
ing, which must be sized to a specific pressure and discharge rate. The most common type of
flow restricting device is an orifice plate (see Figure 1). Flow restricting devices do not reduce the
static pressure (pressure with no water flowing), thereby allowing higher pressures at lower flow
rates. Some jurisdictions require flow restricting devices to be adjustable or removable by the fire
department.
Pressure reducing valves (see Figure 2) limit the pressure on the downstream side at all flow rates.
The valve is set to deliver a specific pressure which will not be exceeded under any flow condition
(i.e., static and flowing pressures will remain constant). A pressure reducing valve must be set for
the specific pressure condition and is usually not adjustable without special tools. These valves are
often installed on the connections between the standpipe risers and the automatic sprinklers on the
individual floors of a highrise building, in addition to hose outlets.
Pressure Control Requirements--The pressure and volume of water that are available at a standpipe out-
let must be sufficient to supply hoselines that are expected to be connected to them and must not
exceed a safe operating pressure. The required flow rate and the maximum and minimum pressure
requirements used by most jurisdictions are specified in NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of
Standpipe and Hose Systems.
Prior to 1993, the minimum pressure required by NFPA 14 was 65 psi at the required flow rate
at the highest outlet in the system (see Table 2). This requirement anticipated that the fire depart-
ment would utilize 2 1/2 inch hoses with smooth bore tips, which require approximately 50 psi
nozzle pressure to operate (i.e., 65 psi minus 15 psi for friction loss). The maximum pressure
allowable at an outlet was limited to 100 psi at the required flow rate, and the maximum static
pressure at any outlet was limited to 175 psi. The same limitations applied to both 1 1/2 inch
and 2 1/2 inch outlets.
3
It is not unusual to find these connections mislabeled or without labels to indicate where to connect to supply more
water to which systems.
The minimum and maximum pressure limitations were revised in 1993, after several reports of
fires where crews had difficulty operating effective hose streams due to inadequate pressures (see
Table 3). A large number of fire departments were found to be using 1-3/4- or 2-inch attack hose
with combination fog nozzles, especially automatic nozzles, which require at least 100 psi at the
nozzle to operate properly. As a result, in 1993 the pressure limit for all outlets greater than 11/2
inches was increased to 100 psi minimum flow pressure and 175 psi maximum static pressure.
The standard also specified that pressure reducing devices must be installed on 1-1/2 inch outlets
that would exceed 100 psi flow pressure at the required flow rate.4 Pressure reducing valves, which
control water under flowing and static conditions, must be installed on all outlets that exceed 175
psi static pressure.
Table 2. NFPA 14 Requirements Prior to 1993

Flow Restricting Device Pressure Reducing Valve
Outlet Size Allowable Flow Pressure
Required if: Required if:
1-1/2 65 psi min residual pressure between static pressure greater than
100 psi and 175 psi 175 psi
100 psi max
2-1/2 65 psi min residual pressure between 100 static pressure greater than
psi and 175 psi 175 psi
100 psi max
Table 3. NFPA 14 Requirements 1993 Edition

Flow Restricting Device Pressure Reducing Valve
Outlet Size Allowable Flow Pressure
Required if: Required if:
1-1/2 65 psi min residual pressure between static pressure greater than
100 psi and 175 psi 175 psi
2-1/2 100 psi min (Optional as long as static static pressure greater than
pressure less than 175) 175 psi
175 psi max
The higher pressures that are required today for 2-1/2-inch and larger outlets are intended to pro-
vide sufficient pressure for hoselines to be operated with 100 psi nozzle pressure. Nozzles that are
designed to operate at lower pressures (70 psi) have also been developed and may be particularly
useful for fire departments that respond to buildings that have standpipe systems that were designed
to meet the pre-1993 standards.
4
The 1-1/2-inch valves were limited to 100 psi residual pressure because these lines are usually considered occupant
attack lines. Pressures exceeding 100 psi may overwhelm occupant users.
Advantages and Problems of Pressure Reducing Valves--As stated previously, pressure reducing valves (PRVs)
regulate both residual (flowing) and static pressure. Prior to their development, the only type of
pressure reducing devices were the flow restricting devices which do not regulate static pressure.
In tall buildings, standpipe systems which utilized flow restricting devices were limited to approxi-
mately 20 stories per zone, to stay within the limit of 175 psi maximum static pressure (see Figure
3). Each 20 story zone required its own fire pump(s) and fire department connections.
Today, however, standpipe zone heights are no longer restricted if PRVs are used. PRVs simplify the
design and installation of sprinkler and standpipe systems by allowing their installation without a
height limitation. The pressure in the risers may be very high in a tall building (particularly on the
lower level floors), however, the pressure reducing valves should ensure that the static and residual
pressures that are available at an outlet valve are within the required range for safe and effective hose
stream operations.
The rationale for PRVs is the concern that firefighters would be exposed to dangerous operating
pressures and forces if they connected hoselines to outlets near the base of standpipe risers of sub-
stantial height, particularly those supplied by stationary fire pumps.5 For example, in a 275-foot high
standpipe zone, a pressure of 234 psi is required at the base of the riser to overcome elevation and
produce the minimum required outlet pressure of 115 psi at the risers top outlet.6 At this pressure,
a standard 2-1/2-inch fire hose fitted with a 1-1/2-inch straight bore nozzle would produce a back
pressure (reaction force) in excess of 500 pounds.
Some fire departments have encountered problems where the pressure reducing valves were not
properly set for the required discharge pressure. In these cases, firefighters faced either inadequate
or excessive handline pressures. The NFPA standard now requires a test/drain riser to be installed
adjacent to the standpipe risers that are equipped with pressure reducing valves so that the flow and
discharge pressure can be set and checked during regular inspections.
Highrise Hose and Nozzle Ensemble--Since standpipe outlet pressures may be as low as 65 psi in
systems designed prior to the 1993 version of NFPA 14, or lower due to an improperly set PRV, fire
departments should be prepared to make an attack under low pressure conditions. A smooth bore
tip requiring only 50 psi nozzle pressure should be used in these situations (see Table 4). Also, the
greater friction loss in 1-1/2-inch hose could reduce the nozzle pressure to a level below the 50 psi
needed for the nozzle. Therefore, it is preferable for fire departments to carry 2-inch or 2-1/2-inch
hose with a smooth bore tip for highrise operations.
Another option is to carry a nozzle designed specifically for highrise standpipe operations. A high-
rise break-apart nozzle provides the combined benefits of a fog nozzle and a smooth bore nozzle,
both designed to operate at limited pressures. Firefighters can use the fog nozzle (designed to
deliver its rated flow at 75 psi), or remove the fog tip, leaving a smooth bore tip (designed to operate
at 50 psi).
5
Routley, J. Gordon. Highrise Office Building Fire, One Meridian Plaza, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. U.S. Fire
Administration Technical Report Series, February, 1991, pg. 25.
NFPA Alert Bulletin 9 1-3, Pressure Regulating Devices in Standpipe Systems. National Fire Protection. Association,
6
May, 1991.
Table 4. Comparison of Nozzles
Approximate Nozzle Pressure

