The Influence of Culture on Malay Muslm Business Practice: A Case Study

of Malaysia With Special Reference to the State of Kelantan Dr al-Na<m

MUHAMMAD BIN AHMAD

A Thesis submitted to
The University of Birmingham
For the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

2009
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 ABSTRACT

This research examined the influence of Islam and culture on the Malay-
Muslim business environment as observed in the Siti Khadjah Market of
Kota Bharu, in the Malaysian state of Kelantan. It followed a qualitative
research approach involving library research and a field study. The
cultural influences on the Malays were reviewed through three historically
distinct phases i.e. the traditionally primitive Pagan, Hindu and Islm, all
of which have been dominant culture-spiritual feeders. Other influences
have also come from the period of British Colonisation in Malaya in the
18th and 20th Century. All of these influences were examined, dissected
and discussed in order to provide a describable entity of the Malay culture
and its possible origins. The various definitions of the Malays were also
given due attention followed by historical evidence of trade. These
economic connections dated back to pre-colonial periods to the times of
the Portuguese, Dutch and, recently, the British. The presence of Islm
in Malaysia was first looked at from the dates and the process of the
arrival of Islam into the Malay Archipelago. Indeed, the arrival process
and how it became a dominant religion in the Malay Archipelago have
been a subject of a long debate and was also given an empirical attention.
Despite the strong mixture influence, the state of being Malays i.e. the
Malayness of this people appeared to have oddly strengthened by only
two central pillars: Islm as a religious and universal pillar, and the Malay
customary laws or the <dat as the locally embedded moral entity. The
research further looked at how traders within the environs of the Malays
deal, tolerate and involve themselves within the interplays of Islamic
teachings and the culture. Later, the research focused on understanding
the issue of how the mixture of different cultures influenced the
behaviour of business people in the Siti Khadjah Market where much of
the study was carried out. As expected, the behaviour of the
businesspeople in the market was dominantly influenced by Islm, both
in belief and practices. Other cultural influences, however, never ceased
to exist and still remained despite somewhat being slowly eroded. In
conclusion, the adherence of Malay-Muslims to their religious values
have kept them well guided in their business dealings. Finally the research
suggested some areas in which further studies could be carried out, either
using similar theoretical framework or otherwise.

76,916 Words

ii
 DEDICATION

To my parents, my wife and the children

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allh the Compassionate the Merciful

This study would not have been possible without many individuals whose contributions
and support have been invaluable during my study at the University of Birmingham. I
wish to express my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Jabal
M.Buaben for his constant guidance and support throughout the years I have been
working on this study. His insightful scholarship and meticulous accuracy were
instrumental in shaping this work into its final form. My deepest appreciation also goes
to Universiti Utara Malaysia and the Government of Malaysia for granting me a
scholarship and study leave at the University of Birmingham. My sincere thanks are also
due to all my teachers of Sekolah Kebangsaan Semerbok and Sekolah Kebangsaan Astana Raja
at Kota, Negeri Sembilan, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama, Seremban, Negeri
Sembilan, Kolej Islam Kelang, Selangor, Akademi Islam, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur
and Department of Theology and Religious Studies, University of Leeds. My special
thanks also go to the Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu-Bandaraya Islam, Koperasi Siti
Khadijah, Pasar Besar Siti Khadijah traders especially the respondents of this study,
contact persons in Kota Bharu especially M. Yusuf M.Rawi, Cik Bakar Cik Mat, Sayyed
M.Nor Zaim and Kamaruddin Mahmood. The same gratitude and appreciation are also
extended to my beloved brother Dr. Abdul Hamid Bin Ahmad and his wife for their
time, patience and suggestions to bring this thesis to its final form. My heartiest thanks
go to all my colleagues and friends who supported me during this study especially
members of Majlis Ilmu (MCIB) at Birmingham. Words are not enough to describe my
indebtedness to my father Ahmad Bin Maaji. He has sacrificed so much to the family
members I belonged to and to make me become who and where I am now. I am
grateful to my mother Busu Binti Abdul Majid who has sacrificed every single thing she
had for all her twelve children. My deepest appreciation goes to my sisters, Halimah
and Ummi Hanifah who willingly became financial guarantors for this study. My
special thanks also go to other members of my family and relatives for their prayers and
support. Finally, my deepest gratitude to my wife Noor Hashimah Binti Dolah, my
children, Muhammad Akmal, Nura Najwa, Nura Hilma, Ahmad Kamil, Muhammad
Afifuddin and Muhammad Amir for their love and support. For the above-mentioned
people and for those who have not been mentioned, their sacrifice and encouragement
are greatly appreciated and will always be in my memory.

iv
 TRANSLITERATION OF THE ARABIC ALPHABET

a : :
b :  z :
t :  < :
th :  gh :
j : f :
: q :
kh : k :
d :  l :
dh :  m :
r :  n :
z : h : 
s : w :
sh : y :
: ah :
: al : 

VOWELS

Short vowels Long vowels Doubled

fatha a: : ! uwwa final: ) : #

dhamma u: : iyya (final ) : %
kasra i: : anna : &

DIPHTHONGS

aw :
ay :
ae : '

v
LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: The subjects involved in this

study showing groups and the number of
people from each group. 191

Table 5.2: The proportion of the

participation of the Malay in Business in
Kelantan 226

Table 5.3: Weekly Saving in Main Kutu 246

Table 6.1: Different levels of Cultural

Influences 303

Table 6.2: Beliefs and Practices of Islamic

Culture 304

Table 6.3: Beliefs and practices of Post-

Colonial Culture 305

Table 6.4: Animistic Beliefs and Practices. 306

Table 6.5: Beliefs and Practices of Malay

Traditional Culture 307

Table 6.6: Belief and Practice of Hindu-

Buddhist Culture 308

Table 6.7: The Practice of Siamese Culture 308

Table 6.8: Difficulties faced by Muslim

women businesspersons 309

vi
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Research Cycle in Data

Collection 179

Figure 6.1: Initial Categories (Open

Coding) 296

Figure 6.2: Tree Index System 298

Figure 6.3: Sub-tree for different

cultural influences 299

Figure 6.4: Sub-tree for Malay-Muslim

society 300

Figure 6.5: Sub-tree for everyday

practices of traders in business 301

Figure 6.6 The Process to the In sign

of the Malay Culture in Business. 317

vii
SELECT ABBREVIATIONS

BAHEIS Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam (Islamic Affairs Division)

DAP Democratic Action Party

DPMK Kelantan Malay Chamber of Commerce)

Gerakan Malaysian People's Movement Party

JAKIM Department of Islamic Development Malaysia

Ko-Siti Koperasi Siti Khadijah (Siti Khadjah Cooperative Body)

MAIK Majlis Agama Islm Kelantan (Kelantan Islamic

Religious Council)

MCA Malaysia Chinese Association

MPKB-BRI Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu-Bandaraya

Islam(Islamic City of Kota Bharu Municipal Council)

NEP National Economic Plan

PAS Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (The Pan-Malaysian Islamic

Party)

PPIM The Muslim Consumer Association of Malaysia

PPP Peoples Progressive Party

RM Ringgit Malaysia (Malaysia currency).

UKM Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (National University of

Malaysia)

UMNO United Malay Nationalist Organization

viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgment iv

Transliteration Of The Arabic Alphabet v

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

Abbreviation viii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 The Rationale of the Research 2

1.2 Objectives of the Research 4

1.3 Research Questions 4

1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Research 5

1.5 Literature Review 9

1.6 Method 38

1.7 Summary of the Study 39

ix
CHAPTER 2
MALAY CULTURE

2.0 Understanding the Malay 47

2.1 The influence of different religious beliefs on the Malay society 54

2.2 The Influence of Indian Beliefs 67

2.3 The Influence of Islm 68

2.4 <Adt in the Malay Culture 78

2.5 Islm in the Traditional Malay Society 83

2.6 Historical Background of the Development of the Malay Businessmen 86

2.7 Islamisation Under Mahathirs Administration 1981-2003 92

CHAPTER 3
THE SHAR<AH PERSPECTIVE

3.0 Introduction 98

3.1 Sources of the Shar<ah 100

3.2 The Shar<ah Perspective on Influences of Culture 106

3.3 The Muslim society 114

3.4 Understanding the Muslim Economic Behaviour 119

3.5 Islamic Economics as a Cultural Function 122

3.6 Some Basic Concepts on Economic Ethics 129

3.6.1 The Concept of Trusteeship 130

3.6.2 The Concept of al-Amnah and Trust. 131

x
3.6.3 The Concept of al-<Adl and al-Qis 131

3.6.4 The Concept of al-Isn. 133

3.7 Work Ethics 135

3.8 Business Concept From the Shar<ah Perspective 142

3.8.1 Business Practices shown by the Qurn and Sunnah 144

3.8.2 Important Views from al-Ghazli with Regards to Business Ethics 155

3.8.3 Some Examples and Issues in Islamic Business Ethics 162

3.9 Conclusion 168

CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.0 Introduction 170

4.1 The Research Approach 171

4.1.1 A Case Study Research 172

4.1.2 Research Cycle in Data Collection. 177

4.1.3 The Field Work Instruments 180

4.1.4 Data Collection Techniques. 182

4.1.5 Gaining Admission for the Field Work 186

4.1.6 The Interview 188

4.1.7 The Observation 194

4.1.8 Physical Artefacts 194

4.2 Pilot Case Study 195

xi
4.3 Sampling Procedures 197

4.4 Understanding the term informants. 201

4.5 The length of a Case Study 205

4.6 Data Analysis 206

4.7 Data Validity and Reliability. 209

4.7.1 Using Multiple Methods. 209

4.7.2 Establishing a Data Base 210

4.7.3 Keeping a Chain of Evidence. 211

CHAPTER 5
CASE STUDY PRESENTATION
PART 1

5.0 Introduction 214

5.1 The Portrait of Islm in Kelantan Dr al-N<im 215

5.2 The Islamic Image of Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah

(Siti Khadjah Central Market) 226

CHAPTER 5
CASE STUDY PRESENTATION
PART 2

5.3 Introduction 233

5.4 The Significance of the Bomoh 234

5.5 Sorcery 236

5.6 Animism Belief and Practice 238

xii
5.7 A Malay Business Environment: Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah 240

5.7.1 Different Cultural Influences on Malay Businesspeople 248

5.7.2 The Practice of Sorcery 251

5.7.3 The Belief in Semangat (Spirit) 254

5.7.4 Pantang Larang (Taboo) and Petua (Malay Tips) 262

5.7.5 Pelaris (lures) 268

5.7.6 Pendinding (protection) 277

5.7.7 The Belief in Invisible Beings 281

5.7.8 Western Culture 283

5.7.9 Negative Practices 284

5.8 Businesspersons Daily Practice 286

5.8.1 Doing business as a form of worship 286

5.8.2 Looking for Barakah 290

5.9 Conclusion 293

CHAPTER 6
RESEARCH THEMES, ENQUIRY STATEMENTS AND PROPOSITIONS

6.0 Introduction 295

6.1 Part One: The construction of the tree index system 295

6.2 Part Two: Research inquiry statement and propositions. 302

6.2.1 To what extent the culture influences the Malay Muslim. 302

xiii
 6.2.2 The cultural beliefs and practices of the Malay Businesspeople
in the market place of Pasar Siti Khadjah. 303

6.3 Propositions of research 309

6.3.1 They have a mixture of interpretations on certain

cultural beliefs and practices 310

6.3.2 They have reasons on the different culture

they practise. 311

6.3.3 The influence of invironment 312

6.3.4 Their behaviour in the business environment is dominantly

influenced by the teaching of Islam. 313

6.4 The Culture of the Malay-Muslim Businesspersons 315

6.4.1 The Process 316

6.4.1.1 Stage One: Different Influences of Culture 318

6.4.1.2 Stage Two: Understanding the Malay-Muslim

Society 319
6.4.1.3 Stage Three: Understanding the Businesspersons
as Individual 320

6.4.1.4 Stage Four: Everyday Practice in Business 322

6.4.1.5 Stage Five: The Shar<ah Values 322

6.4.1.6 Stage Six: Formation of the Malay-Muslim

Culture in Business 323

6.5. Conclusion 326

xiv
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

7.0 Introduction 327

7.1 Research Recommendations and Implications 328

7.1.1 Recommendation for Muslim businesspeople 329

7.1.2 Recommendations for local authorities 330

7.2 Contribution of Research to the Body of Knowledge 331

7.3 Further Research 332

7.4. Concluding Remarks 335

BIBLIOGRAPHY 336

Glossary of Malay and Arabic Terms 369

xv
xvi
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.0. Introduction

Studies that link business, culture and society are still few especially from the Islamic perspective1.

Whilst many theories have been propounded regarding Islamic political frameworks, models for

business and economy are few and urgently needed.2 A Lack of guidance based on research and

study in the area may lead to a sense of confusion3 among some Muslims.

This study examined the influence of Islm and culture on the Malay-Muslim business

environment. Therefore, how the traders in this environment deal with the interplay of Islamic

teachings and culture has been discussed.

1
Relatively few empirical studies have addressed culturally-related ethical issues. See H. Becker and D.J. Fritzsche.
(1987). A Comparison of the Ethical Behavior of American, French and German Managers, Columbia Journal of
World Business. pp87-95.; I.P. Akaah. (1990). Attitudes of Marketing Professionals toward Ethics in Marketing
Research: A Cross-National Comparison. Journal of Business Ethics 9. pp49-53.
2
Z.I. Ansari in A.A.H. Hassan. (1997). Sales and Contract in Early Islamic Commercial Law. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan.
3
Taking Islamic business organization for example, Imran A. Nyazee, claimed much has been written on Islamic
form of business enterprise. Much of this work has, however, been undertaken by economists for whom the economic
issues have naturally been more important than the legal issues. On the other hand traditional scholars did not fully
appreciate the principles of modern law in their writing, See his,(1999) Islamic Law of Business Organization, Partnership.
Islamabad, Pakistan: Islamic Research Institute. p 4

1
1.1. The Rationale of the Research

It has been argued that Muslims tend to practice non-Islamic teachings in their daily lives. For

example, Winstedt4 reports that the impact of Indianising5 influences on the Malay world has

been very significant thus, the Hindu-Buddhist influences on the Malays of the Peninsula can be

seen in the numerous rituals. Besides the Indian culture, other cultures seem to have influenced

and continue to influence Muslm people . Muhammad Abdul Rauf for example mentions that:

... we tend, in seeking a reform, to borrow and import alien ideas and systems based
on ideologies which have their negative features and are inconsistent with our basic
faith tradition. These foreign elements are superimposed on a substructure saturated
with Islamic ideals deeply rooted in the mind of our fellow believers whether they are
dwellers in rural or urban areas, and whether we are in the higher or the lower ranks
of the social order. The result is contradiction and conflicts. In confusion, those who
are exposed to the glaring promises of getting rich quickly in the rotten methods of
those imported systems, succumb to the temptation and rush to the prestigious style
of living. Others who fail to partake of these opportunities get frustrated and lose
their appetite for hard working and for excellence. Negligence, lethargy and
indifference set in, and lead to inefficiency and less productivity and to common
suffering.6

Al-Khatib, Dobie and Vitell,7 suggest that for basic survival needs, some people tend to behave

unethically especially during difficult economic situations.8 Ali discusses the Arab dual identity in

detail, attributing it to two main factors: (1) colonialism, which instilled feelings of inferiority in

4
R.O. Winstedt. (1961). The Malay Magician: Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. p35
5
Some scholars use this terminology to refer to Indian civilization in South-East Asia. See B.W. Andaya and L.Y.
Andaya.(1982). A History of Malaysia. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.p14; There have been many theories on when
and from where Islam reached the country. See for instance S.Q. Fatimi. (1963). Islam Comes to Malaysia, Singapore:
Malaysian Sociological Research Institute and S.M.N Al-Attas. (1972). Islam Dalam Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Melayu,
Selangor: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
6
M.A. Rauf.(1987). Management and Administration-an Islamic Perspective. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Affairs Division, Prime
Ministers Department of Malaysia. p42
7
J.A.Al-Khatib, K. Dobie and S.J. Vitell Consumer ethics in developing countries: An empirical investigation, Journal
of Euro - Marketing; 1995; 4, 2; p101
8
A.J. Ali in R.Gillian (1999). Islamic ethics and the implications for business, Journal of Business Ethics, 18, 4
(2). pp345-359.

2
Arab thought and (2) the artificial division of lands into nation-states which is also a factor of

colonialism. The influx of multinational corporations into the region also contributed to cultural

and social alienation. As a result of social and political instability in countries like Egypt, people

tend to believe everything in life especially temporal systems of life that were imported into the

country were temporary and were not convincing to become better choice for them. This factor

leads them to come back to religious teaching i.e., Islm, which is regarded as a way to stabilise

the problem they have had. Modernization in Egypt was also commented on by Hassan al-

Banna. He stated: ... there was a deterioration of behaviour, morals and deeds, in the name of

individual freedom Books, newspapers and magazines appeared whose only aim was to

weaken or destroy the influence of any religion on the masses ... Young men were lost and the

educated were in a state of doubt and confusion.9

Considering the aforementioned issues, it has been believed that is timely for a new piece of

research to be conducted on Malay Muslims to find out how they conduct their business and

what culture they practice. The outcome of this research is vital to answer how the above

mentioned arguments are still applicable these days. It is also to document using the case study

method, the reaction of the Muslim businesspeople to other cultures and how they adapt

without breaking core Islamic values.

9
H. Al-Banna as cited in, C.P. Harris (1964) Nationalism and Revolution in Egypt: The Role of the Muslim Brotherhood. The
Hague: Hoover Institution of War, Revolution and Peace, p 146

3
1.2 Objectives of the Research

The purpose of this study was to examine, from an Islamic perspective, the influence of Islm

and culture on Muslims in a business environment. The discussion of their practices was based

on the literature of Islamic business ethics and the Malay culture.

More specifically, the objectives of this study were:

1. To explore the main teaching of Islm concerning business.

2. To explore the significance of Islm and culture in the Malay community.

3. To examine the influence of Islamic business ethics on the Malaysian-Malay

businesspeople.10

4. To Investigate the Malay culture that influence the traders business conduct.

5. To explain the implications of the relationship between culture and religion (Islm) for

business purposes.

6. To find out the kind of culture practised by the Malay-Muslims in Malaysia.

1.3. Research Questions

1. What are the main teachings of Islm with regard to business?

10
In this study businesspeople or businessperson refers to individuals who run business regardless of their gender.
This is important to avoid gender bias. However, the word businessman , businessmen, businesswoman, and
businesswomen will also be used especially when works from other authors are referred to or when gender-specific
points are to be made.

4
2. What is the significance of Islam in the culture of the Malay community?

3. To what extent do Islamic teachings and moral norms influence the Malay perception

particularly in business?

4. What is the implication of the relationship between culture and religion for business

purposes?

5. What are the cultural practises of Malay businesspeople in Malaysia?

1.4. Scope and Limitation of the Research

In this research, the author is not questioning the validity of Islm in a Muslm community nor

does he ask what constitutes a Muslm in the classical sense. The community in question is the

Malay Muslm, one which professes to be Muslm and accordingly acts on that belief. Therefore

this study attempts to understand the community within its Malaysian context.11

The scope of this study was to investigate the influence of culture on a Malay-Muslim

community. The focus was laid on the issue of how they conduct trading. This study, however, is

not to discuss all aspects of business practices - instead it focussed on certain aspects such as

beliefs (religious beliefs) and ceremonials, culture at work and trading behaviour. All these three

were discussed as the theoretical framework of the study, which was viewed as the conceptual

framework of the Malay culture. Other aspect in businesses such as insurance was not covered in

this study.

11
A field work wascarried out in Kota Bharu, the capital city of the state of Kelantan, Malaysia.

5
This study focussed on Malay traders. The sample for this study were from the market traders

using purposeful sampling methods which has been highly recommended for this kind of

research. The locale of the study was Pasar Siti Khadjah (Siti Khadjah Market) of Kota Bharu

capital city of the state of Kelantan.

There are several reasons why Kelantan was selected for this study. First, Kelantan is one of the

few states in Malaysia that has the Malay as the majority traders12. It would be important to stress

here that in Malaysia, the Malay controll government and agriculture, while the Chinese

dominate commerce and industry. Patricia Sloane writes:

I had read that the ethnic Malays, who make up a little more than half the population of

Peninsula Malaysia, had, in the past decade or so, rapidly, even breathtakingly, advanced their

business interests and ownership-emerging as a class of entrepreneurs, still somewhat behind

the ethnic Chinese, but very much a part of the modern enterprise sector. In this motionless,

ultra modern city, I did not see evidence of what was claimed by the Malaysian government to

have been significantly counterbalanced; among the preponderance of Chinese enterprise,

12
Malaysia is a multi-racial and multi-faith country. Total population was about 23.27 millions in the year 2000. There
are three dominant communities in this country, the Malay, Chinese and Indian. The Malay, and other indigenous
people (They are called Bumiputra , sons or princesses of the soil) representing 65.1% of the whole population, the
Chinese 26%, Indian 7.7%. In terms of religious belief, Muslims were 60.1%, Buddhist 19.2%, Hindu 6.3%, other
Chinese beliefs 2.6%. See, Banci Penduduk dan Perumahan 2000, Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia.
http://www.statistics.gov.my/malay/banci/bancipenduduk2000.htm, 22.05.2006.

6
there was only a tiny, almost furtive handful of Malay restaurants- identifiable by the sign

announcing halal or Muslim food- and shops selling Islamic literature13

It is only in some states like Kelantan and Trengganu we can see easily many of the Malay traders

on the streets. However, the majority of the Malay only hold small and medium size businesses.

Second, the Kelantanese are well known for their deep-rooted Malay identity and culture.14

Third, Kelantan has been under the control of the Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) since the 1990

General Election.15 Fourth, Kota Bharu is one of Malaysians popular destinations for shopping

and visit.16

The following limits were set for this study;

1. This study was only concerned with some of the business themes, which were

related to the traders perception on business and their practical aspects of the

13
P. Sloane (1999) Islam, Modernity and Entrepenuership among the Malays, New York: St.Martins Press, Inc.p3
14
Farish A.Noor has discussed the issue of how two Kelantanese woodcarvers struggled to maintain a the Malay
culture which has been influenced by the Indian (Hinduism) culture. Besides their awareness of the presence of the
Hindu culture, they argued the importance of preserving this kind of art. It is from here the younger Malay
generation acknowledge the root of their culture. See F.A.A.Noor (2004). Modernity, Islam and Tradition: The
Struggle for the Heart and Soul of Art and Culture in Malaysia, Contemporary Art from the Islamic World, 9.pp 1-5.
15
For detail on Malaysia election 1990, see, Khoo Kay Kim (2000) Malaysian Elections 1990-1999: A Historical
Perspective in Trends in Malaysia: Election Assessment, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, No. 1 January
2000, pp15-22
16
In the year 2004, 590,000 international tourists visited Kota Bharu, the number of domestic tourists were 4.7
million. Those figures are 5% and 7% higher than in 2003 respectively. The tourism sector contributed RM 1.4
billion for the year 2004 a little bit higher than that of 2003 which was RM 1.3 billion. See, Majlis pembukaan rasmi
Persidangan Kali Yang Ke tiga (Belanjawan) Bagi Tempoh Penggal yang Ke Dua Dewan Negeri Kelantan yang ke
Sebelas 2005 , 3 Oktober 2005.

7
 business practices.

2. Extensive details concerning the emergence and development of economic and

business teachings and practices of early Muslims were deliberately avoided

because of the limited space and time constraints. An attempt was made to

present only the principles, and these again derived from a few prominent

scholars.

This study was limited to traders in Pasar Siti Khadjah of Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia.

Hence, the results of the study may not be generalised to other business practices of

Muslims from other races within or outside Malaysia. However it is hoped that the results

of this study will contribute as indicators in studying Muslim businesspeople in Malaysia

and in particular for studying Malay-Muslim with regard to business practices.

3. Due to the limitation of time and space, this study was more concerned with the

traders perception about business and how they practice business while at the

same time taking into account their religious beliefs. Other aspects in the

business world such as customers attitude, marketing strategies17 and

investments were not explored although such a study may be carried out in the

future.

17
Customers attitude may influence traders behaviour as well. However in this research, only the traders view will be
studied . The marketing strategies issue will also be discussed with the same manner.

8
1.5. Literature Review

This study focussed on the Malay culture and how it influences them in business settings. The

definition of it has been discussed in countless books and articles, and Hatch18claims that there is

still a large degree of uncertainty in its use. In discussing culture and society, Turner19 defines a

cultural study as ... an interdisciplinary field where certain concerns and methods have

converged; the usefulness of this convergence is that it has enabled us to understand

phenomena and relationships that were not accessible through the existing disciplines. This

study is not just interdisciplinary in approach but also a study on human life materially and

spiritually, ...whole way of life, material, intellectual and spiritual.20 In his book, William gives a

wider definition of culture thus:

Culture is a description of a particular way of life, which expresses certain meanings and values

not only in art and learning but also in institutions and ordinary behavior. The analysis of

culture, from such definition, is the clarification of the meanings and values implicit and explicit

in a particular way of life, a particular culture.21

18 E. Hatch. (1973). Theories of Man and Culture New York: Columbia Press, p 1
19
G. Turner. (2003) British Cultural Studies: An Introduction. London: Unwin Hyman, p9.
20
Raymond William. (1966) Culture and Society 1780 - 1950, London: Penguin, p16
21
Raymond William. (1975) The Long Revolution, London: Penguin, p57.

9
It is also defined as: ... shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings

of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are

transmitted across age generations.22 Culture thus acts as a medium of communication where

people in certain society can be understood.

Culture change is, therefore, an important theme of this study. Among the studies that

combined material and spiritual matters were such as have been done by Frank Boas.23 His study

covered intangible aspects such as on the artefacts, folktales, magical practices and religious

beliefs. From his study, he argued that changes of culture occur when individuals from different

cultures come and live together. Individuals tend to develop a new culture as they discover new

knowledge, invent to produce something new and finally spread or diffuse it from one another.

This process leads to cultural changes or acculturation24.

Sociologists argue that religions are in close contact with cultures. However, religion can be

differentiated from culture by the existence of supernatural power, which is outside the regular

process of nature25. Religion is concerned with the expression of the values of the society, and

attempts to safeguard these by endowing them with divine sanction. As a social phenomenon26

22
R.J. House. et al. (1999). Cultural influences on leadership and organizations, In: W.H. Mobley , M.J. Gessner and
V. Arnold. (eds.), Advances in global leadership, Stamford: JAI Press. pp 171-233
23
Mentioned in J. Friedl (1976). Cultural Anthropology, London: Harpers College Press , p375
24
I. Robertson. (1981) Sociology. New York: Worth Publishers Inc. p 378
25
A. Malefjit. (1968) Religion and Culture: An Introduction to Anthropology of Religion, London: Macmillan, p9
26
In understanding religions, Durkheim has suggested we should look at it as a social phenomenon. See his,
'Concerning the Definition of Religious Phenomena' in W.S.F. Pickering (1975), pp74-79, 'Guyau - L' Irre'ligion de l'
avenir, e'tude de sociologie in W.S.F. Pickering, (1975), p24. See also S. Lukes. (1973) Emile Durkheim - His Life and
Work : A Historical and Critical Study, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, p237.

10
religion lays on two fundamental categories: beliefs and rites ...the first are states of opinion and

consist of representation; the second determined modes of actionNow the special nature of

this object [rite] is expressed in belief.27 According to Durkheim28, the distinctive aspect of

religion is that it deals with the references to the sacred and the profane. He argues that the

sacred consists of texts. They have special authority in religious traditions and are frequently

used. On the other hand, profane actions are related to religious rituals such as prayers. Other

activities such as eating and drinking performed in religious settings were also considered as

profane.29 These acts affect religious forms, values and beliefs of the individuals and transcend

the circumstances and conditions of material life in the pursuit of spiritual goals which are

rooted in faith30.

Belief is at the very heart of any religion31. Religious beliefs and rituals consist of meanings and

cultural practices that are special because people assume they are linked to a sacred and

27
W.S.F. Pickering. (Ed.) (1975) Durkheim on Religion - A Selection of Reading with Bibliographies, London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, p113
28
E. Durkheim. (1964) The Rules of Sociological Method (Tran.) G. Catlin, New York: Free Press, p52
29
Sacred and profane are discussed in many works of Durkheim and others. See
W.S.F.Pickering. (1984) Durkheim's Sociology of Religion: Themes and Theories. In other writings, Durkheim defines sacred
and profane as, ...those whose representation society itself has fashioned; it includes all sorts of collective states,
common traditions and emotions, feelings which have a relationship to objects of general interest, etc.; and all those
elements are combined according to the appropriate laws of social mentality. Profane things, conversely, are those
which each of us constructs from our own sense data and experience; the ideas we have about them have as their
subject matter unadulterated, individual impressions,...". See his, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: The
Totemic system in Australia in W.S.F. Pickering, (1975) Durkheim on Religion - A Selection of Readings With Bibliographies,
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. P95. Sacred from Durkheims view has been summarised as ; non-emperical,
involves of power, it is ambiguous with respect to nature, culture and human welfare, it gives strengths, it obtains
great respect and makes ethical demand upon the believer. Sacred also "...impinges on human consciousness with
moral obligation, with an ethical imperative. T.F. O'dea. (1966) The Sociology of Religion. New Jursey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc, p21
30
J.J. Coakley. (1998) Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill, p479
31
K. Engebretson. (1996) Creating Meeting Essays in Belief. University of Sydney, Sydney: Social Science Press.

11
supernatural realm32. The understanding of faith is very important in this study and acts as the

main factor in developing the inner strength of a Muslim. It is also regarded in many religious

traditions as virtue or an act of will or commitment to the persons spiritual goal. Religious

beliefs, in particular, express patterns of meaning, which are significant to their believers.

Other than belief, prayer is also important when discussing the issue of religion. It is the centre

of religion.33 It also brings humans in direct contact with God, it is where faith comes into

practice. The essence of prayer is stated by Heiler as, ... without prayer faith remains a

theoretical conviction; worship is only an external and formal act; moral action is without

spiritual depth; ...34. Prayer is not just a close communion of man with God but the forms of the

social relations of humanity are also reflected from it.35

Sambur Bilal, studied prayer from the viewpoint of Muslim and Western scholars. He argues that

from al-Ghazalis perspective, prayer acts as a strong psychological force on man and makes

belief alive.36 He also sees prayer as a religious and moral guidance to man.37 The other

Muslims scholar, Ibn <A Allh sees prayer as a kind of human obedience toward God and not

as a kind of petition as it has been understood by some people. His argument is quite similar to

32
J.J. Coakley. (1998), p478
33
F. Heiler. (1932) Prayer - A Study in the History and Psychology of Religion, Translated and Edited, Samuel McComb.
New York: Oxford University Pres, p358
34
ibid, p362
35
ibid, p358
36
B. Sambur. (2000) Prayer in the Psychology of Religion With Special Reference to al- Ghazali, Ibn 'Ata' Allah and
Iqbal, PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham, p306
37
ibid, p309

12
what has been suggested by Iqbal.38 This study further suggests that, for Muslim scholars, prayer

has a close relationship with morality.39 For Iqbal, prayer is ... an inspiring source, which can

transform and guide people to better levels.40 Al Ghazli looks at prayer as a religious and moral

guidance to man.41 Similarly, from the Western point of view, Heiler for example divided prayer

into prophetic and mystical types.42 The prophetic type include social and worldly matters. The

mystical type on the other hand concerns more on individual satisfaction. From those studies,

religion has been argued to have a positive contribution on morality. These interrelations will be

studied in depth in this research.

Other than what has been discussed by sociologists, culture is also discussed in the field of

management. Humpreys43 discusses three kinds of culture in organisations; national culture,

organisational culture and occupational culture. He defends the significance of religion in

culture, and even stresses that religion is a major source of cultural perspective. Hofstede,44 puts

culture as a mental software that makes people from same national cultures think and act in

similar way. He defines organisational culture as ... the collective programming of the mind

38
ibid
39
ibid, p308
40
ibid, p309
41
ibid, p309
42
See F. Heiler. (1932) Prayer - A Study in the History and Psychology of Religion, Oxford University
Press, New York, p105
43
M. Humpreys. (1996). Cultural Difference and its Effect on the Management of Technical Education, Leadership
and Organizational Development Journal, 17,2, pp.34-41.
44
G. Hofstede . (1991). Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill, p5

13
which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from the other.45 In

organisational culture, religion is viewed as an important factor as it is in society in general. A

study46 which compares between faith-based and secular agencies indicates that in terms of

culture, the faith-based agencies applied religious values significantly in staff-client interactions.

Some faith-based agencies are found to be using religious symbols in their staff name cards and

agencys logo. The recent debate in the British media on the worker with the cross and the

Muslim woman with her veil are cases in point.

National culture is also noted in close relation with religious beliefs. Tibi47 compared the

influence of religion on culture in Germany and in the Middle East and tried to understand how

interblending of culture and religious values benefit social changes. He concludes, in the case of

the Middle East, the same thing can happen given the condition that the local culture has to be

renewed with modern understanding. This innovation is then to be structured with a

development strategy with Islamic ethics to become an essence.

As one of the important factors that dictate human behaviour, a number of studies have been

carried out on the question of how religion is practised within societies.

45
What he means by a group is people those who have necessary contact with each other. Category on the other
hand are people who do not have necessary have contact to and from each other but share something in common.
See G. Hofstede. (1991). Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill, p5.
46
R.H. Ebaugh. et al. (2003). Wheres the Religion? Distinguishing Faith-Based from Secular Social Service
Agencies. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42, 3, pp1-48.
47
B. Tibi. (1986), The Interplay Between Cultural and Social-Economic Change. The Case of Germany and of the
Arab Region-Cultural Innovation in the Development Process in Klaus Gottstein (ed.) Islamic Cultural Identity and
Scientific-Technological Development. Baden-Baden: Nomas Verlagsgesellschaft. pp93-101.

14
Brief understandings on ufi orders48 are also important for this study for their connection with

human behaviour. Its importance was also reflected in West African history of colonialization in

the 18th century where studies on Muslim institutions and groups were carried out.49

As far as behavioural conduct is concerned, there are two attributes of the followers of ufi

orders. The first is the abidance towards their leaders and the second is believing the effects of

Karmah and Barakah.50 The abidance might go as far as the unquestionable acceptance of the

saying of the as practised by the people of the Tijaniyyah51 . It is a complex situation when there

is little difference between the saying of the uf leaders and the Shar<ah itself. The followers

believe that every word of the saying of the sheikh is in line with the Shar<ah . It is also made less

complex because the ufi tradition is also based upon good faith (usnu al-ann).52

On the other hand, the belief in the effects of Karmah and Barakah is deeply rooted in the

followers of these orders.53 Barakah is believed to act as a kind of protection against any

48
The word Tariqah is an Arabic word meaning a path or a way. See, J.L. Esposito. Ed. (1995). Sufism: Sufi
Orders, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, Oxford, Oxford University Press, p 109-116
49
J.M.A. Nasr. (1965). The Tijaniyya-A Sufi Order in the Modern World. London, Oxford University Press.
50
J.S. Trimingham. (1971) The Sufi Orders in Islam. London: Oxford University Press, p1
51
Tijaniyah is one of the first orders to co-operate with the French occupation in Algeria, J.M.A. Nasr. (1965). The
Tijaniyya-A Sufi Order in the Modern World, p12. The Tijaniyyah refers to an Algerian Berber tribe, Tijan. The order was
propounded by Ahmad b. Muhammad al Mukhtar b. Ahmad who pronounced his order in 1781 in Abi Samghum,
Algeria. He died in 1815 in Fez. For more information see J.S. Trimingham. (1971), The Sufi Orders in Islam, pp 1-30
and pp107-110
52
J.S. Trimingham. (1971) The Sufi Orders in Islam. London: Oxford University Press,p14
53
For example special importance is given to the saint's burial places to gain Barakah. In the 18th century the practice
of visiting the shrines of dead Wali was popular among Muslims in some areas; non-Muslims were also observed

15
difficulties faced by people, and threats to their belongings and places of inhabitants.

Studies on Sufism show that affiliation to any ufi order is triggered by family factors. This can be

seen that family members will follow the same arqah of their parents or ancestors. It is also

believed to be a route to gain benefits in many areas of their undertakings, either social, spiritual

and or economic.54 This clearly shows how worldly matters might also inspire someone to attach

himself to any one or more religious groups. In terms of the social role played by the ufi orders,

they were are observed to have had good affiliation with social classes, regions or occupational

groups, either domestically and or beyond more widely contacts.55

ufi orders do not always oppose the ambitions to pursue wealth and good life as they have

been mistakenly understood.56 Tijaniyyah followers have not been asked to live in poverty and,

visiting them. This was an intention to seek the Barakah and invoking the grace of Allh by being close to them. See,
J.S. Trimingham. (1971). The Sufi Order in Islam , p6,7 and 67.
54
ibid, p225
55
The disciples of the Suhrawardiyya during the Sultanate of Delhi and Mawliyya during the Sultanate Seljuq and
Ottoman were given good reputation by the governments of their times. The ufi order such as the Qadiriyya,
however, was once well associated with Egyptian fishermen and the Bektashiyya was linked to trade-guilds who
established cooperation with the Janissary corps, J.S. Trimingham. (1971), The Sufi Orders in Islam, p233
56
They are very important factors concerning Islm in the modern era. Sufi orders played
significant roles in political activities in the 17th and 18th century Central Asia and in socio-political
activities in Africa e.g. in Senegal, Nigeria and South Africa, see J.S. Trimingham. (1971),
The Sufi Orders in Islam, pp113-115, Sufism, The Encyclopaedia of Britannica , (14.07.2006),
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article (14.07.2006). The Sufi orders were also important when issues on the
expansion of Islam were concerned. While some da<wah methods failed, Sufism thrived and filled the void and, ...
acted as an effective inclusive structure for the missionary expansion of Islam...", See J.L. Esposito., Ed. (1995).
Sufism: Sufi Orders, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford, Oxford University Press,p 112. Sufis
were also well accepted by the pagan Africans. It is known that , "...without the influence of the Derwish orders in the
rural areas in North Africa, Islamic religion would perhaps have not remained known outside the direct vicinities of
the large towns." J.S. Trimingham. (1971), The Sufi Orders in Islam, p9. Sufi orders were also well accepted in India
perhaps because of the nature of the Indian regional culture. For example, there are similarities between Sufism and
the culture of believing in saints and magic in India. ... semitic religions remained alien to the Hindu ethos. Ibid,

16
similarly, not the majority of the followers are living in a poor state. Rather, the followers are

made up of all walks of life, different backgrounds, some of whom are also rich and live very

comfortable lives.57

In his reply to one of his followers a Sheikh states, ... with your money, your faith in God is

safeguarded, but if you gave it away your faith in Him would be destroyed.58 His respond shows

the importance to gain both world and unworldly matters in life. For the Tijaniya followers every

wordly and unworldly matter they enjoyed was always referred to as one of thanksgiving

(Shukur).59

Sometimes the strong belief in the Barakah of the Sheikh was exploited and carried into

economical benefits.60 It was has been argued that the concept of the Islamic insurance was

derived from the belief in Barkah that the concept of Islamic insurance began to develop.61 In

p219. There were a number of people from different orders from the early 13th century in India. Thousands of
Hindus were convinced by the methods used by the Sufi orders e.g. on the idea of the equality of man before God. As
a result they were adaptable to every social level... , see, The Encyclopaedia of Britannica online, ibid. Similar
situations were also observed during the spread of the Sufi orders in Malaysia mainly in the nineteenth century. J.S.
Trimingham. (1971), The Sufi Orders in Islam, p129
57
J.S. Trimingham. (1971), The Sufi Orders in Islam, p47
58
Ali Harazim b. Barada as cited in ibid, p46
59
Ibid, p47
60
The ritual behaviour in Sufi orders can be observed from their respect of the Wali or Awliya. The Wali (plural
Awliya) is believed to have supernatural powers which were granted by Allh. Devotees of the Sufi orders believe that
the Wali could work miracles or Karamah. It is through this belief the divine blessing is sought from them during their
life and after death, see, J.L. Esposito., Ed. (1995). Sufism: Sufi Shrine and Culture,The Oxford Encyclopedia of the
Modern Islamic World. p117.
61
Muhamad Masum Billah (2002), A Comparative Study On Takaful and Insurance, Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book
Publisher. It is also believed that Islamic insurance is an established profound idea in the Muslim era. A Wali and his
family was said to be emphasing their mystical power over particular towns and areas. It was from their blessing or
Barakah that those areas came into economic florish. See, J.L. Esposito, Ed. (1995), Sufism: Sufi Shrine and Culture,
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Modern Islamic World, vol 4, p122. For more information about sainthood in Islam, see, for

17
practice, the use of the tomb of Abu Ishq Ibrhm Ibn Shahriyar by Kazeruniyya followers was a

clear indication of such exploitation. Ibn Shahriyar was known to be a famous Wali62 who died in

Kazerun, Shiraz in 1035. Being such a famous scholar and Wali, the Kazeruniyya believed in his

Barakah and used this to offer service for sea travellers who were trading to India and China. 63

A similar situation in Africa also suggested that the belief in Barakah functioned as a tremendous

motivation to traders in pursuing wealth and at the same time spreading the call to Islm. Dyula

traders in West Africa, particularly in the then Upper Volta and the then Ivory Coast played a

significant role in increasing the number of Muslims in those areas. 64 Dyulans were known to be

following the Hamaliyya order, a branch of the Tijaniyya and Qadariyya.

The economic contribution of ufi orders, particularly in Africa, can be seen in the teaching of

the Muridiyya orders.65 Unlike other teachings of Sufism which were religiously oriented,

Muridiyya followers were inspired by the charisma of their Sheikh which are economically oriented.

Their economic activity did not only enable the group to survive during the French colonialism,

example, B. Radtke and J. OKane (1996), The Concept of Sainthood in early Islamic Mysticism. Surrey, UK: Curzon Press,
M. Chodkiewicz. (1993), Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn Arabi. Cambridge, UK: Islamic
Text Society
62
The term Wali, is equivalent to the words arif billah which is translated he who knows God See, M.T.H. Houtsma
(et.al) (1934) Wali, The Encyclopedia of Islam, vol IV, Leyden: E.J. Brill Ltd., p1109
63
J.S. Trimingham mentioned how the Baraka-selling process took place ;
"... the intending traveller makes a vow, in fact, signing a promissory-note, stating how much he will pay the holy
company if he reaches his destination safely, and more if he survives an especially hazardous situation..." See his,
(1971), The Sufi Orders in Islam, p236.
64
P.B. Clark. Religion Development and African Identity, in K.H. Petersen. (1987), Islam, Development and African
Identity: The Case of West Africa, Uppsala: Scandinavian, Institute of African Studies, p135
65
The Muridiyya (the way of imitating the prophet Muhammad) was founded by Ahmadou Bamba in 1883 in
Senegal. See A. Pirzada. (2003) 'The Epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba',p31

18
but also changed the perception of the ruling regime towards their Sheikh i.e., Ahmadou

Bamba, the founder of the order. While the French plan to improve the economy in rural areas

failed, the Muridyyya on the other hand showed significant contribution to the sector. Tidiane

reported: ... With the influence of Muridiyya groundnut production reached 303,067 tones ...66

This significant contribution was reported by a French authority in 1911, The Murid movement

does not have any political interests, but its activities in the economic domain should be closely

followed with regard to the consequences could have on local commerce.67 Fifteen years later

the Muridiyya and its success in the economic sector was reported again,

...If it is possible to regret allowing this growth, and being aware that the Muridiyya
could eventually become the source of difficulties, it is important to note that at the
economic level Muridiyya has markedly contributed to the development of
agricultural action in an important counterbalance to any eventual difficulties that
could arise.68

The brief report on the Muridiyya clearly indicates that ufi orders might contribute in

motivating people to be innovative and creative within their economic environments.

In relation to Sufism and Muslim behaviour that have been generally discussed earlier, specific

examples can be found by studying the once famous Malaysian Islamic group, Dr al-Arqm or

66
S.C. Tidiane (1997) La Confrrie Senegalese Des Mourides as cited in A. Pirzada.(2003) 'The Epistemology of Ahmadou
Bamba, p32
67
S.C. Tidiane as cited in A. Pirzada.(2003) 'The Epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba,p33
68
Ba, Oumar, Ahmadou Bamba Face Aux Autorits Coloniales, as cited in A. Pirzada .(2003) 'The Epistemology of
Ahmadou Bamba, p33

19
Arqm 69. The Islamic revivalism70 which started in the middle of 1970s resulted in a widespread

response seeing many Malaysian Muslims coming to join Islamic movements including Al-

Arqm.

Al- Arqm was well accepted in Malaysia and in a number of other countries. This movement

that combined unorthodox Sufism with Shar<ah base approaches71 was also praised for its

advance idea to put Islamic theory into practice in all areas of life including culture, economy

and social responsibility. The success of this group is summarised by looking into a report from a

Thailand daily newspaper;

...After 26 years, it has become the best-known success story of the Malays, with deep roots in
society. Al- Arqm runs a business empire with total assets estimated at US$139 million, about
300 schools and kindergartens, clinics, and its members live in some 40 commune style
settlements spread throughout the country. There are at least 15 branches overseas. Included in
its ranks are professionals, including teachers, lecturers, journalists, lawyers, top civil servants and
at least one judge...72

69
Also said as Arqam among Malaysian. Established by Ashari Muhammad in 1968 until his detention by the
Malaysia authorities in 1994. This group was banned by the Malaysian government in 1992. The name was derived
from one of the Prophets aabh, Arqm bin Abi al-Arqm.
70
J. Nagata used this terminology in his writing, (1980) Religious Ideology and Social Change: The Islamic Revival in
Malaysia Pacific Affairs, 53, no.3, pp405-439). In the other writing he used fundamentalism to refer to the same
picture about social phenomena in Islamic community, see his (1980) The New Fundamentalism: Islam in
Contemporary Malaysia, Asian Thought and Society, 5, no.14, pp128-141. A Malaysia scholar, M.A Bakar uses
revivalism, see his, (1981) Islamic Revivalism and the Political Process in Malaysia. Asian Survey,no 10, pp 1040-
1042. The phenomena which witnessed people looking back into Islam from its fundamentals is also known as
Da<wah.
71
J. Nagata argued al-Arqm as a Malay Islamic movement. He writes: Al-Arqm is ... Inspired by a rare mix of global
Sufi and strict Shariah traditions, see his, (2004) Alternative models of Islamic governance in Southeast Asia: Neo-
Sufism and the Arqam experiment in Malaysia, Global Change, Peace and Security ,Volume 16, 2 (June) p114
72
The Nation (Thai daily) as cited in A.F.A. Hamid. (2000) 'Political Dimensions of Religious Conflict in Malaysia: State
Response to an Islamic Movement', Indonesian and Malay World 28(80), p43

20
Apart from that the liah73 wing of this group also controlled an asset that was valued at about

US 0.5 million.74 All the assets, its own community villages, schools and kindergartens apart from

its overseas branches show how this group had established well using its own self-styled business

techniques.

After it was disbanded, some economic minded members together with Ashaari Muhammad,

the Arqm founder, formed Rufaq Corporation, a private limited company in 1997.75 Despite

Malaysia and Southeast Asia region economic uncertatinty in the 1997-1999, Rufaq

Corporation managed to build up business with 250 business networks specialising in 40

different kinds of businesses. 76 And again, the main reason for its success was linked closely to its

adherent to Sufism, ... Although still lacking a theoretical model of an Islamic state, Ustz

Ash<ris exemplary Islamic society raises hopes that it is possible to cultivate cordial

Muslim/non-Muslim relations, provided the form of Islamicity implemented involves non-

militant Sufism and economic activism, rather than political communalism.77 The progressive

Islamic economic triggered by al-Arqm and its massive financial resources won praise and

73
Female members of the group. It is familiar that in an Islamic group or association women are named as sisters,
Muslimah and Solehah while men are named as brothers and Muslimn (Muslimn)
74
ibid, p43
75
A.F.A. Hamid. (2001) An Islamacists View of an Islamic State and Its Relevance to Multi-Racial Society in A.L.
Smith (edt) Islam in Southeast Asia: Analysing Recent Developments. Pasir Panjang, Singapore:Institute of Southeast Asian
Studies,p19
76
M.S. Salleh.(2001) as cited in , ibid, p14
77
A.F.A. Hamid. (2001) An Islamacists View of an Islamic State and Its Relevance to Multi-Racial Society p20

21
admiration. It demonstrated that Islamic economic system could work in a capitalist

environment.78

Al-Arqm and Rufaq corporations stated earlier are two significant examples on how social

behaviour of Muslims in Malaysia might be influenced and attached to some ufi tradition. The

author is aware that any attempt to understand the Malaysian Muslim behaviour, particularly in

business activities that are influenced by Sufism, have to be treated carefully.

The study of literature discussing the ufi orders help giving the general ideas that explain the

tendencies of Muslims to alienate themselves to some particular Islamic groups. Likewise, it also

help identify the reasons why Muslims who belong to particular Islamic groups of sects behave

differently from those who do not. Issues on ufi orders are also instrumental in developing a

premise that the behaviour of Muslim people might be influenced by the teachings of the orders

that they belong to. Hence, understanding the ufi orders is an integral part in understanding

the behaviour of Muslims and the Muslim community as a whole.

Study in ufi orders is also important to understand how Muslims respond to the changes

towards modern civilisation in the Modern era.79 This is because Sufism is not silent towards

modernisation, rather it gives answers to ways how Muslims should respond to challenges to faith

78
M.S. Salleh.(1994) An Ethical Approach to Development: The Arqm Philosophy and Achievements, Humanomics,
10, 1, pp25-60
79
For more classification about Sufi Order in the modern era especially in politics, see J.L. Esposito., Ed. (1995).
Sufism: Sufi Orders. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, p113-115.

22
in the modern era. Indeed ufi tradition may provide ways of adapting modern institutions to

the needs of emerging civil societies throughout the Islamic world.80 It is also rather interesting

to note that ufi orders as against the calls of many Islamic reform groups that rally for actions

from the Muslim people in general.

To some researchers, there is no uniformity of religious practices. Holy81 argues that Muslims,

despite general assumption that they share core beliefs and practices of Islm they are actually

diverse in both of them. Muslim societies differ not only in their political, economic and social-

structural arrangements but also in their ritual practices and religious institutions. He gives

example that although scholars82 believe that ufi orders helped shape Sudanese Islm for

example, findings of his research show different things. In his study on the Berti people of

Sudan, he found that the Berti which is a minority in this country did not follow any uf orders

and were even unaware of their existence.

This finding indicates the importance of in-depth study on a particular group of people in

Muslm community or country on how Islm is practised, rather than generalizing the issue

80
Ibid, p116.
81
L. Holy. (1991) Religion and Custom in a Muslim Society: The Berti of Sudan. London: Cambridge University Press
82
In the study of Islm in the the Sudan in particular and Africa in general, Sufism and the Sufi groups are very special
issues being referred to. For example, in Triminghams study of Islam in Africa, other than giving the history of Islam
in Sudan, he also presented the history of development of sufi groups in Sudan. A brief history of the 11 ufi orders in
Sudan is also discussed. See, J.S. Trimingham. (1949) Islam in the Sudan. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege. Pp187-241.
On his another study about Islam in Africa, i.e. on the general view of Islam in Africa and without special heading on
Sufism, still, some aspects concerning Sufism can be found. J.S. Trimigham. (1980) The Influence of Islam upon Africa,
London: Longman Group Limited. Another Scholar, Daly , studied a small rather than localised tariqas in Sudan. He
used the mystical "orders" or "brotherhoods" as terminologies for Sufi tariqas . See, Daly, M. (Ed.) (1985) Al-
Majdhubiyya and Al Mikashfiyya: Two Sufi Tariqas in the Sudan, Graduate College, University of Khartoum, preface.

23
being studied about a Muslim community. There are no similar conceptions of Islm in almost

every study of Muslm community83.

There has been a study on motives, reasons and impacts of practices of religious duties84. In this

study, it is argued, like other actions in Muslim practices, two basic questions are; the reason of

the actions for Muslims and the thoughts presumed to guide them in various places and times.

What it means by the thoughts are the meanings that various actors impute to action. One

important thing is to answer what impact or change is generated by them. Clearly, this study

suggests four ways in understanding the two basics question mentioned above;

i. Islm has to be accepted as a social phenomenon when someone tries to look at certain

activities in Muslm practices.

ii. The importance and the significance of such activities have to be indicated as a process

of socialisation in a Muslim community.

iii. The idea of motives and interest of such activities have to be understood together with

how they culturally and materially happen to become an incentive.

iv. The result of such activities to particular devout Muslim and to the community he

lives.85

83
D.F. Eickelman. (1981) The Middle East: An Anthropological Approach, London: Prentice-Hall. p203
84
D.F. Eichelman and J. Piscatori. (1990). Social Theory in the Study of Muslim Societies, in D.F. Eickelman and
J.Piscatori (eds) Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination. London: Routledge. pp. 3-25
85
ibid, p 3

24
These are some of the ideas suggested in a study carried out by Eichelman and Piscatori on the

issue of the meaning of a religious journey to a Muslm. The interesting point here is they

introduce a social theory in the study of a Muslm society which is important to this present study.

This is because the attempt of this study is to understand an activity in a Muslm community

namely business practice86. They further suggest; ... instead of asking what is Islam? or what is

Christianity? it would be more useful to look at specific kind of practice and action, such as

travel, which constitute religious traditions and inform the religious imagination ...87

Similar conclusion is also derived from Mines88. He argues that it has long been recognised that

Muslm rituals and behaviour often owe as much to local custom as they do to Islamic tradition.

In his study on Pallavaram Muslims of India, he found that local beliefs influence the daily lives

of Pallavaram Muslims both within and outside the bazaar where they run businesses. For

example orthodox teachings were understood as orthodox in terms of their society beliefs not in

religious teachings from traditional Muslm <Ulam.

A study on non-Muslim entrepreneurs similarly found that the concept of Karma which is

thought to discourage Hindu believers from engaging themselves in entrepreneurship is also

86
From the Islamic world view, doing business - like other worldly activities - is not excluded from the scope of
Islamic Shar<ah As a result Islm is always referred to as a way of life.
87
D.F. Eichelman and J. Piscatori. (1990). Social Theory in the Study of Muslim Societies, in D.F. Eickelman and
J.Piscatori (eds) Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, Migration, and the Religious Imagination, London: Routledge.
88
M. Mines. (1981), Islamization and Muslim Ethnicity in South India in Ritual and Religion Among Muslims in
India, in Ahmad I (ed.) Modernization and Social Change Among Muslims in India, New Delhi: Monahar Publications.
pp65-89

25
arguable. Singer,89 on his study on some industrialists in India found that they believe in the

Karma. However, it is unlikely for this belief to discourage them from taking part in businesses.

Besides, they are even successful in their businesses. He concludes the significance of belief,

values and motives is only true in certain social-economics situations.

Studies on Muslims behaviour in business settings are important in this study to gain insights on

the methodologies and settings of those studies and on the issues being highlighted. These

would lead to the understanding of how Islamic cultures are applied into business practices. One

of the earliest studies on Muslims behavior in economics and business settings was done by

Mines in 1972.90 He studied the economic behaviour of a Muslm community in the bazaar of

Pallavaram in India. The objective was to compare the Muslm merchants and the Hindus in

terms of their behaviour in trading. He finds that the Muslims are motivated in business matters

by the Sunnah (tradition) of the Prophet. In terms of gaining capital, some Muslims prefer to

borrow from relatives and friends to avoid interest. However some practices in their business are

found to contradict Islamic teachings. For example some Muslims involve themselves in money

lending that imposes interest rates.

89
M. Singer. (1966) Religion and Social Change in India: The Max Weber Thesis, Phase Three. Economic Development
and Cultural Change.14. pp. 497-505
90
M. Mines.,(1972). Muslim Merchants-The Economic Behaviour of an Indian Muslim Community. New Delhi: Sri Ram Centre for
Industrial Relations and Human Resources.

26
Alongside their business activities in the bazaar, Muslm merchants are still keeping in touch with

their Muslim brothers and the society at large. The traders also have a close relationship with

Islamic groups such as the Jam<ah Tablgh. They are also readily agreeable in helping poor

people through alms giving such as Zakah and adaqah. At the same time, Muslim traders

maintain good cooperation with the non-Muslim community. This is especially true when 65%

of them attend gatherings run by the non-Muslim community at Pallavaram. The findings

suggest that Muslim traders are aware of their social responsibility as required in Islm.