Type Advantages/Disadvantages
Required
Straight Stream Nozzle 50 psi Excellent penetration and good reach at low operating
pressure; no fog pattern available
Combination (Fog) Nozzle 100 psi Good penetration and reach with straight stream; capable
(Automatic or Adjustable of producing fog pattern; high pressure needed to operate
Gallonage) nozzle may not always be available
Highrise (Break-Apart) Nozzle 75 psi (for fog portion Combines reach and penetration features listed above
depending on which portion of the nozzle is used; fog
50 psi (for straight tip)
portion requires less operating pressure than some com-
bination nozzles; provides greatest flexibility for highrise
firefighting
FAILURE OF COMPONENTS OF A FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

Each of the major highrise fires discussed earlier in this report presented special challenges to fire-
fighters because of the failure of one or more components of a buildings fire protection systems.
These incidents emphasize the possibility that fire departments may have to contend with unantici-
pated problems with these systems while fighting a highrise fire.
Fire departments can never be sure that every component of every system will work 100 percent of
the time. Regular inspection, maintenance and testing programs are essential.
Water supply systems can fail under many circumstances. Closed valves may block the water supply
to the system, as happened at the First Interstate Bank fire. A fire pump will fail if the main power
supply or a backup supply fails. Fire department connections may be obscured from view, blocked,
or relocated, especially during construction
Pressure reducing valves may be improperly set or improperly installed, as discussed previously. At
the Meridian Plaza fire in Philadelphia, the pressure reducing valves were found to be improperly set
and would not deliver sufficient pressure for a functional hose stream. At the First Interstate Bank
Building in Los Angeles, some of the pressure reducing valves failed and allowed pressures estimated
at 500 psi to reach handlines. In each of these cases the fire department operations were severely
hampered in attempting to control major fires that destroyed multiple floors and caused millions of
dollars in damage.
Electrical system failure can be catastrophic since many components of a highrise fire protection
system are powered by electricity. Many buildings have emergency generators, in case the main feed
to the building is lost. However, even with the presence of backup power systems, the entire system
may fail if fire impinges on the main feed, as happened at the Meridian Plaza fire.
Stair shafts may become filled with products of combustion, even in buildings designed with pro-
tected, pressurized stairs. The First Interstate Bank fire, Meridian Plaza fire, and World Trade Center
fire all demonstrated that positive pressure protection can be quickly lost when stairway doors are
opened by evacuees and firefighters, or held ajar by hoselines going into the fire floor. Protected
stairways intended to provide a safe exit path for both occupants and firefighters are transformed
into chimneys carrying smoke and toxic gases.
Elevator failures have hampered operations in many highrise fires. Some departments prohibit the
use of elevators, especially when the bank serves the affected floor, while others allow firefighters to
use separate unaffected banks to transport personnel and equipment to staging areas. Firefighters are
particularly dependent on elevators when the fire is on an upper level floor. The Meridian Plaza fire
demonstrated how firefighting efforts were hampered and delayed when an elevator system failed
due to a power loss.
Each of the major fires described in this report demonstrates how the failure of one or more systems
can hinder fire department operations enough to result in a very large fire. The failure of one com-
ponent often leads to the failure of other components, generally because the failure allows the fire to
grow so large that it impinges on other components, or overpowers the ability of other components
to function properly. Fire control is virtually impossible when multiple components fail.
EVACUATION OF OCCUPANTS
The recent major highrise fires have shown that fire departments are likely to have serious problems
evacuating occupants from a highrise--particularly if systems fail--when there is a large volume of
fire and no built-in sprinkler system, when occupants are not trained properly, or when the fire is
not controlled rapidly. The World Trade Center bombing demonstrated the problems with evacua-
tion when stairway pressurization systems failed. Even when pressurization systems work properly,
however, stairshafts may become filled with the products of combustion because doors on the fire
floor are propped open by hoselines and the effect of pressurization is lost as occupants open stair-
way doors to exit.
Both the First Interstate Bank fire and the Meridian Plaza fire could have trapped thousands of occu-
pants had the fires occurred during weekday hours. The best way to protect highrise building
occupants from smoke and fire is to control the fire rapidly, and this is best achieved by a sprinkler
system. Unfortunately, many existing buildings do not offer this protection, which means that fire
departments may have to contend with large fires that pose serious evacuation problems.
In some cases, occupants may be safest if they remain in place or evacuate to a floor beneath the fire
floor instead of exiting the building. Firefighters should determine as quickly as possible in a fire
incident whether a full, partial, or no evacuation is necessary, and communicate their evacuation plan
to occupants by using a public address system or other means. Experience shows that occupants will
need guidance with evacuation. This will require the assignment of companies to assist specifically
with evacuation.
PART III: ADDReSSInG MAJOR HIGHRISe FIReFIGHTInG PRObleMS

The problems associated with operations at highrise fires, as described in the previous section, may
not always be avoidable, but the chance of their occurrence can be minimized by developing and
following standard operating procedures. Inspection, maintenance, and training programs, along
with public education also contribute to safety and to risk reduction.
HIGHRISE STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES

Standard operating procedures play an integral role in establishing order and consistency in opera-
tions at any emergency scene. They are especially important in highrise incidents because of the
inherent complexities of fighting a highrise fire. SOPs should be written to achieve these purposes:
Establish chain-of-command and command sectors
Establish levels of response (i.e., number of units assigned on each alarm)
Establish roles and responsibilities of arriving companies and company officers
Establish a system of operations familiar to all members of the organization
SOPs provide the framework of a fire departments response to an emergency incident. They estab-
lish a degree of order to emergency scenes which by nature are usually chaotic. Generic topics to
cover in highrise SOPs are listed below.
Level of response (i.e., number and type of apparatus dispatched)
Duties of incoming apparatus (1st, 2nd, 3rd due)
Establishment and structure of command
Accountability
Safety
Use of elevators and stairwells
Evacuation and rescue
Water supply
Hoses and nozzles for interior operations
Ventilation
Contingency plans for failure of fire protection systems
Highrise SOPs from several medium and large size cities were reviewed for this report. Below is a
discussion of different topics that can be included in highrise SOPs and an overview of some of the
different procedural approaches being taken by fire departments from across the country.
Levels of Response--Specific levels of response should be developed for highrise structures. The
number of units dispatched to a highrise emergency will vary from locality to locality depending
upon the size of the department, the types and number of units in the department, and, the nature
of the call.
Most departments establish three levels of response for highrise structures based on three common
scenarios: an activated alarm only, a report of smoke in the structure, or a working fire. New York
City, for example, dispatches one engine to investigate an automatic fire alarm in a highrise. If there
is any indication of smoke or fire, a box alarm is transmitted, providing three engine companies,
two ladder companies, one rescue squad, and one battalion chief. A working highrise fire upgrades
the box assignment to include a total of four engine companies, four ladder companies, two res-
cue squads, four battalion chiefs, one division chief, one Highrise Company, one Command Post
Company, one Field Commander, and one Mask Service Unit.
Some departments dispatch special teams when a working fire is declared. Phoenix, for example, is
revising its SOPs to include the dispatch of a specially trained highrise unit to working fires. In addi-
tion to its normal box assignment complement, Memphis dispatches a Rapid Intervention Team
on working highrise fires.
Command--Most departments utilize a version of the Incident Command System (ICS) to manage
resources and coordinate operations at major fires. All of the highrise SOPs reviewed for this report
include ICS. The command structure for highrise fires includes several functions that are not used
at other structure fires: Interior Staging (Resource) Sector, Stairway and Support, and Lobby Control
Sector. In cases of major highrise fires, most SOPs expand the structure to utilize the full Incident
Command System, which includes the four major ICS sections, Planning, Finance, Logistics, and
Operations.
Some SOPs direct the first arriving battalion chief to proceed to the fire floor to lead the Fire Attack
Sector or Operations Sector, while the second arriving Battalion Chief takes command of the inci-
dent; other SOPs reverse these responsibilities.
Phoenix lists the following priorities for first arriving units and command officers:
Identify fire floor
Provide an attack on the fire floor with at least three companies
Provide for the life safety of persons in immediate danger
Provide water supply for the initial attack
Establish lobby control
Make a size-up of the fire floor and the floor above
Call for additional resources
Begin to establish support systems (staging, resources, etc.)
Establish a ventilation sector
Most SOPs allow the IC to establish the command post in the most suitable position, either inside
or outside, while some cities, such as Los Angeles, require the command post to be at least 200 feet
from the building. Phoenixs SOPs, however, state that the need for establishing Command in the
street is secondary to the urgency of getting an officer and crew up to the fire areaThe first arriv-
ing company shouldpass command to the next arriving officer. The SOPs further explain that this
policy should not preclude the initiation of a personnel accountability system from the outset. They
also emphasize the importance of assigning a company to the buildings fire control room to manage
and monitor systems, and to direct evacuation using public address systems.
The Fire Attack Sector is generally assigned to the first arriving engine company. This sector may be
termed Attack Sector, or Fire Floor (Number) Sector, and it is usually commanded by the offi-
cer on the first due engine. Some departments require the fire attack team to minimally comprise
an engine and truck company before personnel are allowed to ascend, while others allow a single
engine to assume this position.
FDNY assigns two engine companies and one ladder company per attack position. Its SOPs gener-
ally require the Fire Attack Sector officer to communicate which stairway is being utilized by the
attack team. Chicago established a priority that a crew with hoselines be positioned above the fire
floor to control any lapping or vertical extension. The first due truck or squad is generally assigned
to assist with fire attack while the second due truck or squad performs search and rescue above the
fire floor.
The Interior Staging (Resource) Sector is usually formed at large fires where multiple companies will need
to be rotated through the attack and rehabilitation sectors. Most SOPs state that this function will be
established one to two floors below the fire floor. Usually, several companies are assigned to manage
personnel and equipment assigned to this function. Very few of the SOPs pointed to the importance
of establishing this sector in the early stages of a major highrise fire, or to who will establish this
sector. In many cases, once this area is established, it will take time to stockpile the equipment
(especially spare air bottles) in the interior staging area. Memphis requires all incoming crews on a
working fire to take spare equipment and one spare SCBA cylinder per firefighter into the building.
The companies fighting the fire will rely on this sector within the first 15 to 20 minutes in, then 15
to 20 minutes to rehabilitate the personnel and change cylinders. The relief crew and air cylinders
must be ready at the Resource Sector when the first wave is ready to rotate out of the incident as
they retreat for new air bottles and equipment. The Chicago Fire Department requires the officer of
this sector to maintain enough personnel to staff its three man relief system, whereby one crew is
attacking the fire, one is on backup line, and one is in position to replace the backup team when the
attack team withdraws. Memphis also requires a standby crew in this sector at all times.
The Exterior Staging (Base) Sector is the area where incoming forces gather outside of the highrise. Some
departments, such as Milwaukee, assign this task in their SOPs to the first arriving engine on the
second alarm. Other departments assign it to a chiefs aide. Most SOPs call for the exterior staging
area to be set up several blocks from the scene so that staged units are not confused with on-scene
units, and to keep streets around the incident as open as possible. Generally, staged personnel are not
allowed to leave the staging area until requested by the IC.
The officer in charge of this area must keep track of staged resources and let the incident commander
know when additional resources are needed in staging.
The Lobby Control Sector is one of the most important sectors on the fireground. Some SOPs give this
sector a small area of responsibility, but others give it many vital duties. Philadelphia, for example,
assigns lobby control on dispatch to the third due ladder truck.
Eventually, the officer on the ladder truck is relieved by an incoming battalion chief. Some of the
duties commonly assigned to the Lobby Control Sector include:
Securing the elevators and ensuring they have all been recalled
Assisting with evacuation through the lobby area
Making announcements and directing evacuation over the buildings public address system
Making an accountability list of incoming firefighters
Acquiring building floor plans and keys
Locating security guards or engineers
Verifying functionality of building HVAC system, fire pump, emergency generator, etc., and
shutting down the HVAC system if necessary
Monitoring the fire alarm annunciator panel
Several cities have added specific responsibilities to this sector. Los Angeles requires this sector to
report to the Incident Commander the number of floors in the building and to ensure that stair-
wells are positively pressurized. This sector also establishes a stockpile of equipment in the lobby
which can be transported to the interior staging area. Philadelphia gives the Lobby Control Sector
the responsibility of acquiring tools which can be used to adjust pressure reducing valves on the
standpipe system.
The Top Sector is established one or two floors above the fire. It is responsible for, among other things,
conducting search and rescue above the fire, preventing vertical spread, and ensuring that ventilation
hatches are open in stairwells. This sector is usually headed by an officer from the third arriving
engine or a unit on the second alarm.
The Rehabilitation Sector is responsible for rehydrating firefighters and monitoring the physical condi-
tion of firefighters at a major incident. Some departments establish this sector on the same floor as
interior staging, while others establish it one floor below. Usually an EMS officer heads this sector.
Dallas and Fairfax County require Rehabilitation Sector personnel to take a full set of firefighting
protecting equipment and SCBA with them into a highrise.
Other sectors can be established at a highrise fire. Dallas SOPs include a Safe Refuge Area five floors
below the fire floor. Floors below the fire floor in a highrise building are generally considered safe
areas. This area is staffed by one engine company which assists with the evacuation. A Safe Refuge
Area usually is established in the tall buildings where occupants may have difficulty descending all
the way to the ground level.
Los Angeles City includes an Air Operations Sector in their highrise SOPs. In some cases, the fire
department may call on one of its helicopter to evacuate persons or firefighters from the roof of a
highrise. The SOPs strictly specify that the helicopter landing zone be at least one-half mile from
the incident and that the helicopter not fly within 500 feet of portions of the building affected by
fire. Previous experience has shown the problems created when wind generated by the helicopter
literally fanned the flames.
Size-up and Verbal Communications--Size-up is an assessment of the emergency scene. It provides a