His findings also shed some light on the issue of how Muslims businesspeople live and adjust

their lives in a culturally diverse community. The findings also indicate that although the Indian

Muslims in Pallavaram were better integrated with the Hindu socio-cultural settings, they were,

on the other hand, different in certain ways especially on ethics because of religious i.e., Islam

influences. Moreover, apart from running business in the Hindu dominated community, the

characteristics of Muslim businessmen can be seen and clearly differ to those of the Hindus.

Some sociologist, however, agree that maintaining custom practices in a society with different

religious beliefs helps enabling the local Muslims to live in an integrated manner with their non-

Muslim neighbours91. However, they also argue that while the Muslims enjoy their continuing

existence as a viable group, they are at the same time corrupting Islm through this highly

bendable flexibility.

91
A.R. Saiyid, P. Mirkhan and M. Talib. (1981) Ideal and Reality in the Observence of Moharram: A Behavioural
Interpretation in Ahmad I, (eds) Modernization and Social Change Among Muslims in India, New Delhi: Monahar
Publications.Pp 112-142.

27
There are other examples showing how Islamic teachings are likely to influence the merchants.

Muslim merchants who do not practice Islm in their trading are not accepted as having Islamic

qualities and therefore are not regarded as a part of the Muslim community. This is seems to be

true in situations where Muslm merchants who sell liquor and gain exceedingly tremendous

wealth but are given low status, often are disrespected by other Muslims. In another study by

Mines (1983),92 he indicates that Muslm businessmen did not take for granted their

relationships with their relatives especially with the relatives living in their area of origin. They

preserve their kinship and brotherhood through a centre which is called Kin Centre. Here is

where well doing businessmen gather with relatives during festivals and social functions. The

establishment of Kin Centre by the businessmen is to differentiate the way their relation with kins

from that of the Hindus. This is because the Hindus preserve the kin relationship through the

caste status .

Religiousness is the personal practice of religion.93 Klein, 94 concludes that religious beliefs have

normative implications for the macromarketing subdiscipline. Although little work has been

92
M. Mines. (1983), Kin Centres and Ethnicity Among Muslim Tamillians I. Ahmad (eds), Modernization and Social
Change Among Muslims in India. pp100-118

93
G.W. Allport.(1967) Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice, Journal of Personal and Social Psychology 5, pp432-
433

94
T. Klein (1987) `Prophets and Profits - A Macromarketing Perspective on Economic Justice for All: Catholic Social
Teaching and the U.S. Economy', Journal of Macromarketing, 7 (Spring), p77.

28
done in the marketing ethics area concerning religiousness, a number of studies have examined

the impact of religiousness on ethical behaviours in general. Mittelstaedt95 examined the

relationships between religion and the marketplace, concluding that religion affects various

aspects of business such as time, the way the trading is conducted, the goods in trade as well as

the consumer feeling about trade.

Hegarty and Sims96 conducted a lab experiment utilising a student sample to examine the

influence of personal factors on ethical behaviour but found religiousness to be insignificant.

Kidwell97 surveyed a sample of managers and found no relationship between church attendance

and perceptions of what is ethical. Barnett, Bass and Brown (1996) found high religiousness

(again, in a student sample) to be negatively correlated with relativism, but not correlated with

idealism.98

However a study conducted by Wiebe and Fleck99 found that people who accept religion as the

central focus of their life tend to have greater concern for higher moral standards, discipline and

95
J. Mittelstaedt. (1995) `Exploring Some Relationships Between Religion and the Marketplace', in Sanford L.
Grossbart and D.N. Lascu (eds.), Understanding Change From a Macromarketing Perspective, vol. 20, pp. 12-14.

96
W.H. Hegarty and H.P. Sims. (1978) Some Determinants of Unethical Decision Behavior: An Experiment, Journal
of Applied Psychology, 63,4, pp 451-457.

97
J.M. Kidwell et. al. (1987). `Differences in the Ethical Perceptions Between Male and Female Managers: Myth or
Reality', Journal of Business Ethics ,6, pp 489-493.
98
T. Barnett, B. Ken and B. Gene. (1996) Religiosity, Ethical Ideology, and Intentions to Report a Peers
Wrongdoing, Journal of Business Ethics, 15, pp 1161 - 1174

99
K.F. Wiebe and J. R. Fleck. (1980), 'Personality Correlates of Intrinsic, Extrinsic and NonReligious Orientations',
Journal of Psychology 105, pp 181-187.

29
responsibility than those that are nonreligious. Similarly a study by McNichols and Zimmerer100,

using a scenario technique, found that strong religious beliefs were significantly associated with

negative attitudes toward the acceptability of unethical behaviours. Clark and Dawson's results

with a student sample indicate that: ... strong religious influences are present in individual

ethical evaluation ...101. These mixed results clearly suggest the need for further empirical study.

Islamic practices are based on divinity and faith, and as Islm does not recognise any division

between the temporal and the spiritual dimensions, it can appear, at times, to be in conflict with

the contemporary western marketing practices based primarily on profit maximisation102.

Islamic teachings cover economic operations. These teachings emanate from two sources; the

Qurn and documented practices of the Holy Prophet (pbuh). The Islamic perspective has its

foundation firmly rooted in the principles of equity and justice, and offers ways and means to

create value and elevate the standard of living of people through commercial pursuits while

adhering to these principles.

In the case of marketing ethics the application of justice in marketing can be seen in the concept

of fair play and honest dealing as mentioned by Miskawayh.103 Fair play has been defined as

100
C.W. McNichols and T.W. Zimmerer. (1985) `Situational Ethics: An Empirical Study of Differentiators of Student
Attitudes'. Journal of Business Ethics 4, pp 175-180.
101
J.W. Clark and L.E. Dawson. (1996) Personal Religiousness and Ethical Judgements: An Empirical Analysis,
Journal of Business Ethics, 15, pp359-372.
102
M. Saeed, et.al (2001) International marketing ethics from an Islamic perspective: A value-maximization
approach.Journal of Business Ethics,32, 2,2, pp127 - 142
103
A.I.M. Miskawayh. (1968), The Refinement of Character, C. K. Zurayk, (Trans), Beirut: The American University of
Beirut, p20

30
to give and take in business with fairness and according to the interests of all concerned,104 and

honest dealing as ...to recompense without regret or reminding others of favours done to

them105 Being greedy and love for money can give negative impact for businesspeople in

business activities. This attitude may also effect ones position as a servant before God. Taking

Miskawayhs point of view in his Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (The Refinement of Character) Saeed (et.al) further

argues that a just person cannot be realised in oneself whose love is for money and wealth. He

further argues that being greedy, one can sacrifice from being kind to other people. This is

because the businessperson who is too greedy for money will become blind from being kind to

others and will not be able to tell what is right and what is wrong. As a result, the judgments

made are opened to negative ones such as lying and wrong testimony. The profit maximisation

motive is argued as the main reason behind the unethical behaviour in business practice.106

Mens daily lives in performing their duty as human being such as in doing business, is accepted

as a kind of salvation if the duty runs along the guidelines of the Shar<ah . This is because the

concept of salvation in Islm is not limited merely to the ritual activities. Islm urges Muslims to

work hard to develop their worldly life quality on the basis of justice and good conduct.107 In this

respect worldly occupations are stressed time and again both in the Qurn and the adith.

104
ibid, p21
105
ibid
106
M. Saeed, et.al (2001) International marketing ethics from an Islamic perspective: A Value-Maximization
Approach, p130
107
M.A. Mannan. (1986). Islamic Economics: Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Hodder and Stoughton, p285

31
It is worth noting that the Islamic perspective is also quite unique regarding this particular aspect

of human activity for three reasons;108 First, Islm does not recognise any division between the

material and the spiritual dimensions since an individual's goal to serve God and follow His

commands permeates through all aspects of the individual's daily activities.

Second, all endeavours of a person, including any commercial pursuits, constitute and represent

parts of his religious beliefs and therefore form parts of worship (<Ibdah) of God.

Third, in Islm, all commercial pursuits (including national or international marketing) are

considered at par with any other forms of worship (<Ibdah). It follows that a person's entire life

represents a series of activities for which one is responsible and will be accountable for to God.

Given that commercial transactions are part and parcel of people's daily lives, Islm dictates that

any undertaking of each and every transaction represents a task that must be executed in

accordance with Islamic law and teachings.

Mannan109 concludes the basic principles concerning trade and commerce in Islamic teachings

are a high standard of straight forwardness, reliability and honesty. Other researches have

studied more particularly issues on Islamic business practices. For example the study by Gerrard

and Cunningham110 on Islamic banking. Their focus is on consumers satisfaction. They

compared the Muslim and the non-Muslim attitudes towards Islamic banking in Singapore and

108
ibid
109
M.A. Mannan. (1986). Islamic Economics: Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Hodder and Stoughton.
p276
110
P. Gerrard and J.B. Cunningham. (1997) Islamic Banking: A Study in Singapore, International Journal of Banking
Marketing ,15, 6. pp204-216

32
the results indicate that both are looking forward for higher interest on saving. However in

terms of loyalty to an Islamic banking system, Muslim depositors seem to be very positive. This

was indicated when 60% of them agreed to keep their money in the bank if in any one year the

bank is not making any profit. In contrast 65% of non-Muslim will withdraw their money.111 The

result of this study shows that Muslim consumers are different from non Muslims in terms of

loyalty toward Shar<ah based concepts in business. Their attitudes shown in this study is likely to

be parallel to the need of implementing Islamic practices in economics in the first place rather

than offering other material profits.

As this study will focus on the Malays, understanding their beliefs and culture becomes

imperative. Therefore, some information has been sought after in order to understand the

Malay culture as it influences the business. In turn, paving ways to understanding the domestic

settings of Malay must form the early basis of this study. To begin with, it is worth to note that

moral values were given emphasis by the government in every level of the Malaysian

development, especially under Mahathirs administration.112 This suggestion is likely to be true if

the government development principle was taken into account. For example material progress

and Malaysias economic development must not be at the expense of moral values and the fate

of Muslims in the hereafter113.

111
ibid, p211
112
H. Mutalib. (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State. Kent Ridge, Singapore: Singapore University
Press. Pp ix - xi
113
The establishment of Islamic development institutions such as Islamic educational institutions (International
Islamic University, Islamic College and Islamic University College); Islamic financial institutions (Bank Islam Malaysia
Bhd and Syarikat Takaful); Islamic administrative institutions (Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM), Yayasan

33
Mutalib114 stresses the importance of understanding the religion of the Malay which is Islm. He

gives five background factors on how Islm can be understood in Malaysia;

a. The nature of traditional Malay life and culture;

b. The 1969 racial riots;

c. The coming into politics of Mahathir Mohamed as the Prime Minister;

d. The Da<wah Phenomenon and ;

e. A new leadership of the Malaysian Islamic Party, (PAS).

Understanding Islm in Malaysias contact, especially among Malay, is important because Islm is

not separable from the Malay ethno-cultural heritage. There are three main component which

are coalescing with each other in understanding the Malay culture; <dat, ethnic nationalism and

Islamic principles and values. Mutalib argues that for a long time, the first two variables seem to

be dominant in the Malay culture. However, with the emergence of Islm in the community, its

law and teachings begin to influence the Malays life. This view has been supported by Sayed

Naquib al Attas115. In fact, he goes as far as to maintain that the modernisation of the Malays is

significant with the emergence of Islm in this society. Besides, Islamic values were accepted and

Dakwah Islamiah (YADIM), Pertubuhan Kebajikan Islam Malaysia (PERKIM) etc, are some examples of the
Islamisation policy in the country. Islamic Family Law is being carried out in some states in Malaysia in order to
standardized the family law of Malaysia which in practice is not under federal government but under the state power.
114
H. Mutalib. (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State, pp17 - 47
115
See his: (1972). Islam Dalam Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Melayu, Selangor: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

34
become world view for the Malay, in some aspect Malay belief and practices contradict with the

teachings of Islm.116

Mutalib,117 also discussed some other issues in Malay community such as their culture, religion

and values. He stresses on political issues but hints that there are some overlapping of practices

between Islamic beliefs and teachings with the actual practice of the Malays particularly in

preserving the <dat. In this study, his writing has also highlighted some interesting notes

regarding the study of the Malays;

a. Other non-Islamic beliefs and practices do influence the Malay Muslims.

b. The strength of the Malay at some specific times and issues are not rooted on Muslim

brotherhood but more on the Malays ethnic-cultural idioms.

c. The importance of the teaching of Islm as a contributing factor in uniting the Malay.

d. The influence of the Western secular system and the values in the Malaysian society. The

mentioned capitalistic culture has been accepted by a growing Malay business class.

These references will help in elaborating and in deepening the understanding of the Malay

culture when it is discussed in the coming chapters of this study.

116
One which is clearly be seen is the strength of the Malay ethnic-cultural idiom in the life of the Malay as practice
Muslims. With this respect, Mutalib argues that in many occasions the Malay always take their Malay Solidarity as
priority than the Islamic brotherhood as suggested in the Islamic teaching. See his, (1993) Islam in Malaysia From
Revivalism to Islamic State. Pp17 - 19
117
He discusses the issues in many parts of his book. See his (1993) Islam in Malaysia From Revivalism to Islamic State,
p17 et. passim

35
Furthermore, there have been some studies on the Malays behaviour in organisations. Kennedy

and Jeffrey118 for instance, studied the values among the Malay leaders in organisational settings.

Their study shows that key cultural and religious values underpin the behaviour and beliefs of

the Malay managers.119 Nirenberg suggests that the Malay culture has developed from a history

of communal living in rural areas where they generally come from120. Up until now cooperation

is still important to the Malay, especially for the common good.121

118
J.C. Kennedy. (2000) Leadership in Malaysia: Traditional values, international outlook. Academy of Management
Executive, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 5-26
119
Some of the Malay values which are practised by the Malay leaders in organisations are showing concern for others,
being tolerant of errors, generosity, friendliness, sensitivity toward others, altruistic, generous and caring. Ibid. The
Malay values also highlighted in C. Goddard. (1997). Cultural values and cultural scripts of Malay (Bahasa Melayu).
Journal of Pragmatics, 27, pp.183201. The values are hospitable, peace loving, charitable and concern about the effect
of their actions on the feelings of others and take care not to upset others.
120
J. Nirenberg. (1979). The Malay culture. In J. Nirenberg (eds), Aspects of Management in Malaysia. Shah Alam:
MARA Institute of Technology.pp 2-21
121
The cooperation is well known as gotong-royong in Malay. This term is best defined in the following: ... Indonesian
people in rural villages are known for helping each other (a practice which they call gotong royong). The villages
surveyed also closely observed this philosophy ... See: S. Miyata and J. Manatunge (2004). 'Knowledge Sharing and
Other Decision Factors Influencing Adoption of Aquaculture in Indonesia.' Water Resources Development, Vol. 20, No. 4,
523-536, December. Pp523-538. ; Vellinca gives a clearer idea on what gotong-royong is about in the Malay world. He
said: ...At certain stages of the building process, for instance when the trees that supply the house posts are
transported to the village, help and support are enlisted from members of the other rumah in the village. In return for
their assistance, these villagers will be given meals and the promise that help may also be expected of the members of
the rumah that now builds the house, should comparable occasions arise in the future. This system of reciprocal
support (gotong royong) is not only useful in a practical manner, but also constitutes a gauge of the nature and intensity
of the social relationships in the village, as well as of the standing of the rumah concerned,p106, See, M. Vellinca. 'A
family affair: the construction of vernacular Minangkabau houses' Indonesia & the Malay World, Mar 2004, Vol. 32 Issue
92, p100-118. Sukarno, the late Indonesian President even went further by incorporating the spirit of gotong-royong in
Pantjasila, saying ". . . I have a genuine Indonesian term, gotong-royong, mutual cooperation. Gotong-royong is a dynamic
concept, more dynamic than the family principle. The family principle is a static concept, but gotong-royong portrays
one endeavour, one act of service . . . Gotong-royong means toiling hard together, sweating hard together, a joint
struggle to help one another," p227. See Cho, Kiyoko Takeda. 'The Weeds and the Wheat: an Inquiry into Indigenous
Cultural Energies in Asia.' Ecumenical Review, Jul75, Vol. 27 Issue 3, p220-229. Lim and Douglas, who studied farming
in Sabah, Malaysia, argue that the traditional system is preferred because the farmers felt more united when they work
together; J.N.W. Lim and I. Douglas.'The impact of cash cropping on shifting cultivation in Sabah, Malaysia.' Asia
Pacific Viewpoint, Dec1998, Vol. 39 Issue 3, p316.

36
Other studies on the Malay culture using Hofstede Value confirmed that work-related values of

Malay, Chinese, and Indian Malaysians do not differ significantly in many respects.122 However,

despite similarities, they do have distinct cultural and religious heritages especially the role of

Islam in Malay-Muslim Community.123

Some of the Malay values suggested in the studies have only been linked to the positive sides of

the Malays cultures. Nonetheless, in a certain situation some values that have been practised in

the Malays daily life are likely to be revised because they are not suitable with organisational

cultures. Asma Abdullah,124 argues that Malaysian managers should be willing to speak up more,

to voice their opinions and not to hold back through a culture-based fear of appearing to be

arrogant.

In balancing the tension between traditional and global values, the Malay are urged to adopt a

selective approach, which are to critically evaluate and review overseas models in their ability to

maintain harmony with existing cultural values while extending people's aspirations125. Asma

122
For a recent study using Hofstede's Value Survey Module, see L. Lim. (2001). Work-related values of Malays and
Chinese Malaysians. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 1(2): pp229246. Similar conclusions, using a
different approach to measuring values, are reached by A. Abdullah and L. Lim. (2001). Cultural dimensions of
Anglos, Australians, and Malaysians, Malaysian Management Review, 36(2), pp917.
123
See J.R. Schermerhorn. (1994). Intercultural management training: An interview with Asma Abdullah. Journal of
Management Development, 13(3): pp4764; and J.M.L. Poon. (1998). The Malay wedding. Asian Thought and Society,
23(69), pp221237.
124
J.R. Schermerhorn. (1994), ibid.
125
A. Abdullah. The Malaysian corporate culture. New Straits Times, 22 April 1995.

37
Abdullah uses the analogy of a tree, arguing that the roots on which an organisation culture is

based must reflect a deep understanding of the core Malaysian values.

1.6. Method

The details of methods to be used in this study will be discussed in chapter four of the thesis. In

brief, it will employ a case study approach. This is because the authors interest is to explore the

Malays business culture and to understand how the Malays conduct their economic behaviour

in business practice in order to gain insights into the real life126 of the Malay businesspersons as

well as their day-to-day practices in trading as seen from an Islamic perspective. Consequently, it

is worth stressing the fact that this study does not aim to test hypotheses or theories. In other

words this research is purely qualitative in nature.

The main focus is to investigate how the Malay businesspersons in Malaysia are influenced by

differing cultures. Their responses and practices in light of these cultural influences will be

investigated and observed in conjunction with their everyday practices. These will be discussed

from the Islamic perspective. The data will be gathered using multiple methods of data

collection such as interviews, observations and documents (also artefacts). To maintain a chain

of evidence127 from the data that will be collected the author will employ various sources such as

126
R.K.Yin.(1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, London: SAGE Publication
127
Maintaining a chain of evidence is crucial important in the case study. To do this it is suggested that the data
should be collected from various sources rather than from a single source. For more clarification on the data
collecting procedure in a case study see, R.B. Burns.(1994) Introduction to Research Methods. Cheshire:Longman, p321

38
businesspersons, the Malay medicine persons and, the Muslim scholars. The data will be

analysed through content analysis and constant comparison method.

1.7. Summary of the Study

This study was carried out in seven chapters including the introduction and conclusion. Those
chapters and their contents are as listed below;

1.7.1 Chapter 1

This is an introductory chapter, giving an overview to the completed work as submitted for
examination. A rationale of the research is given as an attempt to visualise the reasons for
carrying out this study. It also gives a reasonable argument on why the State of Kelantan was
chosen in relation to the study related to Islm and culture within the traditional Malay
community in Malaysia. This is followed by the objectives of the study, based on which the
conclusions of this study were made. The main trusts of the investigation are given with the
elaboration of the research questions, forming the backbone and as a guide throughout the
project and during the writing up of this thesis.

The limits of the research capacity and the limitations envisaged to be encountered and the
limitations based on real experience in the field are also described and explained in this chapter.
Such elaboration provides the boundaries of academic investigations on the subject matter as to
how further investigations should not proceed and how much information would have
considered as have reached saturation levels. In brief, this section gives the scope within which
the issues were covered in this study.

After all these earlier sections, that form the background of the study, the literature review
follows. The review includes the historical background of the Malay community by taking into

39
account almost all of the possible major factors that have influenced and remain to influence the
culture of the Malay community. This is quickly zoomed into the state of the Malay community
in the State of Kelantan and later into the small trading community in the Siti Khadjah Market
in Kota Bharu, the Capital of the Malaysian State of Kelantan.

Also taken into account were the previous studies and the research questions attempted to be
addressed. Acknowledging the low frequency of in-depth academic studies in this trading
community, the author realised that a lot more information could have been kept in other
forms, not available through the popular academic means. For this reason, secondary data and
new information through interviews were also considered and added into the body of current
knowledge.

This is followed by the methods used in this study that include the data gathering and analyses.
In general, various methods that have been planned earlier had to be adjusted based on the
conditions in the field a very important lesson learned, indeed. Because the standards and the
general guidelines on the methods, including on the data gathering, indications for the levels of
saturations, the methods of isolation of issues and the analyses that henceforth performed, the
ever changing conditions in the field did not hamper the project and adjustment were done
within the acceptable margin of errors. The details of the methodology are given in a separate
chapter Chapter 4.

At the end of the chapter, a summary on the structure of the research is given, which provides
the readers to the flow of works and information throughout the process of the completing the
project.

40
1.7.2 Chapter 2

Chapter 2 begins with the first details of all the information in the thesis. As has been foretold in
Chapter 1, the body of information that were touched superficially began to be rolled-out in this
chapter. After the introduction of the Malay and the culture of the Malays, including the various
definition of this community, the factors that have influenced it were discussed following several
eras most of which are related to the reigns of either external and internal powers, the spiritual
background that include paganism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islm and also the cultural
influence of various sources.

As the case of may other cultures, especially for communities that are still strongly linked to its
traditional entity, the influence of the traditional beliefs and the belief systems of the Malays or
the dat are also discussed that are later linked to the current strong system Islm.

Perhaps by virtue of being a functional community, the economy as in all other communities
stands as a very important element. Because of the uniqueness of this community as compared
to other Malay communities within Malaysia, the large part of the economy in Kota Bharu is
controlled by the Malay itself. The background on the development of the development of
Malay businesspeople, in particular within this community is therefore given.

Notwithstanding the fact of the influence of the administrative government, the era of
economic boom in Malaysia, taken by many as the direct result of the architecture of Prime
Minister Mahathirs architecture, is also given due consideration and debate.

1.7.3 Chapter 3

There is indeed a very strong link between the community of the Malay people in Kelantan and
the current religion that is being embraced and followed in the society Islm. Because Shar<ah

41
it itself a law on its own right, the sources of the Shar<ah as to where it is rooted in Islm is
discussed. The Shar<ah also has an interpretation on the influences of culture onto a Muslim
society, allowing for a multidimensional look of culture from the standpoint of Islm. This is
followed by the interpretation of a Muslim Society and how it functions as a dynamic entity. As is
the case in many other communities, economy forms one of the very fundamental aspects of a
Muslm community. Perhaps, because of the virtue of being a community, a section of the
Muslm society inevitably becomes more important in economic activities than other sections
opening new dimensions for its own economic behaviour.

It is worthy of note that Islm, being a religion of utter completion by its followers, touches on
every aspect of a Muslims life. As such, apart from economy having its Islamic concepts, its
functions in culture is also fundamental. In Islm this is also a part of worship as long as it follows
the divine guidelines. Relating the subjects of culture and Islm calls for the definition and
elaboration of several important concepts among others that are given due attention in this
chapter are the concepts of Trusteeship, al-Amnah and Trust, al-<Adl and al-Qit and the
concept of al-Isn.

The discussion of the work ethics in Islm follows continued by the discussion on the
business concept from the standpoint of the Shar<ah. Because the Shar<ah is a part of the
Islamic law, the guidelines from where it is rooted is given as what can be found from
the Qurn and the Sunnah. This is added by the inclusion of debates and elaboration by
prominent Muslm scholars including Al-Ghazli. The examples of economic practices in
the history of Islm are also given at the end of the chapter.

1.7.4 Chapter 4

This chapter provides the details of the research methodology right from making the approach

42
to the overall concept of the study right through into the methods of analysis and the
establishment of the conclusions.

This has been a case study research and all data collection and all interpretation henceforth
made were done on a single trading community. The steps taken in the data collection, the
instruments, techniques and the necessary precautions as well as necessary permission either
verbal or written are described in detail. All of these have been either given forethought, which is
the majority of the cases, and the decisions made in the field i.e. the necessary adjustments done
according to the needs and situation in the field.

The process of interview, observation, examination of artefacts are also described and
elaborated. At the same time, a description of a pilot case study is also given particularly in the
process of validating the proposed methods. This is followed by the descriptions of the
procedures, details of selecting the informants, the length of the case study and the overall
handling of the data. The description of the data analysis follows added with the process of
validating and testing the reliability of the data. Additionally, other methods are also described as
what was being used throughout the study. All data was later handled through a database for
ease of retrieval and analysis. The chapter is concluded by the steps taken to keep the continuity
of the chain of evidence.

1.7.5 Chapter 5
PART 1

This chapter provides the findings while the author was in the field. The large part of this
chapter aims to describe how Islm as a religion is portrayed physically in many forms, creating
an Islamic image. This chapter finally ends at the Islamic images that can be seen in the heart of
th study area the Siti Khadjah Market in Kota Bharu.

43
PART 2

This part deals more with the people and the informants where the majority of the observation
and interviews, including the observation and examination of artefacts took place. Using the
background information on the history of the cultural influences on the Malays, on-the-ground
observation examined the traces, however much there still were in the Malay trading community
in the market. The significance of the Bomoh, sorcery, animistic beliefs and practices are
described all of which were given within the fresh verbal communication with the traders whilst
they were trading. In other words, all information was collected at the point in time when it was
true and still being practiced on the scenes.

In general, the Siti Khadjah Market is a well-defined business environment in which cultural
and religious practices come into play, with mixture of many different background.

Deeper into the chapter the practices of sorcery, the belief in spirits, taboos and Petua are
discussed. Other forms of inclination towards attracting customers, most of which are in the
forms of acts and disciplines are also described. These include the lures, protection, belief in
invisible beings and the inclusion of other cultures are also discussed.

On the side of the Islamic trading community, there are certain sections within the market in
which negative practices, as seen from the standpoint of the Shar<ah, are still very much alive. As
a cross-sectional study on the community, this was also given due consideration.

Following later is the description of the normal daily practices of the traders, including all of
their activities for the day from the time they reach the market until the call it a day. Largely, this
section pictures the practices of Islm in economic activities in this case, by Muslm small
traders in a market and how they tried to stay on track to ensure that their daily activities are
included as a form of worship to Allh. Lastly, the chapter ends with the concept of barakah, an
end which all Muslm mortals seek.

44
1.7.6 Chapter 6

Chapter 6 describes the different ways the data was handled and analysed, providing the basis of
discussion and conclusions.

It begins with the formation of the tree index system, breaking and isolating important parts of
the study in its most relevant compartment each will either analysed independently of as a
group.

This is followed by the research inquiry and propositions, the fundamental backbones that
operates and hold the research together. Two important inquiries are the extent of the influence
of culture on a Malay Muslm society and the discovering the cultural beliefs and practices of the
Malay business people in the Siti Khadjah market. These two inquiries are very strongly related,
each is an indicative of the other.

This is followed by the reasoning for the results of observations. Two propositions are the
mixture of interpretations on certain cultural beliefs and practices (given the mixture of cultural
background) and the influence of the environment to the business persons. The influence of
the teaching of Islm, which inevitably forms a large part of the environment is given an
important consideration.

Later on, the analysis goes into looking at the culture of the Malay-Muslm businesspersons

taking into account all the processes from the stage of the influence of culture to the

understanding of the Malay-Muslim society to the culture of the Malay-Muslim businesspersons

to understanding the businesspersons as individuals. This is followed by the analysis on the link

45
of these stages to another set of stages that are the everyday practices in business, the values of

Shar<ah and where it plays its roles and the formation of the Malay-Muslm culture in business.

1.7.7 Chapter 7

This chapter is the final chapter in the thesis, which provides the conclusions of the findings. It is
given in a way on how these findings would give impacts to the relevant sections within the Siti
Khadjah Market system. In this chapter, the impacts are given as the recommendations to
sections that include the Muslm businesspeople and the local authorities. In short, the inclusion
of the findings in the management of the market will theoretically reduce unlawful, illegal and
negative practices as interpreted by the Shar<ah paving ways to the emergence of a truly
Shar<ah guided trading system.

This chapter also define how this study contributes to the current stage of knowledge and how it
has added fresh dimension in the body of knowledge. Before it ends with a concluding remark,
this chapter also provides the basis of further research from the standpoint of the approach of
this study.

46
 Chapter 2

Malay Culture

2.0 Understanding the Malay

The Malay culture128 can only be best described by looking back into the background of the

Malay community. This chapter presents a brief survey of its origin and historical development,

which is instrumental in giving a better definition of the culture.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines Malay as, A member of a people chiefly inhabiting

Malaysia, Brunei, and parts of Indonesia, and characteristically speaking the Malay language.129

This definition is, however, very general as well as not sufficient to be accepted as a good

definition on Malay. For example Malay people in the South of Thailand, Singapore and the

Philippines were not included. For having a clear understanding and academically accepted

description, there is a need to redefine and further elaborate the word Malay.

128
Studies on Malaysias national culture shed some lights on the culture of the people in Malaysia. However,
Quaddus and Tung argue that it is not appropriate if the Malays, Chinese and Indians were studied together using
Hofstedes national culture index. The reason being the Malay, Chinese and Indian in Malaysia are from different
historical and religious background and the culture cannot be considered as a Malaysian national culture. See, M.A.
Quaddus, L.L. Tung (2002) Explaining cultural differences in decision conferencing Communications of the ACM,
Volume 45, Number 8, pp93-98
129
The Oxford English Dictionary Online, (http://dictionary.oed.com) 26.05.2006

47
The first groups of Malay130 came to Malaysia from Yunan province in China somewhere around

2500 B.C.131 According to Winstead,132 ...the civilised or deutero-Malays... descended from

Yunan more than 4,000 years ago. The word Melayu i.e. the official word now used in Malaysia

referring to the Malay community, is probably a very old word referring to a place in the oriental

region and it dates back well before Ptolemy.133 Ptolemy, Marco Polo and Edrisi were said to use

words of similar nature when referring to areas near Sumatra or the Straits of Malacca e.g. by

using words such as Malayur or Malai.134 During the period between the beginning of the 7th

Century 135 and the 13th century, the word Melayu was not used in naming certain people living

in certain places but was used in referring to places, kingdoms, rivers136 and trading ports.137 For

instance Melayu was referred to Jambi, Pagarruyung and Peninsula Malaysia. Names of such

nature were widely used by the Arabs and Europeans from the west as well as by the Japanese

and Chinese from the east.138 Around the 17th century, these areas were also called as Jawa

Yava and Yava-dvipa. To distinguish the different meanings, people living in these areas was

130
The question What makes a person Malay used by T.P. Barnard (2001) 'Text, Raja Ismail and Violence: Siak and
the Transformation of Malay Identity in the Eighteenth Century', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3,October): 331-
342. The questions surrounding the Malay identity can also be found in L.Y. Andaya. (2001) 'The Search for the
'Origin' of Melayu', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3(October): 315-330, S.A. Baharudin. (2001) 'A History of an
Identity, an Identity of a History: The Idea and Practice of 'Malayness' in Malaysia Reconsidered', Journal of Southeast
Asian Studies 32(3, October): 355-366.
131
N.J. Ryan. (1971). The Cultural Heritage of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Longman, p2
132
R.O. Winstedt (1961) The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. p2
133
The term,Melayu has been referred to a place some where in Sumatra or the region in the Straits of Melaka.
Ptolemy, Marco Polo and Edrisi were said to use this word when referring to these areas. They refered this place as
Malayur, Malai See R. Anthony (2001). "Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source Diverse Modern Identities."
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3 ,October), p297
134
ibid
135
S. Zain, Rivers Deep or Mountain High ( http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/malays4.htm), 26.05.2006
136
R. Anthony. (2001). Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source Diverse Modern Identities. p 298
137
ibid, p297
138
ibid

48
called the Jawi.139 During that period, a lot of places in the region were also important trading

ports especially Muara Jambi. Still, the word Melayu or any similar did not refer to any place,

locality or people under the kingdom of Sri Vijaya, which at the time had about 700 ports.140

Although Sri Vijaya was located within the Malay Archipelago, it was not referred to as Malay in

any Malay Historical book .141An interesting question may be asked, for instance, as to when did

the word begin to be used?

The word Malay could have originated from the word Malayo that was first documented in 1598

referring to a location i.e. Malayo Malacca.142 The word was then used more widely to refer to the

people living in the orient that share the same language and religion in the Malayo area.143 In

the early eighteen century the word Malay that referred to the area and the people started to

change in its use. This coincided with the period of the downfall of the Malacca Empire (and

later succeeded by Johor), resulting in both powers loosing their grip on the Straits of

Malacca.144. As this change progressed, other societies including Trengganu, Pahang and Siak

slowly developed and converged their identity to become Malays145. This gradual, but significant

change had broadened the definition of the word Malay from merely referring to Malacca into

referring to a community encompassing its cultural, political and economic entities. The change

139
ibid
140
S. Zain, Rivers Deep or Mountain High
141
L.Y. Andaya. (2001). The Search for the 'Origin' of Melayu. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3(October)):
315-330.
142
The Oxford English Dictionary Online, (http://dictionary.oed.com) 26.05.2006
143
ibid
144
T.P. Barnard. (2001). Text, Raja Ismail and Violence: Siak and the Transformation of Malay Identity in the
Eighteenth Century, p331 and 334.
145
ibid

49
was in fact even more tremendous for Siak which was never accepted or inclined to be known as

Malays during the height of the Mallaccan Empire. A Siak ruler was once referred to as

jungleman,146 reflecting the confounding distance between the people, who were later known

to be the Malays.

In short, the downfall of the two succeeding empires had brought about the expansion of the

Malay identity, that was otherwise monopolised by them.147 The identity of the other local

societies such as Trengganu, Pahang and Siak started to change and saw the appearance of their

identity as Malay.148 The so called Malay which previously referred to Melaka was now

broadening into cultural, political and economic environments.

During the early colonial period, the British actually used the word Melayu. Using the name,

Raffles identified Melayu as, one people, speaking one language, though spread over so wide

a space, preserving their character and custom, living in all the maritime states lying between

Sulu Seas and Southern Oceans.149 Later, the use of Melayu became official particularly after

the establishment of the Straits Settlements.150

146
C.C. Brown. (ed.) as cited in T.P. Barnard. (2001). Text, Raja Ismail and Violence: Siak and the Transformation
of Malay Identity in the Eighteenth Century, p334
147
T.P. Barnard. (2001). Text, Raja Ismail and Violence: Siak and the Transformation of Malay Identity in the
Eighteenth Century, p331 and 334.
148
ibid
149
T.S. Raffles, On the Melayu Nation Asiatic Researches, 12 (1816): 103. Cited in Baharudin, S.A. (2001) 'A History of
an Identity, an Identity of a History: The Idea and Practice of 'Malayness' in Malaysia Reconsidered', p363
150
ibid

50
The word evolved in the British administration. The people was known to be the Malays and the

land was called Malaya151 i.e. Tanah Melayu. Over a period of time, as what history would later

reveal, there were several words to the similar effects and were used blatantly interchangeably.

For example, the British used the word Bangsa when referring to the Malays i.e. Bangsa

Melayu.152 The word Malay was also used when referring both to the region and the people.

Later the name the Malay Race was used when referring to the people and the name Malay

Archipelago was used to refer to the region. When Malaya became a plural society that was

signified by the incoming of the Indian and Chinese immigrants, the Malays were known to be a

race at the start of the 19th century.153 This, however, did not mean the name was without flaws.

Starting from the 1970 census154, other people that were also referred to as Malays were;

Indonesian, Negrito, Jakun, Semai, Semelai, Temiar, Other Orang Asli (aborigines) and Other

Malay Communities.155

Other than the Malay race that referred to people and the Malay Archipelago that referred to

the land, there was also a term widely used by the Malay leaders in the twentieth century i.e.

151
British Malaya the name with geographical and political significance was first used by Sir Frederick Welds, the
then Governor of the Straits Settlements Colony. The name was, however, not popular and very rarely used to refer to
the state. See W.R. Roff. (1967) The Origins of Malay Nationalism, New Haven: Yale University Press, p91
152
C. Hirschman. (1987). The Meaning and Measurement of Ethnicity in Malaysia: An Analysis of Census
Classifications., The Journal of Asian Studies 46(3(August)), p578
153
ibid, p555.
154
Malaysia became independent from the British on 31 of August 1957.
155
C. Hirschman. (1987). The Meaning and Measurement of Ethnicity in Malaysia: An Analysis of Census
Classifications. p 578

51
Nusantara. It referred to the Malay as a collective ethnic category, in this region, sharing

amongst them some physical characteristic and language156

This term, which later proved to have a significant political connotation, is somewhat natural in

its use. It has always been used in the Malay literatures over a long period of time.157

The Malays as a race are not only found in Malaysia, but are also living in Indonesia, Brunei and

the southern parts of the Philippines. Many also settle in Singapore, Southern Thailand and

Cambodia. Some migrated well out of Southeast Asia to South Africa, Australia and Great

Britain.

There is also a highly significant connection between the Malays and Islm.158 Article 160 (2) of

the Constitution of the Federation of Malaysia clearly states that a Malay is a person who

professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the Malay language, conforms to Malay Customs

and- (a) was before Merdeka born in the Federation or in Singapore; or born of parents of one

of whom was born in the Federation or in Singapore; or is on that day domiciled in the

156
H. Mutalib. (1993), Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State., p18
157
The British Administration in Malaya called this country as Malay Peninsula. The name was believed to show the
assistance of their ruling power on this society to the Dutch Colony, which at that time was ruling in Indonesia. The
cradle of the Malay was referred to the kingdom of Malacca that existed in the 15th century. The existence of the
Malays in other areas such as Indonesia was rarely discussed. See L.Y. Andaya. (2001). The Search for the 'Origin' of
Melayu. pp315-316
158
In Malay nationalism and politics are not the primary concern but culture is especially focussed in three dominant
issues; customs, religion (Islam) and language. See H. Mutalib. (1993). Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State.
Kent Ridge, Singapore, Singapore University Press, pp17-19, H. Singh.(2001) Ethnic Conflict in Malaysia
Revisited.Commenwealth & Comparative Politics, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March), pp42-65

52
Federation or in Singapore; or (b) is the issue of such a person.159 In short, a person who speaks

Malay and follows the Malay custom might as well be a Muslim.160 The Republic of Singapore,

on the other hand defines the Malays as someone whose ancestry is from the territory of

Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, and who is not migrant stock from China or India, with no

differentiation between Melayu, Javanese, Baweanese, Minangkabau, Batak,Bugis, etc.161 The

definitions show that the Malays are closely related to Islm. The Primordial Model162 seems to

be a favourite way of defining the Malays i.e. by grouping people based on the characteristics that

they share. These characteristics include proper behaviour, language and literature, customary

laws and a standard government, which are essential characteristics for a people to be known as a

people.

As the definition of the Malays continues to change, so does the actual people that are

considered as the Malays, making the definition becomes continually ambiguous.163. It also

defies the Primordial Model in its characteristics. A minority Malaysian Chinese community who

adopts most of the Malay customs is not considered as a Malay.164 The definition for the Malays,

therefore, will not settle down as a default but must be given a considerable amount of

159
Federal Constitution, Kuala Lumpur: ILBS, p.198.
160
T.P. Barnard. (2001). Text, Raja Ismail and Violence: Siak and the Transformation of Malay Identity in the
Eighteenth Century. p331
161
V. Wee. (2005). Melayu, Indigenism and the 'Civilising Process': Claims and Entitlements in Contested
Territories. Southern Asia Research Centre (SEARC) Working Paper Series(78), p3
162
For more information about Primordial Model see for instance L.Y. Andaya. (2001). The Search for the 'Origin'
of Melayu, pp 315-330.
163
C. Hirschman. (1987). The Meaning and Measurement Ethnicity in Malaysia: An Analysis of Cencus
Classifications. The Journal of Asian Studies 46(3(August)), pp 555-582.
164
Ibid, p555, see also, H. Mutalib. (1993). Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State. pp112-117

53
flexibility.165 According to Baharudin, the Malay nationalists have also shifted their definition for

the Malay amid the dynamics of the people itself, and probably also as a results of the socio-

political atmosphere in Malaysia. The flexibility of the definition makes its meaning easily shifts,

adapting itself time and again to new situations, consequently making clear-cut statements

impossible credible.166

2.1 The Influence of Different Religious Beliefs on the Malay Society

Although Islm is well understood as the religion of the Malay, different religious influences can

still be observed. This is because the Malay civilisation had gone through various stages of beliefs.

It started with the primitive understanding of animism. Later it was introduced to Hinduism and

the thought of Buddhism. With the emergence of the religion of Islam the Malay began to

observe the concept of monotheism.

All these differences have, either directly or indirectly, influenced how they perceive the

creation of the world, natural phenomena, creation of man, issues on mind and body or the

concept of the soul today. 167

165
S.A. Baharudin. (2001) 'A History of an Identity, an Identity of a History: The Idea and Practice of 'Malayness', pp
355-366.
166
Ibid, p365
167
K.H. Lim. (2003) Budi As The Malay Mind: A Philosophical Study Of Malay Ways Of Reasoning And Emotion In
Peribahasa, ,Phd Dissertation, Germany: University of Hamburg, p42

54
To begin with, the author will discuss on animistic belief amongst the Malays and how it

influences their life.

The word Animism was derived from the word anima (breath). Because the animists do not

believe in God or gods, the worship is termed as spirit worship. This is to distinguish it from

the worship of God and gods.168

In HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion, animism is defined as, An obsolete term employed to

describe belief systems of traditional people that appears to hold that natural phenomena have

spirits or souls.169 It is also defined as;

the doctrine which places the source of mental and even physical life in an
energy independent of or at least distinct from the body. From the point of view of
the history of religions, the term is taken in the wider sense i.e. to denote the beliefs
in the existence of spiritual beings, some attached to bodies of which they constitute
the real personality (souls), others without necessary connexion with a determinate
body (spirits).170

Animism was the word used for the first time by Taylor171 at the end of the 19th century. The

significance and its importance were noted by Anderson who developed these ideas into a

chapter of his book, The worlds Religion. This is because he found that animism is significant to

168
J.N.D. Anderson. Ed. (1950). The World's Religions. London, The Inter-Varsity Fellowship, p9
169
J.Z. Smith. (1995) The HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion, 1st. Edition, San Francisco : HarperCollins, p51
170
J. Hastings. (ed) (1954), Animism-Definition and Scope, Hastings Encyclopedia of religion and Ethics, Vol. 1,
Edinburgh: T & Clark, p535. See also, Durkheim, E. (1915). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life: A Study in Religious
Sociology, pp 48-70
171
See his, Primitive Culture as cited in J.N.D.Anderson., Ed. (1950). The World's Religions, p9

55
so many world religions.172 This statement was supported by Friedl173, saying that this belief is

found to be universal and the most basic religious belief among primitive people. The

significance of animism in many religions and beliefs makes it to be concluded as a kind of

magic where all religions originated from.174 Although animism being said as origin of all

religion as mentioned above, Anderson however excluded it as the origin of the revealed

religions.175

There are three main components in Animism,

1. Necrolatry,

2. Spirit worship and

3. Naturism.176

Necrolatry, is the worship of soul of animals and men especially of the dead.177 Spirit worship is

carried out regardless of its association with bodies or objects.178 Naturism, is a kind of worship of

spiritual beings that were believed to have direct influence on the phenomena of nature.179

172
ibid, p7
173
J. Friedl (1976) Cultural Anthropology, London: Harpers College Press, p271
174
J.G Frazer as cited in J.N.D. Anderson. Ed. (1950). The World's Religions, p10
175
Animists are not the people of the book, the religions that originate from animism never had their holy books.
176
J.N.D. Anderson., Ed. (1950). The World's Religions. London, The Inter-Varsity Fellowship, p9. For more
clarification on animism and all the three components see, Goblet dAlviella, Animism-Definition and Scope, in
Hastings, J. (ed) (1954), Hastings Encyclopedia of religion and Ethics, Vol. 1, pp535-537
177
ibid,
178
ibid
179
ibid

56
William Patons Jesus Christ and the Worlds Religions suggested the characteristics of spirit

worshippers as;

i. The prevalence of fear

ii. The absence of anything in the nature of religious consolation

iii. No differentiation between good and evil.

iv. A fatalistic outlook on life180

From an ethnographic point of view, animism is similar to Totemism181 in terms of things taken

to be worshiped and the presence of mystic relationship in them such as taboo.182 The word

Totemism183 is derived from a world in the Ojibwa dialect of North America, which means

brother-sister-kin. It has been observed that animism was popular and arrived at its fullest

development in North America and Australia. Anderson insists that traces of it can be found in

every part of the world.184 In illustrating this F.B. Jevons states two characteristics in people with

Totemism:

180
as cited in J.N.D. Anderson., Ed. (1950). The World's Religions, p20
181
E. Durkheim. (1915). The Elementary Forms of Religious life: A Study in Religious Sociology. London, George Allen &
Unwin, pp87-97

182
Prohibition against touching, saying, or doing something for fear of immediate harm from a supernatural force.
For clarification see taboo , Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia, http://www.answers.com/taboo&r =67#Britannica,
15.10.2006

183
On totemism see J.N.D. Anderson., The Worlds Religions, p13-15, F.B. Jevons., An Introduction to the History of
Religion, London, 1896; G. Parriender, West African Religion, The Epworth Press 1949, p125
184
J.N.D. Anderson., Ed. (1950). The World's Religions, p14

57
They are exogamous, that is members must not marry partners within the same totem clan; and
that at long intervals members partake of the totem animal (normally taboo) at a special
ceremonial feast, when a mystic relationship is established.185

In the Malay life, magic186 is believed to be comprised of the elements of Paganism and

Hinduism.187 It is believed that the belief of animism was first brought by the early groups of the

Malays who migrated from Yunan some 4000 years ago.188 This practice was later rooted in the

life of the Malays and has been readily observed. According to Swettenham, a Malay is Muslim

but is also very superstitious 189, a root that can actually be traced down the Sri Vijaya times. In

one account, the King of Sri Vijaya was said to board a ship and went searching for magic

powers.190 Until today, many types of superstitious still remain in the Malay community. Some

sections of the community, particularly in rural areas, still believe in magic, spirit worship, taboos,

185
F.B. Jevons., West African Religion, as cited in Anderson, J. N. D., Ed. (1950). The World's Religions, p10
186
There are many definitions on what magic is and the meaning has been given depending on the contact it is being
used. Two prominent scholars that put magic under their discussion are E.B. Taylor (1958) Primitive Culture, New
York: Harper and Bross and J.G. Frazer. (1922) The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. London(Trans),
London: Macmillan and Co., Limited.. Later scholars have always referred to their views in discussing this issue. J.L.
Myres., argues that magic was the state of mind for uncivilised people before they know religion and science. See his
(1925) Presidential Address: The Methods of Magic and of Science, Folklore, Vol.36,No. 1, March, pp15-47. This view
is similar to the point from James Frazers The Golden Bough: A study in magic and religion. For this research
magic refers to mysterious forces acting through charms and amulets, spells, divinations, as been used by E. Smith.,
as cited in J.N.D. Anderson., Ed. (1950). The World's Religions, p16. Magic is also famously used in healings. In this
respect a Malay magician for instance, is also known as a healer or a traditional healer. In the Malay community a
Bomoh is an example, see C. Laderman. (1977) The Limits of Magic, American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol 99, No.2
(Jun) ,pp333-341. c.f. , E. Durkheim. (1915). The Elementary Forms of Religious life: A Study in Religious Sociology. London,
George Allen & Unwin, p300.
187
R.O. Winstedt. (1961) The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, p vii
188
ibid, p8
189
F. Swettenham. 1900. Malay sketches. London: John Lane, p2-3
190
Codes as cited in L.Y. Andaya, p320. The North of Malaya (Malaysia) was under the Kingdom of Sri Vijaya from the
eight century onwards . In the fourteenth century Hindu rulers of Majapahit conquered the kingdom. See R.O.
Winstedt.(1961) The Malay Magician, p27

58
seek consultation of shamans .191 From this report it can be observed that magic192 in the Malay

community was not just practiced only by ordinary people. It has been practiced by rulers in the

Malay history.193

The early writings on magic and animism can be found in the work of Winstedt, The Malay

Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and ufi.194 The book discussed magic as it was being practised in

certain Malay states in the 20th century where the state of Kelantan was also included.195 In the

Malay community too, magic is practised by someone who is believed to be able to communicate

with unseen beings. This person is called Pawang and Bomoh. These two names have been

generally referred to as the Malay magicians. Some people see no difference between these two

but Roff distinguished Pawang from Bomoh. What makes them different is in terms of the duty

they are responsible for. A Pawang performs the seasonal rituals necessary to placate the

forces of nature to ensure good crops or catches or to cleanse a village of accumulated malignant

191
Shaman can be defined the people believed to have contacts with spirits during their abnormal state of mind. The
Shaman is a medium for the spirits to give any command or teach them on medication or how to act during important
circumstances. See, H.R. Maret Malay Archipelago-Shamanism, in J.Hastings, (ed) (1953) Encyclopaedia of Religion
and Ethics, vol. viii, 3rd Ed, p347. Endicott (1970) as cited in A. Aziz and S.A. Baharudin. (2004) 'The Religious, The
Plural, The Secular And The Modern: A Brief Critical Survey On Islam In Malaysia', Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 5(3),
p345.
192
Magic is one of the Hindu influences in the life of the Malays before and after the emergence of Islm. See, R.O.
Winstedt. (1961) The Malay Magician, p1-6
193
After the annual sance and feast to revive the Perak regalia, the state magician would bathe the sultan and in his
person those royal familiars, the guardian genies of the country. At a sance held during the last illness of another
Perak sultan, Yusuf (d. 1887), the royal patient was placed shrouded on the shamans mat with the shamans grass-
switch in his hand to await, as at an ordinary sance the shaman alone awaits, the advent of the spirits invoked ibid,
pp10-11
194
See ibid, This book has been said as a very clear-cut of the cultural development of the Malay people , K.H.
Lim. (2003). Budi As The Malay Mind: A Philosophical Study Of Malay Ways Of Reasoning And Emotion In Peribahasa, p42
195
For the purpose of the current research this book hinted on the presence of the magic and its practice among the
Malay community. One of the state mentioned will also be the area where the author will be carrying out his field
work for this project.

59
spirits ... A Bomoh who is also referred to as spirit doctor on the other hand, had an esoteric

knowledge of physical and mental illness together their causes and remedies.196

Winstedt mentioned that the Malay had passed through three distinctive phases in their cultural

history, the primitive stage, the Hinduistic stage and the Islamic stage.197 The primitive stage

symbolised by the Shaman, the Hinduistic stage symbolised by Saiva and the Islamic stage

symbolised by the ufi.198 To give example on all three different influences in the Malay life,

Winstedt looked into their practice of magic.

The influence of animism can be observed from many old charms. The majority of animistic

Malay charms are characterized by their closeness to nature and a significant believes in spirits

almost exclusively distant from the concept of a God. The symbol of power lies in the spirit being

invoked in their charms. One example is a charm chanted by raft men during their river

journey;

196
W.R. Roff. (1967) The Origins of Malay Nationalism, New Haven: Yale University Press, p7. Hastings Encyclopaedia
gives the same definition, see H.R. Maret. Malay Archipelago-Magic and Medicineman in J. Hastings., (1953)
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. viii, p363. The definition seems to have a slight difference from what has been
given by Winstedt, c.f R.O. Winstedt. (1961) The Malay Magician -Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, p11.
197
I. Hussein argues on Winstedts opinion on the three distinctive phases. It looks like the Malay only borrowed and
made adaptation on the culture and influences that were introduced to them. Hussein further argues that the Malay
creativity will be denied if that statement is accepted ,see his, 1966, p12 , cited in K.H. Lim. (2003). Budi As The Malay
Mind: A Philosophical Study Of Malay Ways Of Reasoning And Emotion In Peribahasa , p12
198
See his, (1961) The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi. His view supported by Lim, It is true that the
Malays had gone through three stages of religious experiences (animism, Hinduism and Islam), which had later
enriched and influenced K.H. Lim. (2003). Budi As The Malay Mind: A Philosophical Study Of Malay Ways Of
Reasoning.

60
Hai nenek! Terima-lah persembahan ini!

Pinta-lah, rakit kita selamat melalui jeram panjang.

Jangan-lah apa-apa aradl [aral] gendala di-tengah jalan.

Buka saperti mayang mengurai!

Buka saperti ular mengorak!199

English translation;

Accept this offering, grandsire. Send our raft safe through the long rapid, we beseech thee!

Cause us no harm on our journey. Open like the uncurling blossom of the palm! Open like a

snake that uncoils.200

Neill suggests that Nenek refers to tigers. On the other hand, for the people who traditionally live

in the Malay Archipelago, tigers are symbolic beings, rather than the actual ones. For instance, a

tiger is believed to guard villages and forests in the form of a supernatural being.201 In this

contact the Malays belief clearly lies on supernatural being and spirit which is a typical example

of animism influence.

199
R.O. Winstedt.,(1961) The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, p130
200
ibid, p29
201
See, W.T. Neill., (1973) Twentieth-Century Indonesia. New York, Columbia University Press, p84 as cited
in R. Wessing. (1995) 'The Last Tiger in East Java: Symbolic Continuity in Ecological Change', Asian
Folklore Studies Vol.54(2),p195.For more information about tiger and other animals in the Malay ethos see,
H.R. Maret. Malay Archipelago-Animism, in J. Hastings (ed) (1953) Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,
vol. viii, 3rd Ed, pp356-357.

61
Likewise, the influences of Hinduism and Islm can be found in many other charms, intertwined

in such a way that they are sometimes mixed in a single charm. One example showing both

influences are mixed is a charm chanted to stop all the hens in the neighbourhood from laying;

Om si-Kumari! Mahadewi om!

Aku anak si-rimau ganas!

Chuchu baginda Ali!

Gemuroh akan suara-ku,

Kilat akan senjata-ku

Bergentar bumi, bergentar-lah aku,

Bergerak bumi, bergerak-lah aku.202

English translation;

Om! Virgin goddess Mahadevi! Om!

Cub am I of the mighty tiger!

Alis line through me descends!

My voice is the rumble of thunder,

Whose bolts strike a path for my seeing!

Forked lightnings the flash of my weapons!

I move not till earth rocks!

202
R.O. Winstedt., (1961) The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, p130-131

62
 I quake not till earth quakes,

Firm set as earths axis.203

The influence of Hindu can be seen with the use of Mahadevi (the great Goddess)204 and the

typical invocation word Om! is used here. Om or Aum is very important in Hinduism. It is a

symbol which represents Brahman or aspects of god.205 The Hindus still use the same words

during prayers, chanting charms and in meditation. This is because they are the utmost sacred

words in Hinduism and have been used at the beginning and at the end of prayers. Moreover,

they are also the seeds of all mantras.206 In the same charm, the influence of Islm can also be

seen with the presence of <Ali, signifying the fourth Caliph after Prophet Muammad (pbuh).

In addition, the influence of the Malay paganism can be seen with the presence of Rimau or

Harimau. It is a Malay word for tiger. Tiger in the above charm is not referring to an ordinary, or

a physical animal as commonly understood, rather it is a dead ancestral shaman who

becomes his successors guide and helps him now in the trance when he is possessed by spirits

207. It is always in relation with shaman where the tiger serves as his/her servant. It is even an

odd belief of some people in East Java that tiger is descended from <Ali, the Muammad

(pbuh)son-in-law and it was from him the tiger derives its power.208

203
ibid, pp30-31
204
Tantra Tantrik Dictionary on Mahadevi, http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Mahadevi/id/148771 (25.09.2006)
205
Haryana Online, http://www.haryana-online.com/Culture/aum.htm (25.09.2006)
206
J.Z. Smith., (1995) The HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion, p813
207
ibid, p13. For more information about tiger from the Malay perspective See R. Wessing , The Last Tiger in East
Java: Symbolic Continuity in Ecological Change. pp191-218
208
ibid, p195

63
The influence of Sufism is also seen. This is an example of such influence, a charm that is used

for self protection :

Ashahadu Allah [alla] ilaha-illa llah

Wa ashahadu inna [anna] Muhammad Rasul Allah!