firsthand account by fire department personnel to incoming units and units on the fireground.
Incoming units base their actions upon arrival on information communicated in the initial size-up.
All of the highrise SOPs reviewed require the first arriving engine to provide a size-up but only a
few describe what information is to be communicated. Items to communicate in a highrise size-up
may include:
Evidence of smoke or fire
Number of floors in the building and location of smoke or fire (count floors from top of
building down)
Presence of persons trapped at windows or on balconies
Whether or not building is being evacuated
Which side(s) of building have been surveyed
Very few of the SOPs assign a particular company with size-up of all sides of a structure; Fairfax
County, however, assigns this task to the third arriving engine company noting that the officer may
see a critical situation and communicate information that could change the whole situation. After
the size-up is performed, the engine is to report to the incident commander for an assignment.
Other cities assign this role to the second due ladder truck, chiefs aide, or an ambulance (if it is part
of the fire department).
Most of the SOPs reviewed remind personnel to minimize radio traffic at a highrise fire, but a few
noted the importance of communicating the initial size-up through the chain of command--espe-
cially when a hazardous condition is found or when a company believes the Incident Commander
is missing vital information that would alter operational tactics. Fairfaxs SOPs, however, emphasize
the need for continual size-ups by all companies through the duration of the incident. They state,
Companies must keep their superiors informed of the conditions in their area of responsibility
so their superior can inform the next higher ranking officer of the conditions in that area...During
multi-company operations, each unit must be aware of the identity of units adjacent to them and
areas of responsibility must be understood. If one companys area develops problems, that company
officer must inform the adjacent companies and their superiors.
Water Supply--One of the greatest problems with controlling the major highrise fires discussed earlier
in this report was obtaining adequate pressure and flow to initiate an attack. Generally, the problems
were due to the failure of pressure reducing valves or the building fire pump to operate properly. The
best way for fire departments to address these problems is through inspection and testing of system
components to ensure they are working to expected levels (this is discussed in detail later).
Highrise SOPs should instruct firefighters to use hoses and nozzles which can operate under low
pressure conditions. As previously discussed, static pressures at standpipe outlets in highrises can
be as low as 65 psi. SOPs should address this reality by establishing 2 1/2 inch hose as the choice
hoseline for highrise fire attack. Smooth bore nozzles should be carried in highrise hosepacks since
they require about one-half the operating pressure of most fog nozzles.
SOPs should also contain contingency procedures for situations where water supply is compromised
by a problem with the fire protection system. SOPs should establish methods to check building sys-
tems which do not appear to be operating properly, including the fire pump(s). Many of the SOPs
reviewed assign this task to Lobby Control personnel, who can check fire pumps, generators, and
other emergency equipment, and attempt to manually activate equipment if necessary.
Water supply SOPs should also establish which unit(s) is responsible for supplying the fire depart-
ment connection(s). Special pumping procedures can also be included. Dallas highrise SOPs specify
that two pumpers supply the standpipe system in case one pumper fails or higher pressure is needed.
They also disallow the use of large diameter hose between the engine and standpipe because this
hose generally is not rated to the high pressures (over 200 psi) that may be required for supplying
the fire department connector(s).
Elevators--Besides incident command, elevator usage is the most strictly regulated practice in the
SOPs reviewed. Most of the SOPs define when and when not to use elevators. One set says, Most
procedures recognize that elevators are the most effective and efficient means to transport personnel
and equipment in highrises, but improper use of elevators [at improper times] in fire situations can
expose personnel to serious risks.
Elevator SOPs should specify certain steps firefighters must take before using them. First, elevators
must be recalled and switched to manual or bypass mode if this feature is available. This feature over-
rides all elevator controls except those in the car and gives firefighters control over an elevator. The
manual mode disables the doors electric eye (which could be blocked open by smoke) and prevents
the elevator from being called accidentally to another floor. Fairfax Countys SOPs prohibit use of
elevators which cannot be operated manually until the officer on the first arriving engine determines
which floor is affected by the fire.
Many SOPs also establish what equipment firefighters must carry when using an elevator. Firefighters
are to be equipped with full protective clothing, SCBA turned on, an activated PASS device, and forc-
ible entry tools. All of the SOPs prohibit firefighters from getting off on the floor where the alarm
is activated, but at least one city, Dallas, allows firefighters to go to the floor of alarm if a guard or
building engineer has personally confirmed there is no sign of smoke or fire. In general, the SOPs
reviewed require firefighters to stop one to two floors below the floor in alarm.
SOPs should also establish who is responsible for establishing control over the elevators. This job is
usually assigned to the first arriving engine or truck, and ultimately may be assigned to the Lobby
Control Sector.
Milwaukees SOPs note that firefighters should look up into the shaft through the elevators trap
door or through cracks between the floor and elevator to verify that there is no smoke in the shaft.
If there is smoke, firefighters are cautioned against using the elevator. Los Angeles City specifically
prohibits firefighters from using elevators in buildings under investigation for a fire emergency until
it is determined by fire department personnel that the entire shaft is not threatened by fire.
Dallas, Philadelphia, and Chicago require that a firefighter with a portable radio be assigned to
operate an elevator. Milwaukees SOPs state that it is preferable to use a service elevator in a build-
ing serviced by split banks because the service elevator most likely serves the entire building, while
Philadelphias procedures recommend firefighters avoid using these elevators because they are typi-
cally slower and sometimes do not have firefighter bypass switches. Chicago and Dallas both require
that firefighters manually stop an elevator every five floors to confirm that it is functioning properly.
Dallas also prohibits firefighters from passing the fire floor in an elevator because of the significant
hazard this creates. Dallas and Philadelphia restrict personnel from initially using an elevator if there
is reasonable suspicion of a working fire below the eighth floor. Memphiss SOPs prohibit the use of
elevators which serve the fire area when a working fire is declared.
Some departments do not allow firefighters to ascend a highrise unless they are carrying a highrise
hosepack. This policy is designed to prevent a truck company from investigating a fire or even an
activated alarm without having proper equipment to fight a fire. Los Angeles Citys and Memphis
SOPs require that firefighters using elevators take at least one fire extinguisher with them and have
it pointing at the elevator doors when they open. Some cities also require personnel using an eleva-
tor to carry forcible entry tools that could be used in an emergency to pry open elevator doors and,
possibly, to break through the walls of the elevator shaft.
Dallas elevator SOPs call for the dispatch of the departments high angle rescue team for cases when
an elevator cannot be recalled and there is reasonable suspicion of a working fire. Los Angeles City
requires personnel to be assigned to check elevators in banks serving the fire floor to verify that all
are empty. Fairfax Countys SOPs note the importance of immediately searching elevator lobbies on
floors affected by the fire. Many occupants still try to exit using elevators, despite warnings against
it, and there is a higher probability that elevator lobby areas will contain victims than other areas of
a floor.
Evacuation and Stairwells--Evacuation of a highrise can be one of the biggest challenges in controlling a
highrise fire emergency. Firefighters depend on a prompt, organized evacuation by occupants so that
they only have to concentrate on rescuing disabled persons, and on the fire attack. Unfortunately,
building occupants do not always follow evacuation plans, and many persons may delay exiting
and become trapped. This is why it is important for the fire department to establish procedures for
managing occupant evacuation.
Occupant evacuation management requires that first arriving officers make an assessment of the risks
posed to occupants who are still in the building. SOPs should emphasize the importance of making
a decision in the early stages about whether firefighters should concentrate on suppressing the fire
or helping occupants out of the building. Suppression and evacuation are usually the two biggest
priorities at highrise fires. In some cases the best way to protect trapped occupants is to concentrate
on extinguishing the fire before it reaches those above it. In other cases, the fire may be so large and
uncontrollable that the best action is to protect stairwells from products of combustion and assist
occupants out of the building. Once a decision is made, SOPs should instruct firefighters to com-
municate their plan with occupants in the building.
Los Angeles Citys SOPs provide a lengthy discussion of evacuation procedures for large highrises.
They note that in some cases thousands of people may try to leave the building. Evacuating a large
number of people in a timely manner is impossible and would hamper firefighting operations. The
SOPs call for the incident commander to assign an engine company to assist with evacuation. This
crew can utilize the public address system in the stairwells and on floors, or use other means to com-
municate messages to occupants about who needs to evacuate and how to evacuate. In most cases,
the department will evacuate three floors at a time to prevent stairwell overcrowding. Phoenixs SOPs
state that occupants in the immediate fire area should be evacuated as quickly as possible, but that
further evacuation should be predicated on risk to the occupants since premature evacuation often
hinders fire control efforts and adds to general confusion at the scene.
Some of the SOPs reviewed also established procedures to protect stairwells from the products of
combustion. This is an important tactic for buildings which do not have built-in fans to create a
pressurized environment. Los Angeles Citys SOPs require firefighters to place positive pressure fans
at the base of stairwells to establish a positive pressure environment, or to augment built-in pressur-
ization fans. In buildings over 25 stories, the fans are to be placed every 25 floors. Although many
departments prohibit the use of gasoline powered, carbon monoxide producing positive pressure
fans in stairwells, some departments allow their usage if there is sufficient air flow to remove the
carbon monoxide fumes.
Very few of the SOPs reviewed noted the importance of checking early in the incident to verify that
stairwell roof hatches are open. Fire protection systems that activate fans to pressurize stairwells
usually open hatches automatically. Closed hatches prevent smoke from escaping and create a stack
effect.
Many SOPs urge firefighters to establish separate stairwells for evacuation and as a base for fire attack.
In reality this may be impossible unless the stairwells or building are equipped with a public address
system that allows firefighters to communicate the evacuation plan to occupants. The Milwaukee Fire
Department SOPs require that civilians be evacuated from the stairwell(s) before firefighters begin
suppression operations.
Fairfax Countys SOPs prioritize search areas in a highrise. The fire floor and floor above are to be
searched first, followed by the top floor before searching the floors in between. For large or very
populated highrises, the SOPs recommend relocation of occupants on the fire floor and two floors
above and below the fire. The remaining occupants probably will be safer staying where they are in
the building, particularly if the building is sprinklered.
Fire Attack--Some of the highrise SOPs reviewed for this report provide basic guidelines about the
size and type of team which should be assembled to initiate fire attack in a highrise. The size of
attack teams varies from department to department, but most of the SOPs reviewed required the
attack comprise the first engine and first truck, at a minimum, if there is indication of a working fire.
Memphis SOPs, which were revised following a highrise fire that killed two firefighters, stipulate
that all operations be conducted by task forces comprised of two engines and one truck. Task forces
are assigned particular missions, i.e. fire attack, rescue, ventilation, etc.
Memphis believes this unique arrangement of personnel improves accountability and provides suf-
ficient personnel and equipment for meeting the complex demands of a highrise fire.
Chicagos SOPs specify that a crew with an attack line should be put in place on the floor above the
fire as quickly as possible to prevent any lapping or vertical extension. This is particularly important
if windows begin to fail on the fire floor. Los Angeles Citys SOPs state the firefighters should try to
initiate an attack from the stairwell containing a roof hatch if possible so that there is no ventilation
problem or stack effect in the stairwell. Some SOPs say that in cases where the fire can be controlled
quickly, fire attack may be given priority over evacuation of occupants.
Fairfax Countys SOPs warn officers about conducting simultaneous fire attacks from different stair-
wells because of the possibility of a situation where two attacks oppose one another. Operations
from different stairwells may be necessary if there is a large volume of fire, but this attack must be
well coordinated. The SOPs also warn about negative effects of compartmentation and partitions
which are routinely found in highrises. These internal structural divisions are designed to contain
the fire, but they may allow firefighters to unknowingly go past the fire and become entrapped.
Because of the unusual designs and layouts of highrise buildings, Fairfax Countys SOPs require the
first arriving engine company to provide a verbal size-up of the fire floor to the Incident Commander.
The size-up should include information about the floor layout and their exact location relative to the
fires location. The SOPs state, The first arriving engine company officer should remember that the
Battalion Chief will normally build his strategy around the engine companys first tactics. All facts
that are found in the fire area must be communicated to the incident commander.
Safety--Safety is given very little attention in many of the SOPs reviewed. Due to the potential size
and complexities of fighting a highrise fire, highrise SOPs should emphasize safety by designating
an individual to function as the Safety Officer. This individual should be given the responsibility of
monitoring hazards specific to highrises including falling glass. Complex highrise fires may require
a lead safety officer at the command post and several other safety officers assigned to specific sectors
(e.g., interior safety, exterior safety). Interior safety officers should have another firefighter accom-
panying them so they are not alone in a hazardous environment.
One set of SOPs reviewed for this report requires firefighters to establish a safe access corridor
between the street and the building, and that ventilation efforts be prohibited above the corridor.
Philadelphias SOPs include a position for an interior safety officer who is responsible for ensuring
that personnel are moved, controlled, and supported in a safe manner. Memphis requires that at
least one task force (two engines, one truck) be kept in the exterior staging area at all times during
a working fire. In addition, a safety team labeled the Rapid Intervention Team is dispatched to
working highrise fires. Its personnel ascend to the interior staging area for the purpose of providing
rapid intervention in the event that firefighters become trapped, lost, or need emergency assistance.
Communications Equipment--Several of the fires previously discussed demonstrate the communications