Ya saudaraku-ku Jibrail, Mikail, Israfil, Azrail!

Engkau berempat! Berlima dengan aku!

Aku dudok di-kerusi Allah.

Aku bersandar di-tiang arash.

Aku bertongkatkan tiang Kaabah.209

English translation;

I attest there is no God but Allah!

I attest that Muhammad is His Prophet!

Ho! My brethren Jibrail, Mikail, Israfil and Azrail!

Ye are four but with me five!

I sit on the seat of Allah!

I lean against the pillar of his throne;

I use the pillar of the Kaabah as my prop.210

209
R.O. Winstedt.,(1961) The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, p138
210
ibid, p73

64
These examples are not exhaustive. Although the charms did not indicate the successive nature

of the incoming of the influences of animism, Hinduism and Islm, the chronology can be easily

deduced from history. The name of Allh, the Prophet along with his family members and his

companions, angels and other deities are clearly repeatedly used in the Malay charms. Despite

the significant differences between animism, Hinduism and Islm, the Malays did not totally

abandoned earlier influences in their culture.211 Rather, all influences became parts and parcel

of many of their charms. As Winstedt put it, all the influences are assimilated disregarding the

entities and the time when the influence arrived into their culture.212

Other than believing in magics, the Malays also believe in soul, i.e. Semangat in Malay.213 The

belief in Semangat is a well discussed topic when discussing animism in the Malays belief.214 With

211
ibid, p4
212
R.O. Winstedt regards this as the assimilation of new and old beliefs. See his, The Malay Magician-Being Shaman,
Saiva and Sufi . c.f , W.R. Roff. (1967) The Origins of Malay Nationalism, New Haven: Yale University Press, p7, on his
comment about the assimilation of beliefs in the Malay people.
213
Animism has been said the religion of the pagan tribes of the Archipelago. One major character for this religion
is the presence of vital principle in man and nature, J. Hastings., (ed) (1953)Malay Archipelago-Animism,
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. viii, 3rd Ed, p354. Animism is also the traditional world view among the Malay,
A.K. Larsen. (1996) 'The Impact of Islamic Resurgence on the Belief System of Rural Malays', Temenos 32: p139.
Laderman translates Semangat as spirit of life. C. Laderman. (1977) The Limits of Magic, p334. Semangat (soul)
can be found in all things. It is believed that the spirit has a kind of power. For semanagat padi or rice soul, some
people, particularly the Malays, traditionally believe that the rice has its own spirit. The spirit was given various names
such as Seri Gading, Anak Sembilan Bulan and Si Dang Sari. For more information about semangat padi see, Kamus Dewan.
(1994). Ed ke-3.Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, A.H. Moain. (1990).Kepercayaan Orang Melayu Berhubung
Dengan Pertanian. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
214
W.W. Skeat.(1900). Malay Magic: An Introduction To The Folklore And Popular Religion Of The Malay Peninsula. see also
K.M. Endicott. 1970. An Analysis of Malay Magic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Winstedt argues that there are similarities
on the paganism in the Malay belief and in the Indian Dravidian. For example the evil spirits were believed to be
common factors spreading disease and misfortunes to men. Those people believe that the spirits lurk everywhere,
on the tops of palmyra trees, in caves and rocks, in ravines and chasm. They fly about in the air, like birds of prey,
ready to pounce down upon any unprotected victim It is for these reasons the Malay and the Dravidian seek help
to protect their families and the surrounding areas from skilled men they call shaman or some other names. C.f, R.O.
Winstedt. (1961) The Malay Magician -Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, p4.

65
the acceptance of Islm for this community, animism, especially the belief in Semangat, is still

regarded as a predominant factor for them.215 The Malays also believe that things that exist in

this universe such as plants and other objects including animals and man have power and soul.

Skeat216 argues, the pervading Animism, involving a certain common vital principle

(Semangat) in Man and Nature, which for want of a more suitable word, has been here called the

Soul217

The most obvious example of this belief is the existence of Semangat padi,218 which has been

mentioned by Frazer as rice-mother or the soul of a plant. 219 The principles of human

beings reproduction, growth, decay, and death was absorbed into the rice life circle220. Asmah

Haji Omar further elaborated the importance of this spirit. According to her, in the Malay

community, especially the Padi planters, the Padi plant is treated with more polite manners than

any other plant. The Padi, starting from the grains, is said to have a soul or Semangat which has to

be treated very carefully all the time. Every precaution has to be made in order to make sure the

Semangat will not go away. Consequently, a special ritual is performed attributed to the Semangat

e.g. from the moment seeds are to be sawn until the Padi grain to be stored away. 221

215
H.R. Maret. Malay Archipelago-Animism, in J. Hastings (ed) (1953) Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. viii, 3rd
Ed, pp356
216
W.W. Skeat. (1900). Malay magic: An introduction to the folklore and popular religion of the Malay Peninsula, p579
217
ibid
218
J.G. Frazer. (1922). The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, p412
219
ibid, p412
220
ibid , 413-414
221
A.H. Omar. 1985. Language and the world-view of the Malay peasants. In M.T. Osman,(ed). Malaysian
Worldview, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp184-252. See also, R.O. Winsteadt, The
Ritual of the Rice-Field in The Malay Magician-Being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, pp39-55

66
2.2 The Influence of Indian Beliefs

Many factors have contributed to the emergence of other influence in the Malay community. In

terms of its geographical location, Indochina is on the North, while the Malay Archipelago, part

of it is Malaysia, is on the south. If the sea-route was taken into consideration, one will find that

Malaysia is in the midway between India and China. The strategic location of this country made

it an important voyage stopover. Before Europeans arrived in this region, it was also the place

that saw the reigns of Indians political powers. In this section the emergence of Indian influence

in the Malay culture will be discussed.

Even before the fourth century, Malaysia had been visited by Indian traders.222 In the later years

they were followed by the Brahmins and monks. It was here that the Indian religions made

contact with the animistic Malay pagans.223 The Indian influence in the life of the Malays is

difficult to deny with the fact that in the 8th to 14th century, two Indian superpowers i.e. Sri

Vijaya224 and Majapahit225 dominated the Straits of Malacca. The northern part of the Malay

Peninsula was controlled by Sri Vijaya while the southern part was controlled by the Majapahit.

222
R.O. Winstedt. (1961). The Malay Magician, p3
223
ibid
224
Indian origin-Buddhist.
225
Indian origin-Hindu.

67
The relationships between the Malay culture and the monks might have taken place before the

peak of the Sri Vijaya Empire. The suggestion was based on the archaeological discoveries in

Western Borneo. Archaeologists found artefacts such as Buddha images and carnelian beds

dated between the fourth and eight century.226 Colling wrote:

The implication is that a Melayu culture influenced by Indian Ideas would have begun here

before the development of a similar culture in southeast Sumatra at Srivijaya/Malayu between

the seventh and eleventh centuries CE.227

It is clearly indicated from the previous discussion about the presence of Indian influence in this

geographical location that the Malay culture was influenced by the Indian elements, the direct

contact with Indian civilisation through colonial domination and trading that took place early in

the fourth century.

2.3 The Influence of Islm

With the presence of Islm in the Malay Archipelago the powers of the two Indian empires,

Majapahit and Srivijaya slowly decayed. The emergence of this new religion in Malaysia and the

226
J.T. Collin. (1998) Malay, World Language: A Short History, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, p5
227
L.Y. Andaya. (2001) 'The Search for the 'Origin' of Melayu', p317

68
surrounding area has been discussed in many works of prominent scholars.228 It is not the

authors intention to elaborate this issue in depth. However, it is important to highlight this issue

in order to understand the historical view about the Malays and Islm. There are two prominent

views about the people that were responsible in bringing Islm into the Malay Archipelago.

According to Arnold229, Islm came to Malaysia through traders and merchants from India. The

Muslim traders not only came in large numbers, but also traded in many ports and in many of

the islands in the archipelago. Arnold wrote:

long before this time merchants from Deccan, through whose hands passed the trade

between Musalman states of India and the Malay Archipelago, had established themselves in

large numbers in the trading ports of these islands, where they sowed the seed of the new

religion.230

The second view is such of from Johns231 and al-Attas i.e. that Islm was brought into the Malay

Archipelago by the ufi.

228
Hooker referred this as theorising on the Islamisation of the Malay world, see his, B. Hooker. (ed) (1983) Islam in
Southeast Asia, Leiden: Brill. Among prominent scholars on Islam in Southeast Asia are, G.E. Morisson. (1951) 'The
Coming of Islam to the East Indies', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Malayan Branch XXIV(1): 28-37 , A.H. Johns.
(1975) 'Islam in Southeast Asia: reflection and new direction', Indonesia 19: 33-35, S.N. al-Attas. (1967) Preliminary
Statement on a General Theory of the Islamisation of the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka,
S.Q. Fatimi. (1963) Islam Comes to Malaysia, Singapore: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute.
229
T.W. Arnold. (1913) The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith ,2nd Edition, London:
Constable & Co. Ltd, p21
230
ibid, p21
231
Johns (1961) as cited in A. Aziz and S. A. Baharudin (2004). "The Religious, The Plural, The Secular And The
Modern: A Brief Critical Survey On Islam In Malaysia." pp 341-357.

69
The ufi played important roles for Islm in the Malay world. At that time when the Malays were

still deeply influenced by the Shiva-Buddha mystics232, the ufi teachers were able to overwhelm

the Shiva-Buddha mystics with the Islamic mystics, a new way of acknowledgement for Gods

supremacy (Allh) but in away that is comparably familiar to the Malays (mysticism). The ufi

also accommodated the practice by inventing names closely related to the Sanskrit words for

supernatural power to cunningly suit them with the Islamic teachings. For example, the use of

the words Dewata Mulia Raja instead of Allh Taala. The inscriptions in Terengganu clearly

printed these words, a proof that underpins the creative ways of the ufi to bring Islm into the

Malay culture.

Ever since Islm arrived on Malay shores around thirteenth century, Islamic tenets, laws and

teachings have permeated through the life of the Malays233 . Islm has always been a major

symbol of Malayness, in that the faith is not separable from the Malay ethno-culture.234

Mutalib in his discussion about the Malays, described the culture as a configuration consisting of

ingredients coalescing with each other- including <dat (customary norms and oral traditions,

some of which are Islamic and some are Hinduistic in content), ethnic nationalism (a strong

sense of wanting to uphold Malayness), and Islamic principles and values.235 Syed Naquib

232
Ibid, p343
233
H. Mutalib. (1990) Islam and Ethnicity in Malay Politics , Singapore: Oxford University Press.
234
See for instance, a study in 1974, by M. Nash, in W.R. Roff, (ed.) (1976), Kelantan: Religion, Society and Politics in a
Malay State. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press
235
H. Mutalib. (1993). Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State, p 19

70
moreover insists that the introduction of Islm to the Malay Peninsula marked a crucial stage in

the modernisation of the Malays.236

Islm also has some influence in the socio-politics of the Malays. There were two social classes in

the traditional Malay community, the ruling class and the subject class. The highest rank were

the king of the states followed by state administrators for the regions. In the administrative

position, there were also Pawang and Bomoh . With the introduction of Islm, the <Ulam were

also accepted as an important group in the Malay community. In rural areas, the religious

leaders were the Imm, Bill and other mosque administers.237

The influence of Islm in the community was parallel with the position of the <Ulam. For the

vast majority of traditional Malay, religious leaders (<Ulam) played important roles. Roff wrote:

many of the most respected and venerated teachers belonged to, and led local

manifestations of, one or other of the sufi mystical tarekat which have so coloured the practice of

Islam in the Malay world. 238

236
S.N. al-Attas.(1972) Islam Dalam Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Melayu, p 22
237
See W.R. Roff. (1967). The Origins of Malay Nationalism, pp1-31
238
ibid, p85

71
Education for traditional Malays was entirely in the hand of religious teachers. The people

learned religious matters from them in the mosque, Pondok and Madrasah. The most common

subjects were learning the Qurn, the traditions of the Prophet and Taawwuf.239

Other than being teachers for villagers, the <Ulam or religious leaders also led functions such

as in celebrations (Kenduri), funerals, and also being referred to in finding solutions for crisis

and misunderstandings. It seemed that the <Ulam played many roles, almost overtook the

functions played by other leaders. It is a situation that was beyond the norms in the influential

cultures that previously ruled the Malays. Roff also wrote:

Their relationship with the peasant community of which they were a part was a close and

complex one, not easily assailed by those who subscribed to a system of ideas and values.240

The understanding of Islm in the Malay community and how it effected them was also

reflected in the study of Islamic movement in the 19th century, particularly during the

emergence of the Malay reformist group, which is always referred to as Kaum Muda.241 The early

studies on Islamic reforms in Malaysia suggested three elites amongst the Malays, as follows:

239
ibid, p84
240
ibid, p85
241
This group was influenced by the Muslim reformists in the Middle-eastern region especially from Rashid Redha.
In Malaysia the thought was spread through al-Imam, a news paper first published in 1906. Among the prominent
leaders were Shaykh Mohd Tahir b. Jalaluddin al-Azhari, Sayyid Shaykh b. Ahmad al-Hadi, Haji Abbas b. Mohd
Taha, Shaykh Mohd-Salim al-Kalali. Most of the issue discussed were on the ills of the Malay community. Urged
people to understand Islamic teachings through the light of Divine moulded with the use of reason (akal). Traditional
ulamak were accused as blind acceptance to the devine books. See, W.R. Roff. (1967). The Origins of Malay Nationalism.

72
1. Piously Malay bourgeoisie (Kaum Muda) -Modern Malay Journalism, not original

Malay, Arab and South Indian extraction,242 from the early 19th century

2. Malay intelligentsia background vernacular school, Rural Malay-Pan-Malay

nationalism, with the intention to unite Peninsula Malaysia and Indonesia, from the

1930s observed as pro-Indonesian.

3. English-school scions of the Malay ruling houses.-advantages, charismatic with modern

education background especially from the Malay College in Kuala Kangsar.243

Their representation of the Malay elites was also mentioned by Roffe. He called them as the

Arabic- educated religious reformist. There were other two ; the largely Malay-educated

radical intelligentsia and; the English-educated administrators recruited mainly from the

traditional ruling classes.244

pp 56-90 and M.N.B.A. Hamid. (1996). Islamic reform with special reference to the Islah movement in the State of
Perlis, Malaysia,. M.Phil Dissertation, Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
242
Shaykh Mohd Tahir b. Jalaluddin al-Azhari whose ancestors were Arab used to say that,though Peranakan we
are not of the same direct descent as the people here, but we love this country See W.R. Roff. (1967). The Origins of
Malay Nationalism, p 65
243
Ibid, ix
244
For the great details on the Malay reformist and the Malay Nationalism starting from 1930s, See W.R. Roff. (1967).
The Origins of Malay Nationalism, pp 211-247.

73
After the coming of Islm and after the religion and the way of life has been properly embedded

in the Malays, they have always been Muslims. So strong was the association, the name and the

religion exclusively distinguished them from the Chinese and Indians.245

Islm also constitutes a key element in the Malay identity as well as their culture. It is not

surprising when Islm is always associated with the Malay in the Malaysian climate. For example a

person from another ethnic race in Malaysia who embraces Islm is always referred to as Masuk

Melayu i.e. becoming a Malay. Other than playing important key roles in structuring the Malay

culture, Islm in Malaysia has been recognised as the official religion. This is clearly stated in the

Constitution of Malaysia.246 However other people are free to practice their religions and

culture. The establishment of Islm as the official religion for Malaysia, and providing rooms for

other beliefs to be practiced in the country enable its people to live in harmony and peace.247

For Esposito and Voll, Islm in Malaysia is regarded as a moderate version of the religion.248

245
Ibid, p67

246
Article 3(1) declares Islam official state religion and guarantees religious freedom.

247
See J.L. Esposito and J.O. Voll., (1996). Islam and Democracy. New York, Oxford University Press also in A. Aziz and
S.A. Baharudin. (2004) 'The religious, the plural, the secular and the modern: a brief critical survey on Islam in
Malaysia', Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 5(3): 341-357.
248
J.L. Esposito and J.O. Voll., (1996). Islam and Democracy.

74
Islm also has been suggested to be an important element to develop the national culture. As

mentioned by Soong249, there are three important things to consider toward the process of the

National culture;

1. National culture must be based on the indigenous culture of the region.

2. As part of the national culture, suitable elements from other culture can be accepted.

3. In moulding of the national culture Islm should be taken as an important component.

During the colonial times the Islamic influences on the Malay community slowly declined. There

were three ways on how the process has taken place namely, the general bureaucracy, judiciary

and education.250 These processes, which were systematic in approach have been called a

systematic application of a series of colonial investigative modalities.251 The process included

largely the handling of information such as defining the needed body of information, the

procedures by which appropriate knowledge was gathered, its ordering and classification, and

how it was transformed into usable forms such as published reports, statistical returns, histories,

gazetteers, legal codes, and encyclopaedias.252 In other words, this process has taken place in

two steps, first the indigenously thought system was dismantled. This very first step was taken in

order to disempowering the indigenous system of thought of its ability to define things. The

second step was to replace it with a foreign system, which from colonial point of view, was more

249
Soong, (1985) as cited in K.A. Mastor. et.al. (2000), Malay Culture and Personality American Behavioral Scientist,
Vol. 44, 1 (September), pp95-111
250
Aziz, A. and Baharudin, S.A., (2004). "The religious, the plural, the secular and the modern: a brief critical survey
on Islam in Malaysia." p346
251
ibid, p345
252
C.Barnard. (1996) Colonialism and its Form of Knowledge, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p3

75
sophisticated and modern. For example, the secular legislative system was introduced to replace

the Islamic law, which was then limited into family law.253

Education was another main way to introduce new systems into the Malay culture. The new

education system was, however, not projected to enable the Malay children to be professionals in

their modern life but merely to educate the rural population in a suitable rural manner and to

equip them to continue to live a useful, happy rural life. This has been a very subtle way of

keeping the Malay to their traditional livelihood providing little opportunities for them to

perform the functions of administrators or to ultimately govern their own community.

From the foregoing, it is clear that the Malays have experienced different types of culture since

their migration some 2500 years ago. Their culture was confronted by other cultures and belief

from Indian civilisation, Islm and the West. With all these in mind the Malays has made

adaptations to their life until they come to a modern stage as they are today. Islm in Malaysia, is

being said as a syncretistic past influenced by local tradition.254 It can similarly be concluded

from the foregoing discussion that the Malay concept is not an easy one to define. The concept
253
B. Hooker. (ed) (1983) Islam in Southeast Asia, pp 16-17
254
W.R. Roff. (1967). The Origins of Malay Nationalism, p7. Local tradition which is practise in a Muslim community
together with Islamic fundamentals is always referred to as vernacular Islm. For more clarification on the Islamic
practices within different community in different regions see, R.C. Martin., (Ed). (2004). Vernacular Islam,
Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. New York, MacMillan Reference, L. Holy. (1991). Religion and Custom in a
Muslim Society: The Berti of Sudan. London, Cambridge University Press and R. Loeffler. (1988). Islam in Practice:
Religious Beliefs in a Persian Village. Albany, State University of New York Press. The presence of the elements of formal
religion together with other elements especially from local tradition in a system of belief is called syncretism. They are
not clearly be separated in practice but in is worth to be analysed to determine the identity they provide, the area
of ritual practice they pertain to, their internal logical and power of explanation, and even their psychological and
social functions, A.K. Larsen. (1996) 'The Impact of Islamic Resurgence on the Belief System of Rural Malays',
Temenos 32: p137

76
of Malay which has been used in Malaysia is observed as an important way to secure the Malay

community as what has been practised since the time of the British colonial up until post

independence era. This idea has been supported by many writers.255

In general the study of the concept of the Malay has been carried out from two points of view;
256
firstly, historical and secondly from socio-political aspect. Researches from historical

perspective argue more on the region of origin of the Malay and how they spread in the

archipelago. Special interest was also given to the culture and belief. Socio-political researches

on the other hand stress more on the issue of ethnicity and how the concept has been

manipulated for various reasons in Malaysia especially during the post colonial era.

255
For more clarification see S.A. Baharudin. (2001) 'A History of an Identity, an Identity of a History: The Idea and
Practice of 'Malayness' in Malaysia Reconsidered', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3 (October)): 355-366, C.
Hirschman. (1987) 'The Meaning and Measurement of Ethnicity in Malaysia: An Analysis of Cencus Classifications',
The Journal of Asian Studies 46(3(August)): 555-582, W.F. Case. (2000) 'The New Malaysian Nationalism: Infirm
Beginnings, Crashing Finale', Asian Ethnicity 1(2 (September)): 131-147. H. Singh. (2001) 'Ethnic Conflict in Malaysia
Revisited', Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 39(1 (March)): 42-65.
256
For more information, see, T.P. Barnard. (2001) 'Text, Raja Ismail and Violence: Siak and the Transformation of
Malay Identity in the Eighteenth Century', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3,October): 331-342, L.Y. Andaya.
(2001) 'The Search for the 'Origin' of Melayu', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3(October)): 315-330. Reid, A.
(2001) 'Understanding Melayu (Malay) as a Source of Diverse Modern Identities.' Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32(3
,October): 295-313,
V. Wee. (2005) 'Melayu, Indigenism and the 'Civilising Process': Claims and Entitlements in Contested Territories',
Southern Asia Research Centre (SEARC) Working Paper Series(78): 1-21.

77
2.4 <dat in the Malay Culture

The Malay Customary Law (<dat) and the Malay Language (Bahasa Melayu) and Islm are the

three important elements in the Malay culture. The Malay culture symbolizes all the social and

cultural features that are characteristically or distinctively Malay.257 It is a key symbol of the

Malay culture but is not enough to give cultural meanings or moral force. <dat that is also

means tradition, custom and customary law is, however, difficult to be defined. This is because

<dat refers to different meanings. It is in the middle of social consensus and moral style. 258

Before further discussing the <dat from the Malay perspective it is important to note that the

current siginifacance of <dat in this community is not as it was before i.e. during and right after

colonial period. This is because the Muslim people in Malaysia and Indonesia which are parts of

the Malay Archipelago have gone through six major periods in the Islamisation process namely;

I. The period of radical change in belief system from polytheism to Islamic monotheism.

II. The period of Muslm sultanates i.e. the period during which the Islamic beliefs and

practices and the pre-Islamic Malay customary laws and values were practised in the

community.

257
M.G. Peletz (1987) The Exchange of Men in 19th-Century Negeri Sembilan (Malaya)
American Ethnologist, Vol.14, 3 (August) p450
258
G. Clifford. (1983) Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective, in G. Clifford (edt) Local
Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology, New York: Basic Books. P185

78
III. The period of reformist movement to purify the un-Islamic beliefs and practices such as

on superstitions, accretions and mysticism

IV. The period of struggle against the European imperialism that was regarded by the Malay as

foreign disbelievers. During this period Jihd became religiously motivated to challenge

them.

V. The period ideological and political struggle between secularly-oriented political forces,

systems and elites with reformist-oriented Muslims. It was at this period that the ideas or

concepts of the Islamic state and Islam is a Way of Life were propagated, and

VI. The period of post Islamic Revolution in Iran. 259

There are two different forms of customary laws practised in Malaysia namely <dat Temenggong

and <dat Perpatih. The latter is widely practised in the state of Negeri Sembilan while the former

is, in general, being practised in other states in Malaysia. The content of <dat especially for <dat

Perpatih covers many aspects of life including politics, property and inheritance and the laws

related to marriage and divorce.260 There are also Pantun and Perbilangan (customary sayings)

that politically and socially deal with the wide aspect of life.

In the Malay community, <dat should be discussed properly and politely and is indeed a very

important element in their culture, just as the language and Islm are to them. Although Islm is
259
M.K. Hassan (2004) The Muslim World in the 21st Century. Journal of Islam in Asia,
No.1, 1(June), p335
260
C.W.C. Parr and W.H. Mackray(1990) Rembau, One of the Nine States: Its History, Constitution, and Customs.
As cited in M.G. Peletz (1993) Sacred Texts and Dangerous Words: The Politics of Law and Cultural Rationalization
in Malaysia. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.35, 1 (January) pp71-72

79
widely accepted as the religion for the Malays, a considerable amount of Hindu and pre-Hindu

practice, including the beliefs of the Malay pagan, have been accepted and embedded into the

<dat. As a result, the adat becomes an important entity for the discussion of both the Malays

and Islm in the Malay community. Therefore, theMalaynessof Malays has two central pillars:

Islm as the religious and universal one, and, <dat, or the Malay customary laws, as the local

moral one.261 In the life of the Malays, Islm has taken cultural-symbolic form. Beside being a

critical pillar for the faith, it is also ceremonial and ritualistic.262

Islm, as it may seem along the evolution of the Malay culture, has mixed and in many parts,

played very important roles in that culture. It is inseparable. No aspects in the discussion of the

culture, if taken lightly, lead to become insensitive issues. For example, Hamka, a prominent

Malay scholar in Indonesia used to criticise the <dat in the Minangkabau practice which he

proclaimed as unislamic.263 His criticism only sparked anger from the <dat functionists.

However in his later book Hamka tried to demonstrate the connection of <dat with Islm by

using a famous phrase in the <dat perpatih; Adat bersendikan Shar, Shar bersendikan Kitbullh

(<Adat is based on Islamic law, and Islamic law is based on the book of Allh).264 He argued that

anything outside of this boundaries is <dat Jhiliyyah (<dat that was practicsed during pre-

261
S.A. Baharudin. (2001) Discourses On Political Reform And Democratization In East And Southeast Asia In The
Light Of New Processes Of Regional Community Building Project. Discussion Paper No. 14/2001 Institut fr University
of Duisburg, Germany, p5
262
ibid, p8
263
HAMKA (1984) Islam dan Adat Minangkabau as cited in W.S.W . Yusoff (2004) Twentieth Century Muslim
Reformer in the Malay-Indonesia Archipelago: An Intellectual Biography of HAMKA
Journal of Islam in Asia,Vol.1, 1,p367
264
ibid

80
Islamic periods). By using this method Hamka was seen successful in finding the bridge between

<dat and Islm which is important for Da<wah purposes.

The practice of <dat in the Malaysias modern Malays has been exposed to arguments,

criticisms, and to some point, purification. As discussed in the above, <dat contains influences of

Hinduism and pre-Hinduism beliefs and practices that were embodied in the Malay life. The

emergence of Da<wah groups in Malaysia come along with the resurgence of Islam and resulted

in many young Malay Muslim starting to understand Islm more clearly. In return, they started to

argue the practice of <dat: Karim argues;

They tend to see many Malay adat practices as animistic and rooted in pre- and unIslamic
(India) traditions. For example, criticis on the use of pawangs (shamanic specialists),
bomohs (shamans), the wedding ceremony and its associated practices (including bersanding,
dikir [zikir] (sufi- inspired chants) music, dances (including modern rock music), mas
kahwin (dowry), offerings to spirit), the wayang kulit (shadow puppet show) and other
Malay practices265

Similarly they also regarded Kenduri266 especially during weddings, as Maksiat (sinful) and

wasting money. With those attacks the Da<wah groups were seen as threats to Malay culture.267

Although the practice of <dat seems to be affected with the Da<wah movement, it was the British,

who for the first time, distinguished between the state and the religion in the 19th century. With

265
W.J. Karim. (1992) Women and Culture: Between Malay Adat and Islam, Sydney: West view Press, p15
pp175-177
266
A celebratory feast held especially during the weddings, funerals etc.
267
W.J. Karim. (1992) Women and Culture: Between Malay Adat and Islam, p173

81
the introduction of this policy into Malaysia (then was Malaya) Islm was also clearly

distinguished from <dat and for the first time religion and state was separated. This can be seen

from the Sixth Article of the Pangkor Engagement in 1874.

that the Sultan receive and provide a suitable residence for a British Officer to be called

Resident, who shall be accredited to his Court and whose advice must be asked and acted upon

on all matters other than those touching upon Malay Religion and Custom. 268

This engagement is important when the issue of <dat and Islm in Malaysia are going to be

discussed; this was the first officially written document that separated the power of Malay Rulers

from the state administration. Prior to that, the state administrations were all under the power of

Sultan and the Malay headmen. The second important point is that Islm was only referred to in

small penal and civil cases in court. Religious courts (Shar<ah courts) which were established for

Muslims legal matters were limited to Malay marriage, divorce, inheritance and some other

smaller matters269 compared to secular courts that function as the highest judicial authorities. To

make things worst, local customs was also interpreted from the principle of English law with the

268
C.N. Parkinson. (1960) British Intervention in Malay, 1867-1877 as cited in D.J. Banks, (1976)Islam and Inheritance
in Malaya: Culture Conflict or Islamic Revolution? American Ethnologist, Vol.3, No.4 (November),p573
269
With the separation of Shar<ah court from secular courts, wider variety of cases which were once under the Malay
religious official were then administrated under the secular courts. In other word, after the British rule, the
interpretation of <dat, Islm and Shar<ah were from the British officials. For more clarification see E. Sadka. (1968)
The Protected Malay States, 1874-1894, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press

82
aid of hierarchical secular administrations.270 With this changes the vital roles of Islm in the

Malay society was also effected.271

In summary, the six propositions on <dats development in the Malay community, indicate that

un-Islamic practices in <dat have been challenged at least in the three consecutive periods of

the Islamisation process in the Malay world. Again it is a suggestion to show that, amid the

dynamic nature, the Malay people is still holding dear to the <dat.

2.5 Islm in the Traditional Malay Society

Historical evidence indicates that the Arab and Persian had made some contacts as early as in

the 7th century. However the question of when exactly the Muslm community established itself

in the Malay Archipelago is still not very clear. With the spreading of Indian political power in

the Malay Archipelago in the 7th century the Malay was influenced by Hinduism in belief and in

practice. It was in the thirteen century that the mass conversions of the Malay to Islm took

place.272 However in the earlier stage of the arrival of Islm, the religion was not the central focus

of social activities in the Malay society.273 Although the Malay highest class converted to Islm,

the ordinary people of the Malay still attached to animism that had long been adapted into their

270
J.B. David. (1976)Islam and Inheritance in Malaya: Culture Conflict or Islamic Revolution? ,p573
271
ibid
272
G.P. Means. (1969) The Role of Islam in the Political Development of Malaysia. Comparative Politics, Vol.1, No.2
(January), p264
273
K. Abdullah. (1999) National Security and Malay Unity: The Issue of Radical Religious Elements in Malaysia
Contemporary Southeast Asia; Aug 1999,21,2 (August), pp261-282.

83
culture and social life.274 It is also important to consider the presence of the ufi mystics in this

community. This is because in the thirteen century when Islm was generally accepted by the

Malay, the ufi mystics from India were zealously engaged in an extensive campaign of

proselyting.275 The Malay easily adapted ufi mystics due to its ability to tolerate with the beliefs

and practices of their pre-Muslim society. On this adaptation Gibb notes:

There is in the mental makeup of nearly all the Muslm peoples a strong infusion
of what we may call the raw material of pantheism. I mean the heritage of primitive
animism, the belief in spirits, in Jinns, in Afrits-And though some of these animistic
beliefs and practices were definitely rejected by Islm and remained outside it, yet a
certain number of them gained admission and eased the way for the worship of saints
and marabouts; the belief in a hierarchy of living Awliy (plural for Wali) who
exercised divinely conferred powers in this world; and other such elements, which
were taken up into ufi thought.276

In terms of social life in the traditional Malay society, religious institutions especially Masjid

(mosque) and Surau (prayer house) were important. There was a Masjid in every village. The

elders would select a few number among the villagers to run the Masjid. Generally they selected

an Imm, a Bill and a Siak. The Imm would leads the prayer especially on Fridays. Bill was the

one in charge to do the Azn (calling to the prayer) and also assisted the Imm. The Siak ensured

everything such as prayer mats were ready before the prayer took place. Masjid and Surau were

not only used for religious purposes such as regular prayers but were also the place for social and

political meetings for the villagers. The children were brought to those places to get knowledge

274
ibid
275
P.M. Gordon. (1969) The Role of Islam in the Political Development of Malaysia. P266
276
H.A.R. Gibb. (1947) Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago: University of Chicago, pp22-23

84
from the Imm on religious instruction and learnt the holy Qurn. In some cases the capable

Imm also taught the villagers about the religion. Those institutions were run through adaqah

(donations) and also from Zakat which is a must for eligible Muslim.277

Social interaction and solidarity were strengthened through various activities in the society.

Common prayers, rites, rituals and festivals all promoted social solidarity to the rural people.278

The Malay peasants did the daily prayers quite consistently in the mosque and in the prayer

house thus contributed to their social interaction. Moreover, social integration was also gained

through religious and non-religious rites and ceremonies such as planting and harvesting time.

During Kenduri or communal feasts the villagers worked together and voluntarily offered help.

In terms of politics Islm was significant in many aspects. As had been mentioned earlier, the

Hinduism influences in the Malay community were not totally abandoned when they converted

to Islm, thus the new religion did not displace existing political and social elites or challenge

too many existing social values and practices.279 For example in the case of the Ruler

constitution, the concept of divine kingship which was Hinduism influence was Islamised with

the belief that it was an obligation for the Ruler to protect the faith of his men and be Gods

shadow on the earth.280 Interestingly, especially in the Malay community, a Ruler will be much

277
For more clarity on the religious institution in the rural areas of the Malay see, P.M. Means (1969) The Role of
Islam in the Political Development of Malaysia. pp268-269,
278
Religions undoubtedly promote integration of the community. For more information see, J. Wach. (1944)
Sociology of Religion, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p42
279
P.M. Gordon. (1969) The Role of Islam in the Political Development of Malaysia. P266
280
ibid

85
respected if he was able to produce Salasilah (a genealogy) that his lineage was linked to some

famous Muslim Monarch.

In summary, Islm for the Malay community especially at the village level, played important roles

and became a vital social force. Religious superiority was clearly demonstrated in social

interaction. The establishment of the mosque and prayer house in any village in the Malay

community showed how the religious institutions were being respected in this community. Most

importantly the member of the society was integrated through Islm which has been accepted as

a vital element in their culture.

2.6 Historical Background of the Development of the Malay Businessmen

In general the traditional Malays has been stated as living in Kampong (rural areas) and engaged

in agriculture and fishing,281 whereas non Malays especially the Chinese immigrants were

involved in business and entrepreneurial activities. However, this statement is not absolutely true

since the Malay had involved themselves of the period lived by trade and involved themselves in

it.282 They had experienced a period of economic independence and were involved in trade

with the traders from China, India, Europe, Japan, Arab regions and other people from other

countries before the coming of the European colonialists and immigrant population.283

281
H. Crouch.(1996) Government and Society in Malaysia. Sydney: Allen and Unwin as cited in K.A. Mastor, P. Jin and
M. Cooper. (2000),p97
282
A. Reid. (1990) An Age of Commerce in Southeast Asian History Modern Asian Studies, 24, 1,p4
283
S.A. Baharudin. (1997).The Economic Dimension of Malay Nationalism- The Socio-Historical Roots of the New
Economic Policy and Its Contemporary Implications.The Developing Economies, XXXV-3 (September) p245

86
The significance of the Malay in trades can be traced back to the 15th century Malacca. It was a

well known port with a population of around 50,000. Malacca flourished as an important route

for vessels from the East and the West. Two forms of Shar<ah based law were used, Hukum

Kanun Melaka and Undang-undang Laut Melaka.284 Differing from Hukum Kanun Melaka, which

concerned the rule of the rulers power, rules relating to proper conduct, criminal and civil laws

as well as the family law, the Undang-Undang Laut Melaka concerned rules of the sea. It was

particularly concerned on codes and rules for sea users and it was obeyed by all merchants

regardless of their belief and origins.285 Looking into the above legal text the influence of Islm

for the trading rules were widely used. Among the examples are the use of Arabic-Islam terms

such as Imm, mamm ,Malim, Amnah, Haq Tala, ayyib, Tazir and Mithql.286 The Malacca

Malay was not only getting involved in the trade but at the same time followed the rules from a

Malay political power at that time, the Malacca Sultanate.

In the 16th to the 17th century Southeast Asia was important for trading route and port cities. The

region was relatively highly urbanised. Among the popular ports for trading during this period

were Melaka, Brunei, Pegu, Surabaya and Makasar.287 The Malay traders had international

connections and were high in mobility i.e. their readiness to move to other places if business was

284
Hukum Kanun Melaka (Malacca Digest) and Undang-undang Laut Melaka (Maritime Laws of Malacca) were used in
the 15th century in Melaka as a basis of social order. See Liaw (1976) Undang-undang Melaka as cited in A. Aziz and
S.A. Baharudin. (2004) The Religious, the Plural, the Secular and the Modern: A Brief Critical Survey on Islam in
Malaysia.Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Vo.5, 3, p344
285
ibid.
286
ibid
287
A. Reid. (1990) An Age of Commerce in Southeast Asian History Modern Asian Studies, 24, 1,p3

87
threatened.288 The Southeast Asian traders had huge vessels up to 200-500 tones in weight.

However with the emergence of European traders with strong support from their political

powers, especially the Portuguese and the Dutch in the 17th century, small vessels of 20-30 tones

were used.289 This evidence shows how the Southeast Asian traders, including the Malay were

affected by the European power especially when the Portuguese and the Dutch conquest of

Malacca and many of Moluccan ports respectively took place.

The colonialisation periods especially from 1824 onwards until the independence of Malaysia in

1957 however changed the reality in which the colonial conquest and immigrant advancement

in the economic sector left the Malay economically backwards.290 As a result the Malay were

mainly attached to rural and largely agrarian ways of life even after the independence in 1957.

After the independence the Malay peasants from Kampong (rural areas) started to live in new

urban areas to gain economic fortune . The uneasy lives in the cities and with the Chinese

controlling the business made them start to question the significance of UMNO for their survival

in their own homeland especially in terms of political power and economy. The political power

was in the Malays hand but they remained barred from the world of business.291 The

experience of those urban Malay was further noticeable with the formation of urban Malay

groups in UMNO.

288
Ibid, p4
289
ibid,p4
290
The Malay backwardness was also contributed from the Malay cultural traits at that time as well. Such as poor time
management, a lack of rationality , attitudes toward works and so on. See, H. Mutalib. (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From
Revivalism to Islamic State.(Trans), Singapore: Singapore University Press, p245
291
W.F. Case. (2000) The New Malaysia Nationalism: Infirm Beginnings, Crashing Finale. Asian Ethnicity,
Vo.1,No.2(September), p137

88
The Malay was in poor situation even after the country was free from the British colonisation. In

terms of equity, the Malay only had a small portion of it. By the end of 1960s the Malay only

owned not more than 1.5% of the economic cake. The Chinese on the other hand held around

23% and the rest was owned by foreigners.292 This was alarming for the country which was once

called the Malay Peninsula. The disparity in economic sector between the Malay and non-Malay

became an important agenda for UMNO especially from the pressure groups within the party.293

Two sessions of Economic Congress were organised by UMNO led by Tun Abdul Razak, who was

the minister of National and Rural Development. A number of proposals have been tabled.

Solutions on how the state could promote the Malay to participate in business were discussed.294

In 1969, for the first time in its independent history, Malaysia witnessed the first riot erupted

between the Malay and non-Malay citizens.295 Following to the 1969 riot an emergency law was

292
J.K. Sundram (1988) A Question of Class: Capital, the State, and Uneven Development in Malaya as cited in Case, William
F. (2000) The New Malaysia Nationalism: Infirm Beginnings, Crashing Finale. Asian Ethnicity, o.1,No.2(September),
p137
293
ibid. Some Malay nationalist argued that in terms of economic and material ownership their rights were being
driven out from their own home (dirampas segalanya di rumah sendiri) thus the political and the economic agenda of
the nationalists was to repossessing their rights from the British and the immigrants especially the Chinese, see S.A.
Baharudin. (1997) The Economic Dimension of Malay Nationalism- The Socio-Historical Roots of the New
Economic Policy and Its Contemporary Implications The Developing Economies, XXXV-3 (September), p245
294
W.F. Case. (2000) The New Malaysia Nationalism: Infirm Beginnings, Crashing Finale, p 137
295
This riot is the well known Tragedi 13 May (May 13th violence). It happened on the 13th of May 1969. W.F. Case
argues it was the political reason that started the flame, Malay voters drifted from UMNO to support the PMIP
[PAS] [The Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party], and Chinese voters turned from the MCA to the DAP [Democratic Action
Party], the PPP [Peoples Progressive Party], and the Gerakan. The Alliance thus won only a plurality of the total vote,
enough to retain control of the federal government, but not enough to form several state governments. In Kuala
Lumpur, many Malays, suddenly fearing that their community would have neither political nor economic power,
looked upon the celebrating Chinese as if they were to have both. Indeed, DAP and Gerakan elites led victory
processions that sustained non-Malay communal fervour for several days. See his, (1991) Comparative Malaysian
Leadership:Tunku Abdul Rahman and Mahathir Mohamad Asian Survey, Vol,31,5, p461. For more clarification on

89
implemented. As a result, the implementation of the National Economic Plan (NEP) swiftly

followed in 1970. The main objective of NEP was to eradicate poverty and to restructure the

society that was recognised as the prime factors for the May 13th Violence. It was through this

policy that the number of the Malay in business started to increase. This is because; the Malaysian

government through NEP gave opportunities to the Malay to get involved in business activities.

NEP was thus a government policy to promote the interests of Bumiputera (sons of the soil or

ethnic Malays) over the other population in the country.296 A principal target of NEP was, by

1990, 30 per cent of the countrys corporate wealth would be held by, or on behalf of,

Bumiputera...297 Among the strategies undertaken under the NEP for the Malays were;

1. Accelerating the Malay toward urbanisation

2. Opening up tertiary education

3. Setting up a new network of state enterprises to provide managerial skills to the

Malay

4. Setting up a new state-run unit trusts offering lessons in stock ownership

5. Requiring private businesses, Chinese-owned and foreign, to facilitate on-site

training in entrepreneurship by allocating 30 per cent of their positions for the

Malay.

the May 13th violence, see W.F. Case. (2000)The New Malaysia Nationalism: Infirm Beginnings, Crashing Finale Asian
Ethnicity, pp131-147 and Vorys, Karl Von. (1975) Democracy Without Consensus: Communalism and Political Instability in
Malaysia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
296
Worden, Nigel.(2003) National Identity and Heritage Tourism in Melaka, Indonesia and the Malay World, Vol.31,
89(March), p32
297
For more clarification, see Milne, R.S.(1976) The Politics of Malaysias New Economic Policy, Pacific Affairs, 49
(Summer) pp235-261

90
6. Awarding constructions and supply for the state contracts mostly to the Malay in

intention to transform graduates, managers and executives into entrepreneurship.298

Although many Malay businesspersons were born under NEP some people argued that it was the

upper and middle classes who benefited.299 Taking into account the relationship between the

economy and the politics of the Malay, this argument holds some truth. With many projects

under the Rural and National Development programs, many Malays became entrepreneurs.

They gained benefits from infrastructure projects such as in the construction of roads and water

supplies. They were also involved in the capacity-building projects such as providing fishermen

with equipment, building ice factories and providing managerial training for rural

participants.300 Although the Malay was generally seen as entrepreneurs that started to engage in

capitalist business, the Malay, especially the businesspersons have their image tarnished

considerably. This is because the projects they gained were from the government, and in some

cases, through UMNO state leaders. To ensure the sustainability of their businesses, they

involved themselves in politics and, As a result, UMNO politicians became not only more

interested in the business of politics but also increasingly knowledgeable in the art of the politics

of business, particularly, in the business of rural development301 With this respect the Malay

298
W.F. Case. (2000) The New Malaysia Nationalism: Infirm Beginnings, Crashing Finale p137
299
S.H. Ali. (1981) as cited in D.K. Mauzy and R.S. Milne (1983) The Mahathir Administration in Malaysia:
Discipline through Islam Pacific Affairs, Vo.56,no.4 (winter)p626
300
S.A. Baharudin. (1997)The Economic Dimension of Malay Nationalism- The Socio-Historical Roots of the New
Economic Policy and Its Contemporary Implications The Developing Economies, p249
301
Ibid, p248

91
culture which is associated to Islm constitutionally and culturally is also effected. In terms of

economy the culture of the Malay businessmen was also unclear as one author argues, A

capitalist economy with its attendance culture, which not only dictates the framework of

economic life there but has gradually won new supporters amongst the burgeoning Malay

middle class.302

2.7 Islamisation Under Mahathirs Administration 1981-2003

Compared to the previous prime Ministers of Malaysia, Mahathirs approach has been seen as

managerial. His management style started as early as when he was appointed to the post. For

example, he urged the civil servants to arrive at the office on time and resulted with the

introduction of clock-in system in the government offices nationwide. They were also advised

to wear name-tags during office hours. He also introduced special dress for all ministers at

National Day celebrations. For this he chose the dark blue suits for them reflecting hard work in

the new industrial country. His managerial style was summarised as,including a sense of

urgency, speed, and attention to the distribution of information.303

Among the major policy he undertook was the introduction of the Look East policy. The

objective was to learn the technology and strong work ethics from the Japanese and Korean.304

302
H. Mutalib. (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State. Singapore, p 117
303
D.K. Mauzy and R.S. Milne. (1983) The Mahathir Administration in Malaysia: Discipline through Islam, p624.
304
Ibid, p627

92
As far as ethics and morality is concerned, Mahathir argued that such Japanese quality as

loyalty, unselfishness, diligence, efficiency, cleanliness, orderliness, sincerity, trustworthiness,

thrift, and-most frequently-hard work and discipline.305 Mahathirs adoption of the Japanese

ethics was in line with the eastern societys social value in that, their philosophy in trade, for

example, profit is not everything. They do not have this great class difference that you find in the

West [where] in a factory the executives will never sit down in the same canteen with the

workers.306

During his tenure as a premier, as never before, Islm became one of the decisive factors

on Malaysia political agenda.307 The role of Islm that was seen as merely functioning in ritual

matters started to change with a well publicised Penerapan Nilai-Nilai Islm (the inculcation of

Islamic values) at the beginning of his administration. With the implementation of this

programme Malaysia started to experience a gradual transformation from being a secular to

more Islamic administration without sacrifying national unity with the non-Muslim

population.308 The steps he had taken in promoting Islm started from the onset of his

appointment as the prime minister post and these have made the non-Malays become uneasy.

However Mahathir clarified his policy. He argues;

305
As cited in ibid, p628
306
D.K. Mauzy and R.S.Milne (1983) The Mahathir Administration in Malaysia: Discipline through Islam, p628.
307
K. Abdullah.(1999) National Security and Malay Unity: The Issue of Radical Religious Elements in Malaysia p266
308
ibid, p265. The project was however did not well accepted by the Islamist groups such as PAS (Pan Islamic Party of
Malaysia) and al-Arqam. From PAS point of view Islamisation is to change the country into a total Islamic civilization
country.

93
What we mean by Islamisation is the inculcation of Islamic values in government. Such
an inculcation is not the same as implementation of Islamic laws in the country. Islamic
laws are for Muslims and meant for their personal laws. But laws of the nation, although
not Islamic-based, can be used so long as they do not come into conflict with Islamic
principles.309

Mahathir also invited prominent leaders of Islamic groups in the country to join his government.

It was here Anwar Ibrahim, then the President of ABIM (the Malaysian Islamic Youth

Movement) joined Mahathirs bandwagon. Other figures who also joined the government were

Yusuf Noor, then the Dean of the Faculty of Islamic Studies at the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

(National University of Malaysia) and Zainal Abidin Abdul Kadir, the former Director of Pusat

Islam (the Islamic centre). In terms of Islamic administration Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam, BAHEIS

(Islamic Affairs Division) was upgraded into Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia, JAKIM (The

Department of Islamic Development), significantly upgrading BAHEIS which was once only a

small unit. The intention was to make the department as religious referral centre for the

country.310 Apart from these examples of Islamisation under Mahathirs administration there

were more which have been discussed in many books and articles.311

The emergence of a so called Da<wah groups in Malaysia that began in the mid-1970s were also a

big challenge for Mahathir. He chose not to oppose this group openly but with a strategy that

309
A citation from an interview with Mahathir as cited in, Mutalib, H. (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to
Islamic State. Singapore: Singapore University Press, p30
310
K. Kamarulzaman (1999) National Security and Malay Unity:The Issue of Radical Religious Elements in Malaysia
p266.
311
For example H. Mutalib. (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State. Singapore: Singapore University
Press especially on pp30-35. R.S. Milne and D.K. Mauzy.(1999) Malaysia Politics under Mahathir, London:Routledge.

94
later proved his political cunningness.312 First of all, as the author discussed earlier, by inviting

Anwar Ibrahim. Secondly was his move to make UMNO look more Islamic in appearance.313

This was done to make sure that Islam is not left to oppositions especially PAS to gain support.

To realise this UMNO was pictured as a party for the Malay and its goal has never changed in

promoting Islam. Prime Minister Mahathir told the press on several occasions that UMNOs

struggle was based on Islm, and that its three objectives were protecting Malay rights, Islm and

the country.314 To make his government look Islamic in practice rather than merely using Islam

as a symbol, he announced in 1982 the three big Islamic government projects namely, Islamic

bank, the International Islamic University and Islamic Civilisation courses in all public

universities courses that were set to become compulsory for all students attending Malaysian

universities.315

Mahathir is also famous with his efforts in reshaping the Malay identity. In Malaysia the most

significant part of the Malay identity is Islm. As a result, anything that is being discussed on the

Malay basically correlates with Islm - notion that is also used through out this research.

312
His strategy was different from the past undertaken by the previous prime ministers. The formers, especially the
late 1970s, only responded by sponsoring Da<wah program to propagate that the opposition views were wrong and
used the incorrect interpretation of the Qurn. At the same time religious activities were being controlled by the use of
larger federal bureaucratic infrastructures. However the strategy that was undertaken by Mahathir gave Da<wah groups
more space to propagate. And this in return gave the government a new challenge to control them. For more
clarification see, D.K. Mauzy and R.S. Milne (1983) The Mahathir Administration in Malaysia: Discipline through
Islam, p635
313
J. Nagata (1980).Religious Ideology and Social Change: The Islamic Revival in Malaysia, Pacific Affairs, 53 (Fall)
pp405-439 especially pp429 and 436
314
D.K. Mauzy and R.S. Milne. (1983) The Mahathir Administration in Malaysia: Discipline through Islam, p636
315
ibid, p638

95
In 1991 he called for the Malay to bring about a Melayu Baru (New Malay).316 In the 1992

UMNO General Assembly he again repeated the notion.317 The newly introduced concept was

his hope for the Malay to be entrepreneurs and to compete with the local Malaysian Chinese

and the local capitalists.318 In the UMNO General Assembly in 1992 he urged the Malay to look

back into their culture and asked fora new culture which is relevant to the present business

climate319 In the 1997 General Assembly he stressed the need for the Malay to change their

way of thinking and living in the country because of the changes of time. He stresses, the

Malay culture in this era is not the same with the Malay culture when we were fighting for

independence and during the early post-independence period.320

There were also some similar programmes at the national level such as;

1. The establishment of the Malaysian Islamic Development Foundation

2. Approval for an Islamic Insurance Company

3. Approval for Islamic pawnshops

4. A decision to upgrade the position of Qi and Shar<ah courts

5. A ban on the import of non-all beef

6. The establishment of an Islamic Teachers Training College

316
Utusan Malaysia, Mahathir:Lahirkan Melayu Baru. 9 November 1991.
317
W.F. Case argues that Melayu Baru for Mahathir is a transformation from the feudal dependence to a new
economic approach as outlined by the NEP. See his, (2000) The New Malaysia Nationalism: Infirm Beginnings,
Crashing Finale p141
318
E.C. Thompson. (2004) Rural Villages as socially urban spaces in Malaysia Urban Studies, vol 41,12
(November),p2360
319
W.F. Case.(1995) as cited in N. Worden(2003) National Identity and Heritage Tourism in Melaka p100
320
ibid, p39, cf Mahathirs speech at, www.smpke.jpm.my/gn-data/ucapan.pm, 10.11.2006

96
7. Increased instruction in and use of Arabic script (Jawi)

8. Closer ties with Middle-Eastern countries

9. The extension of Raman regulations

10. Using the method of moon-sighting for Raman and Hari Raya (The first day of Syawwal

month) and,

11. Penal Code Amendments directly related to religion.321

Mahathirs administration with regard to upgrading Islm in Malaysia undoubtedly has

benefited the country. With regards to the business sector, especially with the look-east policy

and one of his reasons while taking this policy was that he was so impressed with the economic

development of the Japanese and Koreans without compromising their cultures and ethics. This

implicitly urged religious values to be practiced in economic development.

Mahathir Islamisation policy was also significant in creating the Islamic environment to this

country. With this on mind Muslims in this country started to practice Islm in all conducts

openly such as in politics, social and economy.

Indeed, rising Islamic consciousness has, in a sense, created an enclave of Muslim

business within larger economy. Though still insignificant in terms of total system,
they are becoming more and more visible in urban centres like Kuala Lumpur, the
federal capital. Tapes and publications aside, the food business is a flourishing
element in this economic set-up. There are now even serious efforts to manufacture
various food products directed towards a Muslim clientele conscious of the important
of Halal food.322

321
D.K. Mauzy and R.S. Milne. (1983) The Mahathir Administration in Malaysia: Discipline through Islam, p638
322
C. Muzaffar. (1987) Islamic Resurgence in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti, p4

97
 Chapter 3

The Shar<ah Perspective

3.0 Introduction

In this chapter issues on economics, culture and society from the Shar<ah perspective are going

to be examined carefully. The objective is to understand the culture of Muslim people in

relation to economics and their social lives. It is understood that Islam is one of the leading

worlds religions. It is a monotheistic religion like Judaism and Christianity. However its religious

and political community character distinguish it from the latter religions.323 From the Islamic

point of view there is no separation between church and state and the physical and spiritual

dimensions of life.

The system as to how Muslims should individually and socially conduct themselves is known as

the Shar<ah . It is a fundamental religious concept of Islam and is sometimes called the Islamic

law. It should not be misunderstood with Fiqh. This is due to: Fiqh is the process of discovering and

understanding the injunctions of the Shar<ah.324 Generally Shar<ah means path to be

followed325 i.e. Muslims have to serve God (Allah) and travel along his life path solely in order

323
For more details on classification of the world religions see. A.A. Al Masdoosi (1962) Living religions of the World : A
Socio-Political Study, Z. I. Ansari (Trans); Karachi, Pakistan: Begum Aisha Bawany Waqf.
324
Mohammad Talaat al-Ghinaimi. (1968). The Muslim Conception of International Law and the Western Approach. The
Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, P 106
325
A.R.I. Doi (1983) Shari'ah: The Islamic Law,London: Ta Ha Publications, p2

98
to obey Him.326 The root of the word Shar<ah is Sha-Ra <A, its which literally meaning means is

way to water.327 It refers to water as the source of all life.

Al- Qurn is the primary source of the Shar<ah and concerned mainly with general principles

and guidelines of being a servant of Allah. It does come without strict instructions however in the

Muhkamt yt clear and strict instructions clearly be found. Al- Qurn becomes the basis of

Shar<ah when supplemented by other sources.328 Two major sources of the the Shar<ah h are the

Holy Qurn and Sunnah / adith.329 The Ijtihd (judgements by Muslim jurists), is another

supplementary reference used to explain matters that are not covered directly in the Qurn and

adith / Sunnah.330

Being a divine textual law, the formation of the so called Islamic law as well as its authority are

very much dependent on the two divine scriptures namely al- Qurn and Sunnah.331 Siddiqui

notes that the aim of Shar<ah is to promote, protect, and preserve the values inherent in the

Islamic way of life.332

326
S.A.A. Maududi (1995) Al-Hijab: Purdah and The Status of Woman in Islam,Lahore: Islamic Publication.P128
327
Edward William Lane (1994), Arabic-English Lexicon, vol.2, Cambridge: The Islamic Text Society, p 1535
328
J.L. Esposito (1982) Women in Muslim Family Law,Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, p3
329
S.A.A. Maududi (1995) Al-Hijab: Purdah and The Status of Woman in Islam,Lahore: Islamic Publication, p95; A.
Rahmann (1995) Islam: Ideology and The Way of Life,Kuala Lumpur: A.S.Nordeen.p367
330
A. Rahman (1995) Islam: Ideology and The Way of Life, Kuala Lumpur: A.S.Nordeen.p350, M.I.A. Qaysi (1986)
Morals and manners in Islam : a guide to Islamic db,Leicester: Islamic Foundation, p15.
331
Mawil Izzi Dien (2004) Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations to Contemporary Practice, Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University, p 36
332
M.M. Siddiqi (1966) Women in Islam,Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture, p9

99
The Shar<ah urges Muslims to be rational in their life. It is only through submission that a

person becomes a Muslim and that submission is only to the will of Allh. This is because the

literal definition of Islm is submission.333 Many attributes in the Qurn lead Muslims to be

rational for survival.334 They are urged to explore the earth with objectivity, even exploring the

foreign lands in order to gain knowledge and enjoying the bounty of life. This in turn will

provide them with a new knowledge that will benefit economic development and civilization.