difficulties which can arise while operating within highrise buildings. Highrise building construc-
tion may shield radio waves and hamper communications between exterior and interior personnel.
Highrise SOPs should develop communications contingency plans. For example, some of the SOPs
reviewed suggest using simplex (non-repeated) channels when personnel are unable to transmit
over primary channels. Newer highrise buildings may be equipped with internal communications
systems. Pre-fire plans for highrise buildings should document these features, with instructions on
how to use them
Los Angeles City urges the first arriving companies to note the number of the phone in the lobby
area before investigating the fire in case a radio fails and a firefighter needs to telephone the incident
commander.
Ventilation--Many of the SOPs reviewed require Command to establish a ventilation sector early in a
highrise incident. This sectors responsibilities generally include:
shutting down the buildings HVAC system unless it is capable of providing smoke removal
without spreading smoke to the rest of the building
setting up positive pressure fans at the base of stairwells and ensuring that stairwell pressur-
ization fans are working
opening roof hatches as necessary
providing horizontal ventilation by breaking out windows only after consulting with the IC
and notifying ground companies.
One set of SOPs specified that firefighters are to break a small hole in a window and then reach out
through the hole and push the glass inward, if possible. The SOP also requires ventilation companies
to tape windows prior to ventilation to prevent untempered glass from shattering.
Accountability--Accountability is integral to effective management of a highrise fire. Several of the