However Muslim entrepreneurs are strictly reminded that they are only trustees and are given

responsibilities to administer the earth. It is an ideal concept of making progress without

exploiting others, as what the capitalistic environment would indicate .335

In this research, the sources of Shar<ah form the conceptual and theoretical framework and are

used as the main references in the discussion.

3.1 Sources of the Shar<ah

In the previous section the writer mentioned two kinds of sources of the Shar<ah ; the main and
the supplement. The primary source of the Shar<ah is the Holy Qurn. It was revealed in 114
chapters. Its originality is preserved and Muslim believe that Allah has granted this through his

333
S.A.A. Maududi. (1994) Islamic Way of Life, Kuwait: International Islamic Book Centre
334
Maxime Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism, translated by Brian Pearce, London: Allen Lane, 1974.
335
M. Akbar (1993) 'Ideology, Environment and Entrepreneurship: Typologies from Islamic Texts and History', The
Jounal of Entrepreneurship 2(2)p141

100
verse; Indeed! God is the one who revealed the Qurn, and God will surely preserve it.336 And
God Most Gracious has taught the Qurn...337

It does not only provide guidance in this world but it constantly calls Muslims to realize the

nature of Allah, the transcendent truth, the one reality which is above and beyond all that

humans can conceive.338 The Qurn also discusses moral principles339 as a complete way of life

of Muslims.340

Coming next after the holy Qurn is the adith or Sunnah. Muslims believe that Prophet

Muhammad was a perfect person. The Holy Qurn states that the Prophet Muhammad did not

acquire the state of prophethood by himself but was chosen by Allah and his perfection is seen

by Muslims as the perfect model, al-insn al-kmil for human life to imitate. The Holy Qurn

quotes it as: Ye have indeed in the Apostle of God a beautiful pattern (of conduct) for any one

whose hope is in God and the Final Day, and who engages much in the Praise of God.341

Muslims in the early ages of Islm were guided by the Prophet in the period of a little more than

20 years with them. All of his examples during the age of prophethood including his words,

actions and silence became what is now known as the tradition of Sunnah/adith. The

336
15:9 (The first number (s) before colon indicates the chapter of the holy Quran from where is is quoted while the
number (s) after it refers to the verse (es) from the chapter). In this study Abdullah Yusuf Alis work is refered in
translating the Quran. See his, (2004) The Meaning of the Holy Quran,10 Edition,Maryland, USA: Amana Publications.
337
55: 1-2
338
S.H. Nasr (1993) Young Muslim's guide to the modern world, Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, p14
339
Moral can also generally can be defined as practical philosophy. For justification on Islamic ethics and morality see,
D.M. Donaldson (1953) Studies in Muslim Ethics,London: S.P.C.K.
340
M.I. al-Qaysi (1986) Morals and manners in Islam : a guide to Islamic adab, Leicester: Islamic Foundation p16
341
33:21

101
Sunnah/ adith is the second foundation of religious sources after the Holy Qurn. The Holy

Qurn in many verses states the importance of adith; Obey God and obey the Prophet.342

Whoever obeys the Prophet, he or she has obeyed God.343 Therefore the adith / Sunnah is a

great treasury for Muslims after the Holy Qurn. Because Prophet Muhammad was the best

person to translate the meaning of the Qurn through the adith, the adith emerges as the

imperative source in understanding and appreciating the teachings of the Qurn . 344

In terms of its content, the adith literature is the source of Islamic thought in wide range of

human life including theology, law, and economics. The most popular Sunni Islamic scholars

who compiled these adith are Malik, Bukhri, Muslim, Tirmidhi, Abu Dawd, Nasi and Ibn

Mjah and their works are considered to be the most authentic.

As has been said, earlier Muslims regarded the Prophet as a perfect human being, therefore they

believed he is perfectly guided at every moment by Divine revelation. Reflections on the

significance of the prophets humanity can be traced in many verses of the Holy Qurn. For

example Allh says:

If We had made it an angel, We should have sent him as a man, and We should certainly have

caused them confusion in a matter which they have already covered with confusion. Mocked

342
5:92
343
4:152
344
For more clarification on adth in modern era of Islm see, S.M.Yusuf (1966) An Essay on the Sunnah: Its
Importance, Transmission, Development and Revision, Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture

102
were (many) apostles before thee; but their scoffers were hemmed in by the thing that they

mocked. 345. In another verse Allh further says:

What kept men back from belief when Guidance came to them, was nothing but this: they said,

"Has Allah sent a man (like us) to be (His) Messenger." Say, "If there were settled, on earth,

angels walking about in peace and quiet, We should certainly have sent them down from the

heavens an angel for an apostle." 346 With this in mind Muslims should imitate the whole life of

the Prophet. As a result, there should be no time that the Muslm business people would be

dragged into a situation in which they are not guided. Having the Qurn and the Sunnah

embedded in Muslimss life would theoretically guide the way they behave in all activities

including business.

In addition to the main sources there are other sources which are called supplementary sources.

They are Ijtihd (independent juristic reasoning), Qiys (reasoning by analogy), and Ijm<

(consensus among the <ulama<). Qiys can be defined as ... to seek similarity between new
347
situations and early practices, especially those of the Prophet. The function of Qiys is to

discover the cause or <Illah of the revealed law so as to extend it to similar cases... 348 In the case of wine

345
6:8-9
346
17: 94-95
347
Abdul Hamid A. Abu Sulayman. (1987) The Islamic Theory of International Relations: New Directions for Islamic
Methodology and Thought . Herndon, USA: The International Institute of Islamic Thought,
p 66.
348
Muhammad Muslehuddin (1979). Philosophy of Islamic Law and the Orientalists. Lahore: Islamic Publication, p 135.

103
drinking the prohibition is derived from explicit text, where: ... The cause for the prohibition is the

intoxicating effect, hence in whatever this cause is found prohibition will become applicable...349

Ijm< is the consensus of opinion of the companions of the prophet and the agreement reached

on the decisions taken by the learned Mujtahidn or the jurists on various Islamic matters.

Technically it is the unanimous doctrine and opinion of the recognized religious authorities at

any given time.350 Ijtihad means ...an effort or an exercise to arrive at ones own

judgment.351In particular it means a kind of juristic reasoning in providing answers to matters

that are not clear in terms of ukm in the Holy Qurn and Hadith. It is here when human

reasoning plays an important part in the Shar<ah. 352

The ongoing discussion on the concept of Shar<ah in this section demonstrates that the first two

sources are divine. The three supplementary sources i.e. Qiys, Ijtihad, and Ijm<, on the other

hand are juristic reasoning of the <ulama<. Apparently, the human factor has been crucial in the

development of the Shar<ah. The Shar<ah ...clearly the product of the intellectual, social, and

349
Ibid
350
M. Bernand Idjm< Encyclopaedia of Islam. Bearman, P., Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E.V. Donzel and W.P.
Heinrichs. (Eds) 'Brill Online, http://www.brillonline.nl.' (23.6.2008).
It represents the consensus of Muslim scholars about issues that are not explicitly mentioned in the Qurn or
Sunnah.There are three foundations of Ijma': (1) Ittifaq-i-Qauli, unanimous consent expressed on declaration of
opinion; (2) Ittifaq-i-Fi'li expressed in unanimity of practice; (3) Ittifaq-i-Sakula, when the majority of the Mujtahidun
signified their tacit assent to the opinion or the minority by "silence" or non-interference.See, T.P. Hughes. (1895) 'A
Dictionary of Islam', London: W.H. Allen & Co, http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Hughes/index.htm
(23.06.2008)
351
A. Mashhour (2005) 'Islamic Law and Gender Equality-Could There be a Common Ground?: A Study of Divorce
and Polygamy in Sharia Law and Contemporary Legislation in Tunisia and Egypt', Human Right Quarterly 27(2005),
p566
352
A.A.A. Na'im (1990) Toward an Islamic reformation : Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International law, Syracuse, N.Y.:
Syracuse University Press, p27

104
political processes of Muslim history.353 If any problems are not covered by these two sources,

the Muslm jurists will judge by Ijtihd (the exercise of judgement through Qiyas i.e reasoning

based on analogy and ijm< i.e. consensus of opinion among the jurists based on the essence and

spirit of Islam).354

It is also suggested that Shar<ah should not be static but evolve and crucially important to provide

solution to the changing social needs.355 This character proved to be important and much new

knowledge were brought into the Muslm states. Silk and paper productions, for example, were

learnt from the Chinese by the Muslm merchants.356 Their productivity as well as talented

merchants in taking any open opportunity for the sake of their business enabled them to

become important as the middleman to make goods from the West and East exchanged. They

brought sugarcane from India and took cotton into Sicily and Africa.357

In this study, Shar<ah is used as the main theoretical reference for discussing issues on Muslm

businessmen in trading. The first issue examined in this chapter is the Shar<ah perspective on

cultural influences.

353
Ibid, p14
354
M.I.. al-Qaysi (1986) Morals and manners in Islam : a guide to Islamic adab,Leicester: Islamic Foundation p15, A.
Rahman (1995) Islam: Ideology and The Way of Life, Kuala Lumpur: A.S.Nordeen, p350
355
It is important to note that a majority of Muslims regard the Shari<ah as a divine concept without or merely has
little place for human reasoning in making changes of legislation to take place. See, A.A.A. Na'im (1990) Toward an
Islamic reformation : civil liberties, human rights, and international law, p11
356
Y.L. Subhi (1969) 'Capitalism in Medieval Islam', The Jounal of Economic History 29(1 (Mar) p80
357
For more information on Muslim merchants see, Y.L. Subhi (1969) 'Capitalism in Medieval Islam', The Jounal of
Economic History 29(1 (Mar); Y.L. Subhi (1969) 'Capitalism in Medieval Islam', The Jounal of Economic History 29(1 (Mar)
p80

105
3.2 The Shar<ah Perspective on Influences of Culture

In dealing with the influence of other cultures, Muslims are advised to seek knowledge and

science from them but not their culture. It is imperative for Muslims to define clearly the

differences between knowledge and culture; the Shar<ah regards knowledge as a common

heritage of humankind.358 Muslims are freely allowed to learn from them and their practical uses

from whatever source they can. Even the prophet was told to ask from God And say, O my Lord!

Increase me in knowledge.359 The root of acknowledging the existence of Allh and the

submission to His commands is knowledge, upon which the mental faculty of a man functions

and agrees. The people who have knowledge about Allh are regarded as the people who fear

Allh the most: Allh states;

And so amongst men and crawling creatures and cattle, are they of various colours. Those truly

fear Allh, among His Servants, who have knowledge: for Allah is Exalted in Might, Oft-

Forgiving.360

The one who has knowledge is regarded as having ...tread the path of righteousness (taqwa).
361
O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into

358
For more information on cultural responses of Muslims to the transformations, contradictions and challenges
confronting contemporary Islam as it moves toward the twenty-first century see, A.S. Ahmad and H. Donnan (eds)
(1994) Islam, globalization and postmodernity, London: Routledge; Schlesinger, P. (1993) 'Islam, Post-Modernity and the
Media: An Interview with Akbar S.Ahmad', Media, culture & society 15(1): 29-42.
359
20:114
360
35:28

106
nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the

most honoured of you in the sight of Allh is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allh

has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things).362 Righteousness is derived through

the process of gaining knowledge and by applying that knowledge.363 The tradition of teaching

and learning and holding steadfast to this tradition ensures that knowledge is passed down to

generations.

Islm gives a high appreciation for a person who is seeking knowledge. The Prophet says:

Seeking knowledge is obligatory for each Muslim (male and female).364 In another adth the

prophet asked his follower to search for knowledge, and the course of seeking knowledge should

not be limited to geographical distance. Perhaps, through the trades in which the Prophet was

involved earlier on, he emphasised this through a famous reference to China. He stated: Seek

knowledge even if it be in China.365

However as far as the question of culture and the way of life is concerned, Muslims are

forbidden from imitating the modes of living of non-Muslims since that could have

361
S. Shah (2006) Educational leadership: an Islamic Perspective British Educational Research Journal Vol. 32, No.
3, June 2006, p367
362
49:13
363
S. Shah (2006) Educational leadership: an Islamic Perspective, ibid
364
Muhammad bin Yazid Abu Abd Allah, In Muhammad Fuad Abd al-Baqi (ed.) Sunan
Ibn Majah, Vol. 1, Dar al-Fikr, Beirut, 1995. pp 81-82
365
A.H.M. Al-Ghazali (1998), Ih
ya ulum al-din, Vol. 1, Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah This adith was
reported by Ibn <Ad and al-Baihaqi narrated from Anas, adith Mashhr. See,
Iraqi,
Abd al-Rahim ibn al-
Husayn (1984) al-Mughni an h
aml al-asfar fi-al-asfar fi takhrij ma fi al-Ih
ya min al-asfar, Bayrut
: Dar al-ma
rifah, p9

107
disastrous consequences.366 To Maududi the holy Prophet has positively and forcefully

forbidden Muslims to assume the culture and mode of life of non-Muslims.367 He stresses that

the development comes from the right knowledge, science and discipline. If the Muslims want to

learn from others, they can take lessons from their will, action, social-discipline and avail

themselves of their knowledge and technical accomplishments.368

Based on the above argument, it is important for the researcher to clearly analyse these issues

since unIslamic culture has had a strong impact on the Malay-Muslim society.369 One example is

that in the Malay traditional society, <dat or customary norms are well entrenched and practised

although not all of them acceptable in Islm.370 Another example is the belief in supernatural

powers which has no Islamic bases.

The belief in supernatural powers other than Allh, (such as ghosts and spirits in animism), are

considered Shirk (Arabic: making a partner [of someone]), in Islm, idolatry, polytheism, and the

association of God with other deities371 and this may weaken the faith of a Muslm. Faridi claims

366
S.A.A. Maududi (1995) Al-Hijab: Purdah and The Status of Woman in Islam, Lahore: Islamic Publication.
367
S.A.A. Maududi (1985) Political Theory of Islam, p133.
368
S.A.A. Maududi (1991) West versus Islam,Lahore: Islamic Publication, p15.
369
The author has discussed this issue in the second chapter of this research. For additional information on Malay
Adat , see, I. Awang (1996) Adat Orang-Orang Melayu yang Bertentangan Dengan Akidah Islam,Kota Bharu, Kelantan:
Pustaka Aman Press.
370
M.A. Bakar (1990) 'Islam and Nationalism', in T. Abdullah and S. Siddique (eds) Islam and Society and Southeast
Asia, Social Issue in Southeast Asia, Singapore: Institute of Asian Studies, p160; Ismail Awang shows clearly many aspects
of Malay adat that are contradictory to the teaching of Islam. His views oppose the widely practiced adat to certain
verses from the Holy Qurn and Sunnah. See his (1996) Adat Orang-Orang Melayu yang Bertentangan Dengan Akidah
Islam,Kota Bharu, Kelantan: Pustaka Aman Press, pp 9-20
371
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/541133/shirk (02.06.2009). Clear definition of this word can be
learnt from D.Gimaret: He states, Shirk, ...signifies the act of associating with God, in other words, accepting the

108
that faith (imn) is the foundation of the Muslim society (Ummah) and Tauhd (the belief in

the existence and unity of oneness of Allh) is the essence of this faith and the very core of

Islam.372 Muslims therefore have to safeguard their mn and tauhd since it is the primary

objective of all Islamic teachings and legislation.373

In the old Malay society, it was found that some of the Malay-Muslims had deviated from their

faith because they blindly followed the customs and practices of animistic and Hindu-Buddhist

beliefs left by their forefathers.374 Without realising, they became Mushrik.375 The Holy Qurn

says; Whoever ascribes partners to God, God will forbid him the Garden (paradise) and the Hell

fire will be his abode.376

The same incident happened during the prophets time. There was a group known as seers or

diviners in the Arab society at the time.377 They pretended to know the events of the past and

future through their contact with Shaian or Jinn or through other secret sources. The prophet

presence at His side of other divinities; it may be translated either literally, by associationism or, in more explicit fashion,
by polytheism. See his Shirk in Clifford Edmund Bosworth. . et.al. (1997) The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden : E. J.
Brill, Vol. 8, p486
372
S. Faridi (1993) Inner Aspects of Islam,Kuala Lumpur: A.S.Noordeen, p79, I. Awang (1996) Adat Orang-Orang
Melayu yang Bertentangan Dengan Akidah Islam,Kota Bharu, Kelantan: Pustaka Aman Press, pp133-154
373
M.I.A. Qaysi (1986) Morals and manners in Islam : a guide to Islamic adab,Leicester: Islamic Foundation, p28
374
H. Mutalib (1993) Islam in Malaysia-From Revivalism to Islamic State.,Singapore: Singapore University Press, p152;
Certain Muslim denies committing Syirik by asking supernatural powers help. Instead it is considered as Ikhtiar
(means to an end, a course of action) and are done in the name of Allah), see M.B. Osnes (1992) 'Malaysia's Evolving
Shadow Puppet Theatre', Asian Theatre Journal 9(1 (Spring), p115; also in P.L.A. Sweeney (1972) The Ramayana and the
Malay Shadow-Play.,Kuala Lumpur:: National University of Malaysia Press,p34
375
I. Awang (1996) Adat Orang-Orang Melayu yang Bertentangan Dengan Akidah Islam,Kota Bharu, Kelantan: Pustaka
Aman Press.
376
5:72
377
Yusuf Al-Qaradawi (1994) The lawful and the prohibited in Islam, Indiana: American Trust Publication, p238

109
stressed to them what Allh had revealed; No one in the heavens and the earth knows the

unseen except Allah.378

Accordingly, the unseen is known neither to the angles, the jinn nor human beings. Another

example seen in the influence of Hindu-Buddhist customs in Malay society, is the belief in Kubur

of Keramat (shrine or places of ritual ceremony), where sacrifices are offered to gain a miracle

from the saints. The saints were believed to have supernatural powers to fulfil their request. The

same goes for practices of mandi Safar (bathing in the sea during the month of afar in the

Muslim calendar), another Hindu-Buddhist influence, believed to enable those involved to

clean away their evil and bad luck.379 The prophet as the messenger of God, did not claim to

have supernatural capabilities and acting on the command of his Lord, the prophet proclaimed;

If I had knowledge of the unseen, I should have had abundance of good and no evil should

have touched me. Truly, I am but a warner and a bringer of good tidings to those who have

faith.380

In another incident a delegation came to the Prophet assuming he was one of those who

claimed to have knowledge of the unseen. Concealing something in their hands, they asked the

prophet to tell them what it was. The prophet told them in plain words; I am not a diviner. The

378
27: 65
379
For more information about Mandi afar among Malay Muslims see, M.B. Osnes (1992) 'Malaysia's Evolving
Shadow Puppet Theatre', Asian Theatre Journal 9(1 (Spring), p14
380
7:188

110
diviner (what pertain to) the divination, and the soothsayers will all be in the fire.381 The

Prophet also recited to the abah what Allh has revealed to him: Say: None in the heavens or

on earth, except Allah, knows what is hidden: nor can they perceive when they shall be raised up

(for Judgment).382 From this verse it is clear that no one knows the unseen accept Allh.

Islm warns the one who goes and asks for soothsayers and diviners help that the action

undertaken is the same as the one who practices it. The Prophet used to say; The alt (prayer)

of one who goes to the soothsayer, asks him something and belives in what he says will not be

accepted for forty days.383 He also said; Whoever goes to a soothsayer and believes in what he

says, denies what was revealed to Muhammad.384

For what was revealed to the Prophet Muammad asserts that the knowledge of the unseen

belongs to Allh alone and that Muammad has no knowledge of it, much less anyone else as

stated in the Qurn; Say: I do not tell you that the treasures of Allah are with me or that I know

the unseen, nor do I tell you that I am an angel; I follow only what is revealed to me.385

The earlier verse puts the quality of a man to being a servant of God and the only power worthy

of being worshiped (and to seek help from) is Allh. Any other form of help particularly using a

mediator who claims to have knowledge of the unknown worlds is not permissible in Islm.
381
Cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi, (1978) al-H
alal wa al-h
aram fi al-Islam, Lubnan: Dr al-Qurn, p224.
382
27:65
383
adith cited in Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1978) al-H
alal wa al-h
aram fi al-Islam, p224.
384
Al- Barraz, adith Jayyid Qawiy as cited in ibid, p225
385
Surah 6: 50

111
Islm also condemns magic. The Prophet is reported to have said; Avoid the seven destroyers,

the listener asked, O messenger of Allh, what are they? He said, Associating (partners) with

Allh (shirk), magic, taking a life which Allah has made sacred except in the course of

justice, devouring usury, appropriating the property of an orphan, fleeing from the

battlefield, and slandering virtuous believing women who are indiscreet. 386

Many high profile Muslm scholars such as Qarawi and al-Kaysi consider those who are

practising magic as non believers (Kuffr) or as leading toward them, and some have even

advocated that those who practiced it should be put to death in order to purify the society from

their evil.387 The Qurn has taught Muslims to seek refuge in Allh and keep away from

practitioners of magic as stated in the Qurn ...from the evil of those who blow on knots...388 In

practice soothsayers employ the method of blowing their breaths onto knots of ropes or similar

material. This practice is clearly forbidden in Islm. The Prophet said; Whoever blows on knots

practices magic, and whoever practices magic is a Mushrik (polytheist).389

386
M.M. Khan (ed) (1996) The English translation of Sahih al Bukhari with the Arabic text, Volume 4, , Alexandria: Al-
Saadawi Publications, Book 51, Number 28.

387
Yusuf Al-Qarawi (1994) The lawful and the prohibited in Islam, Indiana: American Trust Publication p242
388
113: 4
389
As cited in Yusuf Al-Qarawi (1994) The lawful and the prohibited in Islam, Indiana: American Trust Publication
p243

112
It is also forbidden for Muslims from consulting the diviners or fortune-tellers concerning the

secret of the unseen such as for removing difficulties or curing illness. This is based on the

Hadth;

He is not of us who seeks an omen or for whom an omen is sought, who divines or for whom

divinations made, who practices magic or asks someone to practise for him.390

The sin is not limited to the practitioners of magic only but also to those who believe in the

magic, encourage them, and trust in what they say. The condemnation is similarly applied to

those who use charms and amulets. This is very common among Malay traditional practitioners

who recite incantations with charms to protect them and the people who seek for their help to

give them protection against spirits and demons. Such practices are contrary to Shar<ah and

deny Taud.391

In old Malay society, practitioners were employed in fixing matches. They sometimes were seen

to cast a spell in a unique language that they claim as a way of communicating with evil to

provide extra power.392 Qarawi notes that: If the incantations are in a language that one

does not know what is being said, they are prohibited out of fear of their being mixed with

390
Ibid, p243
391
Yusuf al-Qarawi (1994) The lawful and the prohibited in Islam, Indiana: American Trust Publication p243
392
J.M. Gullick (1987) Malay society in the Late Nineteenth Century : The Beginnings of Change, Singapore: Oxford
University Press.

113
unbelief and magic. However, if what is being said can be understood and there is mention of

Allah in it, it is commendable because it is then a supplication to Allah.393

3.3 The Muslm society

As a starting point it is very important to stress that the one billion Muslims around the world

share some common values, beliefs and codes of ethics. However, they may differ in other

aspects such as socioeconomics, politics and cultural realities.394 This is understandable; Islam

provides the ethical and moral guidelines but it is the community of Islam who interprets and

applies them with regards to its historical background, culture, socioeconomic condition and

politics.395 As a result Islm is practised from different interpretation of people in Muslim

communities and - following mismatches between different cultures - ethical aspects. With this

in mind it is crucially important to understanding the Shari<ah and its development in the Islamic

school of jurisprudence.

The social order in a Muslim community is based on the universal principle of human

brother/sisterhood and endeavours to secure happiness, prosperity and goodness for both

individuals and society. Afzal Rahman claimed that there is absolutely no place for a clash of

393
Yusuf al-Qarawi (1994) The lawful and the prohibited in Islam, Indiana: American Trust Publication p245
394
A. Mashhour (2005) 'Islamic Law and Gender Equality-Could There be a Common Ground?: A Study of Divorce
and Polygamy in Sharia Law and Contemporary Legislation in Tunisia and Egypt', Human Right Quarterly
27(2005),p564
395
Ibid

114
war of any kind between individuals and society.396 In Islm both the individual and society are

responsible to Allh. Individuals and society have to look after their interests and welfare, for

which they are answerable to Allh. Mutual responsibility leads to a harmonious balance between

the individual and society.397 The role of the individual in society is stated in the Holy Qurn; ...

Help ye one another in righteousness and piety, but help ye not one another in sin and rancour:

fear Allh. for Allh is strict in punishment 398 And; Who enjoins what is right and forbid what

is wrong and remain earnestly engaged in good deeds; these are the righteous people.399

And to encourage positive behaviour of the individuals, the following is made in the Qurn;

Anyone who comes with a good deed shall have ten times as much to his credit, while he that

does evil shall be punished accordingly.400 Therefore the individual will endeavour to direct his

efforts in accordance with divine guidance; encourage goodness and piety and discourage evil

and obscenity in society.

Afzalul claims that Islm offers a comprehensive social system, containing a complete code of life

for Muslims in every field of activity.401 The worship of one God provides an opportunity for

Muslims to develop higher and finer moral qualities, such as justice, kindness, forgiveness,

generosity, and love of truth.

396
A. Rahman (1988) Islam : ideology and the way of life,2nd Edition,London: Seerah Foundation London, p374
397
Ibid
398
5: 2
399
3: 114
400
6 : 160
401
A. Rahman (1988) Islam : ideology and the way of life, 2nd Edition, p376

115
A Muslm scholar says that; The external truth of the unity of mankind is by its nature and

origin. This helps in completely eliminating racial pride and prejudices and claims of ethnic

superiority, and gives ways to the growth of genuine feeling of human brotherhood among

people of different regions.402

The members of such community enjoy equal status. They eliminate all differences and declare

their allegiance to One God and follow the teachings of His Messengers. Allah says; The

believers are brothers, therefore make peace between your brothers, and fear God, that you may

find Mercy.403

The holy Qurn say; Ye are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right,

forbidding what is wrong, and believing in God ...404 The Qurn further says; Thus, have We

made of you an Ummat justly balanced, that ye might be witnesses over the nations, and the

Apostle a witness over yourselves ...405

Consequently, community development in a Muslm society does not depend on the social

status, rather on their moral and righteous conduct by which Muslims are encouraged to excel

402
Ibid
403
49: 10
404
3: 110
405
2: 143

116
above others. The philosophy of life outstrips all geographical boundaries and limitation of

colour, race, language and nationality and is able to establish a cosmopolitan society based on

human brother/ sisterhood. Islm gives great emphasis on its members in fulfilling the duties

they owe to the community and caring for the right of its members. There are several verses in

the holy Qurn that manifest such emphasis, which, in general, touch on co-operation, respect

and unity, for example;

And the believing men and believing women, they are friends of each other, they enjoin good

and forbid evil, and establish prayers, and pay the alms, and obey God and His messenger, these,

upon them God will have mercy, indeed, God is almighty, All wise.406

Ibn-Kathr in explaining this verse cited an authentic adth: Believers are like small parts of a

building, each supports one another.407 The Prophet crossed his fingers together signalling

how close a Muslim should be with other Muslims. Ibn Kathr also cited another adth with

regards to this verse: The Prophet said The love between believers is such like the example of

the body (of a human being) if a part of it falls ill, the rest of the body also suffers with fever and

sleeplessness.408

406
9:71
407
See, Tafsir Ibn Kathir
408
ibid

117
O you who believe! A people should not mock another people, it may be that they are better

than them, nor should women mock other women, it may be that they are better than them, and

do not look for fault in one another, calling one another with derisive names. Evil it is to have a

name of wickedness after one has believed. And whoever does not desist, these are evildoers. 409

This verse states the social ethics in a Muslim community. It indicates the codes, i.e. how a

believer should always look and evaluate himself and will not look down on others. Muslims are

also forbidden from calling names. Hamka states that as far as a Malay community is concerned

calling people with names other than his name is only a reason to distinguish one person from

the other or because of other different factors: He said ... Orang diberi gelar-gelar yang timbul dari

kebiasaan atau perangainya atau bentuknya atau satu kejadian pada dirinya...( ... One will be given

other names for what other would know them and probably casually call them, based on his

habits, the way he conducts himself in the community or based on the features of his physical

being that are observable to the community...)410 However, in any community, name calling,

and especially the bad ones for which the person will definitely have an ill-feeling to, is not

acceptable. Clearly also, naming a person with a bad one is not acceptable in Islm and need to

be avoided.