firefighter fatalities in highrise structures listed earlier in this report were caused by firefighters who
became lost or disoriented. The mazes of hallways, rooms, and partitions found in highrises (par-
ticularly in office highrises) and limited evacuation routes increases the likelihood that a firefighter
could become lost. This is why it is particularly important to have a system to account for personnel
fighting a highrise fire.
Highrise SOPs should build upon the fire departments standard accountability system. Two major
types of highrise personnel accountability systems are discussed in the SOPs reviewed. The most
prevalent type is to have one firefighter from the first alarm units establish Lobby Control and record
the names of firefighters entering the building. Another approach is to have units post a Velcro pass-
port containing the names of firefighters on the respective units on a command board on the first
arriving vehicle or in the lobby.
Helicopter Operations--Dallas and Los Angeles Citys highrise SOPs incorporate procedures for the use
of helicopters in highrise fire emergencies. The teams have been incorporated primarily to evacu-
ate occupants who flee to the roof, but also to provide a means of delivering firefighters to the roof
to open ventilation hatches or descend into the building. Los Angeles City established a helicopter
operations sector at least one-half mile away from the scene and notes that helicopter operators must
stay at least 500 feet away from the sides of the affected building to avoid blowing smoke and fan-
ning the flames. Some buildings there are required by code to have helipads on their roofs.
HIGHRISE PRE-FIRE PLANNING AND SYSTEM INSPECTION

The major fires previously discussed demonstrate the fire departments dependence on built-in fire
protection systems to successfully control a fire in a highrise building. Most fire departments across
the country are accustomed to regularly testing fire hydrants and conducting pre-fire plans of water
supply systems in their communities, however, many fire departments do not give this high level of
attention to fire protection system testing and pre-fire planning of highrises.
Fire departments also should conduct pre-fire plans of individual highrises so that they have a writ-
ten plan for handling a fire before it happens. A recent article on major highrise fires noted, System
failures - power, elevator, and stairway pressurization - are common to most [recent major fires].
While the [recent major fires] are not a representative sample of incidents, they suggest that these
systems are more vulnerable than we may think. Failure of critical systems should be incorporated
into pre-fire plans for highrise office buildings.7 At a minimum, pre-fire plans should address the
types and capabilities of fire protection systems, the layout of the building, locations of stairwells and
elevators, and how evacuation will be handled.
The Vancouver, British Columbia Fire Department has devised a unique and comprehensive method
for developing and updating pre-fire plans for highrises. The fire department authorized several
7
Jennings, Charles. Highrise Building Evacuation Planning. Journal of Applied Fire Science, Vol. 4 No. 4, 1994,
pg. 294.
firms in the city to write comprehensive pre-fire plans for highrise buildings. Each firm produces
plans in a standard format established by the fire department. Highrise building owners are required
to select one of these firms to write a plan for their building. Once the plan is written, a copy is kept
in the fire control room and one is filed with the fire marshals office. Building owners must have
one of the firms revise the plan every five years. A sample of a Vancouver Fire Department pre-fire
plan is included in Appendix B.
Since successful tactical operations depend heavily on the functionality of a highrise buildings fire
protection system, fire departments must ensure through testing and inspections that the systems
are maintained and work properly. Fire protection systems should be inspected upon installation
and regularly thereafter. Inspections should ensure that standpipe outlet pressures and flows are
sufficient; that primary systems are working up to the level of expectation; that backup systems will
work if primary systems fail; and that the proper valves and connections are open and functional.
Regular testing of systems can be performed or observed by fire department personnel, but most
cities require building management to have systems inspected by a private contractor who is certified
by the city to perform inspections. Inspections should include testing of all outlets with pressure
reducing devices to ensure adequate flow and pressure under flowing and non-flowing conditions.
TRAINING IN FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

This report has emphasized the fire departments reliance upon built-in fire protection systems to
control a highrise fire emergency. Firefighters should be trained on the capabilities and limitations
of these systems, and they should know how to intervene if a system component fails.
Fire departments which protect highrise structures should have personnel with special knowledge of
fire protection systems. An individual or select group of individuals could be given special training
on fire protection systems, or the department may hire or establish a relationship with a knowledge-
able fire protection engineer. These individuals would have the knowledge and ability to provide
technical advice if a system component failed or to answer general questions about systems.
Many large city departments have a staff position for a fire protection engineer. Some departments
also have specially trained highrise units. The Phoenix Fire Department is in the process of forming
a special highrise response team which will be given advanced training and equipment for handling
a highrise fire. The goal of the team is to make the building behave in a way that ensures the safest
operation possible for firefighters and occupants. In Phoenix, a fire protection engineer responds to
working fires to confer with the building owners and managers.
OCCUPANT EVACUATION TRAINING

Fire departments generally do not have the manpower to rescue hundreds of trapped occupants
in a highrise fire. They will usually be able to manage the evacuation and directly assist those near
the fire floor. If the fire cannot be controlled rapidly or occupants removed quickly, a disaster may
result. Automatic sprinkler systems are the most effective way to control a highrise fire quickly so
that occupants are not threatened. If sprinklers do not immediately suppress the fire, they gener-
ally delay its growth and allow time for occupants to escape. It is much more likely for there to be
evacuation problems in unsprinklered buildings. Fire departments must be prepared to manage the
evacuation of occupants from these buildings. Given the problems which can be anticipated with
evacuation from unsprinklered buildings, fire departments should ensure that occupants of these
buildings routinely practice evacuation procedures and understand the importance of a prompt and
orderly response.
Experience clearly shows that it is easier for firefighters to manage evacuation if the occupants have
been trained in evacuation procedures. During a highrise fire at the Peachtree building in Atlanta,
government employees on the floor above the fire who were regularly required to participate in
evacuation drills successfully evacuated; however, five employees of private firms which did not
regularly participate in regular drills died.8 Some jurisdictions across the country have also dedicated
fire prevention staff to work with building managers to practice occupant evacuation. Some fire
departments across the country require that highrise building managers design an occupant evacu-
ation plan to train occupants how to respond to an emergency. Most highrise occupant evacuation
plans are based on the premise that occupants exit the building through protected stairwells in a
prompt and orderly manner.
Building public address systems is an important tool for evacuation management. Many newer
highrise buildings have incorporated public address systems into their design. These systems allow
the fire department to communicate evacuation instructions to occupants. They are particularly
important to have when occupants become trapped above the fire and firefighters cannot reach them.
Firefighters should be trained about how to evacuate a building using public address systems. In the
absence of these systems, fire department personnel will have a difficult time managing the evacua-
tion of a highrise building.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations about highrise firefighting are taken from lessons learned at recent
major highrise fires across the country. Departments that protect highrise structures should consider
the following to maximize their ability to handle the inherent complexities and hazards of a highrise
fire emergency.
1. All fire departments which have highrise buildings in their response areas should have high-
rise SOPs to address incident command, water supply, and occupant evacuation. The recent
major highrise fires illustrate the need for these due to the inherent challenges and hazards
presented by a highrise structure.
2. Pre-fire planning of highrise building fire protection systems is essential for conducting a
safe and orderly fire attack and occupant evacuation.
3. Local jurisdictions must work closely with highrise building management to ensure that
highrise fire protection systems are tested on a regular basis and that individual compo-
nents are functioning to the fire departments expectations. Departments should give par-
ticular attention to pressure reducing devices to ensure that they provide adequate water volume
and pressure at all levels throughout the structure.
4. Fire departments should be prepared for the failure of key fire protection system compo-
nents in a highrise building, and should have contingency plans in place in case a compo-
nent fails to work properly.
Ibid.
8
5. Highrise hose and nozzle packs must be designed to operate under potential low pressure water
supply scenarios.
6. Properly designed, installed, and maintained sprinkler systems have proven to be the best method
to successfully control and extinguish highrise fires and protect occupants.
7. Special highrise training drills should be conducted regularly to allow firefighters and command
officers the opportunity to become familiar with the highrise firefighting operations. Drills
should cover three important areas: incident command, firefighting and tactics, and evacuation
and management of occupants.
8. Regular occupant evacuation training in commercial and residential highrises is essential to an
organized occupant response in a real emergency.
APPenDIx A
Sample Highrise Standard Operating Procedures
29
Appendix A (continued)
APPenDIx b
Excerpt from Vancouver Fire Department
Highrise Pre-Fire Plan
Appendix b (continued)

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U.S.

Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

Investigated by: Reade Bush

This is Report 082 of the Major Fires Investigation Project conducted

Department of Homeland Security

As an entity of the Department of Homeland

SUMMARY OF KeY ISSUeS

PART I: bACKGROUnD InFORMATIOn On ReCenT MAJOR HIGHRISe FIReS

Table 1. Traumatic Firefighter Fatalities in Highrise Buildings

PART II: MAJOR PRObleMS nOTeD DURInG ReCenT HIGHIRISe FIReS

WATER SUPPLY IN HIGHRISE BUILDINGS

Table 2. NFPA 14 Requirements Prior to 1993

Table 3. NFPA 14 Requirements 1993 Edition

Table 4. Comparison of Nozzles

Approximate Nozzle Pressure

FAILURE OF COMPONENTS OF A FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

PART III: ADDReSSInG MAJOR HIGHRISe FIReFIGHTInG PRObleMS

HIGHRISE STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES

Size-up and Verbal Communications--Size-up is an assessment of the emergency scene. It provides a

Communications Equipment--Several of the fires previously discussed demonstrate the communications

Accountability--Accountability is integral to effective management of a highrise fire. Several of the

HIGHRISE PRE-FIRE PLANNING AND SYSTEM INSPECTION

TRAINING IN FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

OCCUPANT EVACUATION TRAINING

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