409
49: 11
410
See, Hamka (1984), pp 237-239

118
Such teaching helps to build a society with very high standards of goodness, benevolence, justice,

and guarantees peace and devotion to enrich it culture and civilisation. Islm also emphasises

proper conduct to purify international relationships with justice, in order to establish peace.

3.4 Understanding the Muslim Economic Behaviour

The basis for an Islamic society i.e. the religion, forms the basic structure of the community.

Other branches of a community such as politics, economics and the socio-cultural are only

considered as the framework within which the community system operates. The strength of the

framework be must derived from the basic structure (religion i.e., Islam). In other words, all

human behaviours, either individually or collectively, should remain within this framework.

Everyone is responsible on what one is doing. A human being is a free agent but fully responsible

not only in the current world but also in the Day of Judgment..411

This reality is stated in the Qurn; And every mans augury have We fastened to his own
412
neck ... Although Islm permits an individual to choose his worldly needs freely it is also

vitally important for an individual to act as collectivity man whereby man cannot live without

taking into consideration the environment and the society they live in, rather they are very much

related to it. It is therefore a duty for a Muslm to help the poor and share the wealth with the

411
S.N.H. Naqvi (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis,Leister: Islamic Foundation, p46
412
17:13

119
Ummah.413 In Surah al- Ma<n Allh says; Seest thou one who denies the Judgment (to come)?

Then such is the (man) who repulses the orphan (with harshness), And encourages not the

feeding of the indigent. So woe to the worshippers. Who are neglectful of their prayers. Those

who (want but) to be seen (of men).But refuse (to supply) (even) neighbourly needs.414

There is no alienation from the Islamic perspective like the Hegelian-Marxian man does415.

According to the Hegelian-Marxian sociological perspective; ...the universal or the total

man becomes a stranger and suffers alienation in the capitalistic societies through the division

of labour, getting gradually sucked into the whirlpool of giant collective organizations...416

According to this philosophy, economic alienation is the root cause of mans alienation from his

environment. From the Islamic point of view man will not be in an alienated situation unless the

inherent unity within himself falls apart by his own will.417 The potential of man as a spiritually

and materially balanced creature can only be in place when his moral, world matters and

spiritual activities are fully integrated and reflected one another.418 In other words the material

and spiritual are integrated. There is no separation between religion, politics and economy,
419
it provides a comprehensive style of life, religious, political and economics. It is from this

integration that satisfaction can be gained. The Qurn describes such people as;

413
S.N.H. Naqvi (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis, p46
414
107:1-7
415
S.N.H. Naqvi (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis, p47
416
ibid
417
ibid
418
ibid
419
A.A. El-Ashker, (1987) The Islamic Business Enterprise, London: Croom Helm, p1

120
"Those who believe, and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of God: for without

doubt in the remembrance of God do hearts find satisfaction.420

"For those who believe and work righteousness, is (every) blessedness, and a beautiful place of

(final) return."421

Material needs provide people with the basic things for their life in the world. The spiritual

needs, however, are parts and parcel of a persons daily life. This is clearly indicated in the Qurn;

The same religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah -
the which We have sent by inspiration to thee - and that which We enjoined on
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus: Namely, that ye should remain steadfast in religion, and
make no divisions therein: to those who worship other things than God, hard is the
(way) to which thou callest them. God chooses to Himself those whom He pleases,
and guides to Himself those who turn (to Him).422

This verse indicates that the religion taught by Allah through his Messenger, Muhammad, is the

same religion that passed through the other four Prophets stated in this verse namely; Ibrahim,

Musa, Isa and Nuh. The word used for religion here is Al-Dn which Hamka defines as

...Kebaktian kepada Allah... literally means an obedience to Allh. The spiritual needs of the

followers of the Prophets are the same and the most basic is to belief in the Oneness of Allh.

From this basic belief other concept is developed e.g. the concept of <Ibdah, obedience and

420
13:28
421
13:28-29
422
42:13

121
severance. 423 These are they who have bartered Guidance for error: But their traffic is profitless,

and they have lost true direction424

In terms of the existence of this universe Islam considers man as a central part of it and

all things are made for them.425 See ye not how Allah hath made serviceable unto you

whatsoever is in the skies and whatsoever is in the earth.426

3.5 Islamic Economics as a Cultural Function

The needs to establish economy is the Islamic way were at one time considered as a way to

preserve Islm as being a way of life. For modern Islamic thinkers this economic system was a

desire to defend Islamic civilization against foreign cultural influences.427 In principle, it is

basically to obey what Allh commands or in other word obedience to Allh. Unlike other

economic systems that came into existence as a result of social problems, the Islamic economy,

on the other hand, is based on the Divine or in other words is part of Shari<ah and has been

developed and promoted along this important principle. For example Al-Maududi argued that

the survival of Muslm cultures will be in danger if they continue with rising contact with Western

philosophy that may result in difficulties to distinguish the mindset and life styles of Muslm from

the secular wests. The Islamic Economics that he propagated seems to have become a culture

423
See, Hamka (1984) Tafsir al-Azhar, Surabaya, Indonesia: Pustaka Islam, (Cet. 3) , pp 27-28
424
2:136
425
S.N.H. Naqvi. (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis, p46
426
31:20
427
T. Kuran (1995) 'Islamic Economics and Islamic Subeconomy', The Jounal of Economic Perspective 9(4),p 156

122
that functions within the Indian Muslim society.428 He argues further that the secular western

ideas of economy do not go down well with the Muslims and was about to lock Islam in

mosques.429 With these arguments Maududi stressed that it was important for the Muslim
430
community in India to have their own autonomy, even a state. Al-Maududis argument

makes a clear division between the standard economic behaviour of Muslim and those of the

West. In the present time this statement was again renewed when Huntington argued about a

cultural fault line separating civilizations.431. The Westerners use every opportunity to

promote their social and economic strength whereas Islamic fundamentalist on the other hand

promote social and economic bond among Muslim communities with the hope to establish an

Islamic common market.432 The establishment of an Islamic system based on Islamic economic

principles has been argued to have created tensions given the differences in philosophy and

objectives the system has as against the conventional one. This is because the people who are

oriented under the conventional systems will become Homo economicus433 while Islamic

economics orientation is Homo islamicus society. 434 As Kuran explains;

428
T. Kuran (1996) 'The Discontents of Islamic Economic Morality', p438
429
Ibid
430
Maududi came up with these arguments in 1940s when India was fighting for independence from the British. He
was concerned about the welfare of the Muslim minority under the new government. See, T. Kuran (1996) 'The
Discontents of Islamic Economic Morality', p438., T. Kuran (1995) 'Islamic Economics and Islamic Subeconomy', The
Jounal of Economic Perspective 9(4): pp155-173. A representative work of Maududi is The Economic Problem of Man and its
Islamic Solution(Lahore, 1975).
431
S.P. Huntington (1993) 'The Clash of Civilizations?' Foreign Affairs 72(3, Summer),p25
432
M.A. Choundhury (1989) Islamic Economic Co-Operation,New York: St.Martin's.
433
Homo economicus of a group of people based on their behaviour. This name, as used by Nyborg should never be
taken into being similar to the systematics of nomenclature developed by the famous taxonomist, Carolus Linnaues.
The names are only used strictly in economic sense, giving an atmosphere of separation between groups of people;
they do not carry any biological implications and are not intended to be so. It is a name given with a conscious
acknowledgement that man might have choices and preferences. These preferences apply to goods and services that
are produced, consumed, and exchanged. Homo economicus is self-interested, caring only about personal (or more

123
These two goals advancing economically and pursuing an Islamic lifestyle-are not, of course,

always in harmony. The consequent tensions are all the more serious because Islamic economy

makes Muslims' inevitable economic adaptations appear to be in conflict with maintaining an

Islamic identity.435 For example in establishing an Islamic financial system within a conventional

system creates problem when Homo Islamicus keeps acting a lot like Homo economicus.436 In

business ethics the study of the interaction between religion and economics has been a

challenging subject. It is hard to place ethics before self interest especially when the bench mark

to corporate transactions is money. Even when an Islamic system is in place this problem will still

exists.437

Arguments of al-Maududi, Huntington and Choundhury show that there is a big gap between

Muslims and the West in terms of social philosophy and that will affect behaviour in all walks of

life for members of each society. It is fair to say that from the ongoing discussion there are two

motivating factors behind the birth of the Islamic economy: as one method to establish the sense

broadly, familial) bundle of commodities, work, and the leisure they have acquired It is outcome-oriented, caring
about social interactions only insofar as they affect his final consumption and wealth. Finally, Homo economicus
anticipate is rather calculative and maintains a rate of time preference that allows him to allocate consumption over
time in a consistent manner, reflecting his welfare and his concern for the welfare of future generations; Homo
economicus, who maximizes his own well-being,see Nyborg, K. (2000) 'Homo economicus and Homo politicus:
interpretation and aggregation of environmental values', Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 42(2000),p306.
On the other hand Homo Islamicus is never selfish and not greedy i.e. acquiring the worlds bounty is not the ultimate
goal in life. Homo Islamicus acquires property freely, but never through speculation, gambling, hoarding, or destructive
competition. Although he routinely bargains for a better price, he always respects his trading partners right to fair
deal. See, Kuran, T. (1995) 'Islamic Economics and Islamic Subeconomy', The Jounal of Economic Perspective 9(4);p159.
434
T. Kuran (1996) 'The Discontents of Islamic Economic Morality', The American Economic Review 86(2),p440
435
Ibid
436
J. Useem, Banking On Allah: Devout Muslims Dont Pay or Receive Interest. So How Can Their Financial System
Work? as cited in R. Haniffa. and M. Hudaib (2007), Journal of Business Ethics 76: p99
437
S.A. Rosly and M.A. Bakar (2003) 'Performance of Islamic and Mainstream Banks in Malaysia', International Journal
of Social Economics 30(11/12), p1249

124
of <Ubudiyyah to Allh and the desire to take it as a tool for re-establishing Islamic authority to

defend Muslim from the Western influence.

From the Islamic point of view participating in business is one way of <Amal (work) . People work

to gain some rewards and for a long period of time until today, the rewards are generally in the

form of money (payment). Human beings are free to own and develop their own private

property from the money they have. This consequently leads to dissimilarities between

individuals and group capacities. Islm recognizes the differential economic distribution among

people. Islm is positively labeled to have a socially desirable entrepreneurship because the

individual and society right is in balance thus appropriate for the development of special

entrepreneurship atmosphere438. Islm also provides important tools for business in its

mercantile communities such as a model for trading procedures, acceptable commercial

practices and codes for interpersonal relationship.439 Moreover, Islm also regulates the

importance of moral conducts in trade as well as introducing elements of trust.440 The element

of trust is particularly important for traders who require goods to be supplied through credits.

Islm makes credits possible because ... credit is facilitated among people who agree on a

438
M. Akbar (1993) 'Ideology, Environment and Entrepreneurship: Typologies from Islamic Texts and History', The
Jounal of Entrepreneurship 2(2): 135-153.
439
V. Azarya (1981) State Intervention in Economic Enterprise in Precolonial Africa: Massina and Samori's State,Los
Angeles: UCLA African Studies Centre, p6
440
B. Perinbam (1972) 'Trade and Society in the Western Sahara and the Western Soudan: an Overview', Bulletin de
l'lnstitut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire 34(Series B): 778-801 as cited in Warms, R. L. (1992) 'Merchants, Muslims, and
Wahhabiyya: Elaboration of Islamic Identity in Sikasso, Mali', Canadian Journal of African Studies 26(3), p486

125
universal morality and share similar conception of community.441 It has been observed that

Islm and trade were two important elements in Muslm history. In other words the spread of

traders was facilitated by Islm while the spread of Islm was facilitated by trade.442

The weaknesses of Muslims in entrepreneurships have been argued to have resulted from two

different factors i.e. the ideology and the environment.443 Since the Prophet did not mention

any rules for his successor, anti establishment movements started to emerge after the demise of

the Prophet. The social system was also damaged with the emergence of many divisions of the

society such as Arabs and non-Arabs, Sunni and Shi<ah sect and many other different groups in

the Muslm community. These groups pushed Islm into many, and sometimes contradicting,

directions. At the same time Muslm leaders failed to establish strong military interventions to

defend the country, rather, they used the military to defend their leadership.444

Other than that the ufi mystics were also labelled as the important factor for the weakness of

Muslm development as they were said to introduce unproductive activities in the Muslm

community.445 The statement is however arguable particularly in business matters because there

are many evidences that showed the significance of ufi groups in businesses. They were not just

441
R.L. Warms (1992) 'Merchants, Muslims, and Wahhabiyya: Elaboration of Islamic Identity in Sikasso, Mali',
Canadian Journal of African Studies 26(3):p486
442
R.L. Warms (1992) 'Merchants, Muslims, and Wahhabiyya: Elaboration of Islamic Identity in Sikasso, Mali',
Canadian Journal of African Studies 26(3):p486
443
M. Akbar (1993) 'Ideology, Environment and Entrepreneurship: Typologies from Islamic Texts and History', p152
444
For clarification see M. Akbar (1993) 'Ideology, Environment and Entrepreneurship: Typologies from Islamic
Texts and History', The Journal of Entrepreneurship 2(2),p152
445
ibid

126
actively involved in ordinary businesses but controlled the circulation of goods in certain areas.446

These can be seen in Africa and in the South East Asia where ufi orders have been well known

for their role in various aspect of Muslm life in the areas. As far as the economic view is

concerned, Siddiqi stated the significance of ufis influence;

The main contribution of taawwf (or zuhd) to economic thought in Islam is a

constant pull against giving too high a value to material wealth and a persistent
push towards altruism and unselfish service of Allahs creatures. They emphasised
the ultimate concern of the human soul and its reaching out towards its source in
the Divine. They personally exemplified this concern by minimizing the material
values and extolling the virtues and attributes that contributed towards felicity in
the hereafter while also enabling the life here on the earth.447

The other factor corrupting the Islamic ideology was the various ideologies imported from the

conquered territories resulting in corrupting the element of salvation propagated by Islam.448

Later on, the role of the middle classes was taken over by the non Muslims. Muslim

entrepreneurs became weak in numbers when non-business occupations were regarded higher

and carried higher social status in the community. Within the new setting in the community

socially responsible entrepreneur was no longer established. On the other hand there emerged a

446
For more information on Sufi roles in business see chapter one of this research.
447
Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi (1992). Islamic Economic Thought: Foundation, Evolution
and Needed Direction. In Sadeq and Ghazali (1992), Readings in Islamic Economic Thought, (eds) Selangor: Longman,
1992, p15
448
M. Akbar (1993) 'Ideology, Environment and Entrepreneurship: Typologies from Islamic Texts and History', The
Journal of Entrepreneurship 2(2), p152

127
new Muslm entrepreneur that was weak and unethical and incapable of facing the strong

challenge of the Western capitalism and colonialism.449

Other values which influenced the Muslims in many aspects of life were also suggested as one

additional factor corrupting the teachings of Islm. For example Arab civilization was influenced

by diverse cultures from the Byzantines, Persians, Europeans and Indians. There were also

domestic influences from the cultures of their own desert tribes and urban traders.450 As a result,

the manifestations of Muslims as entrepreneurs and in the entrepreneurship environment are so

much at variance with the Islamic teachings.451 Before they were overpowered by the European

capitalism the Muslm countries failed to respond adequately to the demand for economic

development through their social institutions. Demands from the conflicting groups were

answered with poor strategy.452

So far it is demonstrated that the Islamic typologies in the entrepreneurship are not responsible

for the weaknesses of Muslim entrepreneurs. Rather, it has been the economic, political, social

and cultural situations in the Muslm territories. In other words it can be concluded that the

Islamic ethos in its true paradigm was conducive for entrepreneurship development. Logically

as long as Islm is implemented and practised according to its true sense it will benefit

humankind positively. Abert Hourani concluded this situation with the comment: ...the

449
M. Akbar (1993) 'Ideology, Environment and Entrepreneurship: Typologies from Islamic Texts and History',p152
450
Ibid, p144
451
Ibid
452
Ibid

128
Christian people grew strong because the Church grew up within the walls of the Roman Empire

and incorporated its pagan belief and virtues; the Muslim people grew weak because the truth of

Islam was corrupted by successive falsity. Christians are strong because they are not really

Christian; Muslims are weak because they are not really Muslim. 453

3.6 Some Basic Concepts on Economic Ethics

In the modern times, Muslims scholars do come up with the normative Islamic approaches in

order to shed lights on business ethics. It is believed the only linkage a Muslm has with other

Muslims and a Muslim country with other Muslm countries is normative Islam that is globally

accepted.454 It is from here that one can grasp the idea of Muslm ethical values while doing

business. Understanding normative Islams approach to business ethics may help the world at

large grasp the mindset of Muslim businesspersons.455 The normative Islamic approach in

business ethics is also believed to benefit the free market system such as the Capitalistic economy

given the emphasis on moral core of business. It protects rather than threatens the system.456 It is

453
See his, Abert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (London: Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 129.
454
R.I. Beekun and J.A. Badawi (2005) ' Balancing Ethical Responsibility among Multiple Organizational
Stakeholders: The Islamic Perspective', Journal of Business Ethics(60): 131-145; A. Giladi (1997) 'Normative Islam versus
local Tradition: Some Observations on Female Circumcision with Special Reference to Egypt', Arabica, Vol. 44, No.(2.
(Apr)): 254-267.
455
R.I. Beekun and J.A. Badawi (2005) ' Balancing Ethical Responsibility among Multiple Organizational
Stakeholders, p132
456
Ibid, p133

129
very clear that from the Islamic perspective the economic goals cannot be tolerated with any

action that in return rips off the moral obligations of businesspersons to the society.457

As popularly coined reflecting a Machiavellian system, the ends justify the means, it is very clear

that from the Islamic perspective the economic goals cannot be tolerated with any actions that

would result in the dilution of the moral obligations of businesspersons giving severe and

prolonged backlash to the society.

3.6.1 The Concept of Trusteeship

In discussing ethics in the economics perspective, some approaches were brought forward. Naqvi

introduced five axioms of Islamic ethical Philosophy namely; unity, equilibrium, free will,

responsibility, and benevolence.458 While discussing the work ethics Al-Ghazli ,however, admits

that the concept of al-<adl is not only related to equilibrium but also to justice and equity.459

The human being is considered as Khalifah from the Islamic point of view.460 The life on earth is

only a test before the life in here after. Al-Qurn says; He Who created Death and Life, that

He may try which of you is the best in deed: and He is the Exalted in Might, Oft-Forgiving.461

457
Ibid
458
See his, (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis, Leicester: Islamic Foundation,pp48-57.
459
Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), "acclaimed as the greatest, , , certainly one of the greatest" Watt, W. (1963.)
Muslim Intellectual: A Study of Al-Ghazali., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pvii.
460
It is commonly accepted that human beings are Khalifah on earth. However the use of terminology Khalfatullh is
arguable. For clarification see, Jaafar Sheikh Idris (1990) Is Man The Vicegerent Of God? Journal of Islamic Studies 1,
pp. 99-110
461
67:2

130
Being Khalfah of God on earth and to fulfil their responsibility as Gods trustees, they have to act

in accordance with the conditions given and take the Prophet as role model. The Prophets

behaviour is described by Allh as <Am.The word Khuluq is derived from the word Akhlaq, which

has a broad meaning including ethcis.462 Al-Farqi admits that in Islam <Ibadh is all-inclusive.463

The two pre-requisite for a deed to be accepted as worship are; it is done with pure intention

and that it is within the boundary outlined by Shri<ah. This broad definition gives a general

blanket for many good activities that themselves are <Ibadh; the question of

compartmentalisation does not arise in Islm. Likewise, business activities will be considered as a

kind of worship so long as the two pre-requisites are met.464 The intrinsic motivational factor for

Muslims that is coming from their <Ibadh and to emphasize themselves as Gods trustees result

in an a complete obedient to the Islamic ethical system.465

3.6.2 The Concept of al-Amnah and Trust.

The concept of trusteeship also requires man to be responsible to any action they take because

they are the trustee of Allh on earth. Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds.466

462
A. Siddiqui (1997,) 'Ethics in Islam: Key Concepts and Contemporary Challenges', Journal of Moral Education 26(4),
p423
463
I. R. Al- Faruqi (1979) 'Is the Muslim Definable in Terms of His Economic Pursuits?' in K. Ahmad and Z. I. Ansari
(eds) Islamic Perspectives, Leicester: Islamic Foundation, p188
464
M. Ahmad (1995) Business Ethics in Islam,Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Thought,
pp12-13.
465
Ibid
466
74:38

131
In terms of trust put forward on them man have to realize that as part of fulfilling al-amanah they

must be very clear that the wealth and resources they have or going to achieve are all owned by

Allh.

3.6.3 The Concept of al-<Adl and al-Qis

Al-<Adl means equity or balance. It is a Muslims duty to maintain justifiable behaviour and keep

to doing the right things in all activities. The codes for such behaviour originate from the many

verses in the Qurn, that state explicitly in many places how a muslim should behave

throughout the life. O ye who believe! stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and

let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just:

that is next to piety: and fear Allah. For Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do.467

The concept in Al-<Adl is also applied in the concept of balance and equilibrium; meaning that

work must be done in proportionate manner without any extreme act. This concept is also

reflected in the creation of the universe where the law and order can be seen in a manner of

delicate balance.

Apart from al-<adl in the holy Qurn , another word, Al-qis is also used to describe justice. Its

means share, portion, measure, allotment. To give everyone and every thing their proper

due.468 So far the concept of normative Islm has been discussed from the aspect of justice

467
5:8
468
R.I. Beekun and J.A. Badawi (2005) ' Balancing Ethical Responsibility among Multiple Organizational
Stakeholders, p134

132
supported by few Ayat from the Qurn. It can be described that justice as described by al-<Adl

and al-Qis means maintaining the balance between the needs of the body, mind and soul while

providing everyone and everything their due.469 As the business environment requires all that

elements from a businessperson it is crucially important for the concept of justice to be taken as

an important aspect, especially during decision making.

3.6.4 The Concept of al-Ihsan.

Ihsan (benevolence) is an act which benefits persons other than those from whom the act

proceeds without any obligation.470 The Prophet was reported to have said that among the

inhabitants in the Jannah are;

one who wields authority and is just and fair; one who is truthful and has been

endowed with power to do good deeds; and the person who is merciful and

kindhearted towards his relatives and to every pious Muslim, and who does not

stretch out his hand in spite of having a large family to support.471

The concept of Ihsan has a different meaning from the concept of al-<Adl, although they look

generally similar. For example al-Qurubi when elaborating the ayah, God commands justice,

469
Ibid
470
M Umaruddin (1962) The ethical philosophy of al-Ghazzali.,1 Edition: Aligarh.p241
471
Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 6853, as cited in Umaruddin, M. (1962) The ethical philosophy of al-Ghazzali.,1 Edition:
Aligarh.p241

133
the doing of good, and liberality to kith and kin, and He forbids all shameful deeds, and injustice

and rebellion: He instructs you, that ye may receive admonition,472 suggested that Ihsan is above

al-<Adl 473 because it secures what even <Adl cannot.474 This is because Ihsan means restoring the

balance (al-<Adl) by making up a loss or deficiency.475 Apart from that Ihsan is also pinnacle of Islamic

ethics and its essance is love of God.476

Sufyan Ibn <Uyainah argued that in the concept of <Adl, the actions and words must be consistent

with the feelings and inner attentions while for Ihsan, the inner attentions and feelings are even

better from actions and words declared.477 To clear these qualitative arguments with regards to

the meaning of Ihsan Siddiquie suggests An act performed with a sense of duty is one thing, the same

act performed with a sense of love is another. Ihsan represents the latter, serving as the inspiration for

Muslim piety...478

472
16:90
473
Abi Abdullah Al-Ansari Al-Qurtubi (1966), Al-Jaami Le-Ahkaam al-Quran , Beirut: Daar Ihyaa Al-Turaath Al-
Arabi.
474
H. Riffat (1982) 'On Human Rights And The Quranic Perspective', Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 19(3), p53
475
Ahmad Parwez, Ghulam Tabweeb-ul-Qur'an (1977) as cited in H. Riffat (1982) 'On Human Rights And The
Quranic Perspective', Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 19(3): p52. To distinguish the concept of al-Adl from al-Ihsan Riffat
argues further; ...In order to understand this concept, it is necessary to understand the nature of the ideal community
or society (ummah) envisaged by the Quran. The word ummah comes from the root umm, or mother. The
symbols of a mother and motherly love and compassion are also linked with the two attributes most characteristic of
God, namely Rahman and Rahim, both of which are derived from the root rahm, meaning womb. The ideal
ummah cares about all of its members as an ideal mother cares about all of her children, knowing that all are not
equal and that each has different needs. While encouraging any one of her children to be parasitical would be
injurious and unjust, not only to her other children but also to the one who betrays its human promise and lives - in
Iqbals terminology - by begging, she feels that she has the right to make up the deficiency of a child who, despite its
best efforts, still cannot meet the requirements of life ... See H. Riffat (1982) 'On Human Rights And The Quranic
Perspective', Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 19(3): p52-53
476
A. Siddiqui (1997) 'Ethics in Islam: key concepts and contemporary challenges', Journal of Moral Education 26,(Issue
4 December), p425
477
Cf. Abi Abdullah Al-Ansari, Al-Qurtubi (1966) Al-Jaami Le-Ahkaam ,10: p165.
478
A. Siddiqui (1997) 'Ethics in Islam: key concepts and contemporary challenges', p425

134
Siddique admits that Ihsan means suitable, beautiful, proper or fitting.479 In one adith

the Prophet when asked by Jibrl on the meaning of Isn, he was reportedly been saying: ...To

worship Allh as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of devotion then you must

consider that He is looking at you... 480

This concept looks very important as far the business activities are concerned because it

focuses on behavior for the love of God thus became the core of Islamic ethics.481 It is with

applying this concept into daily activities that one can be justified as worshipping i.e. the work

done for the sake of God. While the work is being performed one can feel it is under the

observation of God.

Zarabozo admits that the meaning of Isn ...implies doing well, doing goodness, behaving with

others in a goodly manner... However, the word also implies perfecting something or doing

something in the best way.482 It can be concluded from the discussions above the word Isn is a

comprehensive word that includes all the acts of good deeds to others.

479
See his,(1997) 'Ethics in Islam: key concepts and contemporary challenges', Journal of Moral Education 26,(Issue 4
December): 423 - 431.
480
Muhammad Muhsin, Khan (1996), Vol. 1 Book 2, adith:47. This adth is among forty Adith selected by al-
Nawwi in his Arbaun al-Nawawiyah. In the preface of his writing he stated the justification he made in choosing the
Aadth: He says, ...each adth is by itself a great general precept from the foundations of the religion. Some
scholars state that all of Islam revolves around these hadith.... See, Jamaal al-Din M. Zarabozo (1999) Commentary on
the Forty adth of al-Nawwi, Boulder, CO : Al-Basheer Publications and Translations, p62
481
R.I. Beekun and J.A. Badawi (2005) ' Balancing Ethical Responsibility among Multiple organizational
Stakeholders: The Islamic Perspective', Journal of Business Ethics(60): 131-145.
482
Jamaal al-Din M. Zarabozo (1999) Commentary on the Forty Hadith of al-Nawawi , p307

135
3.7 Work Ethics

Business is an activity that involves people and all that come with humanity. One of the most

important elements in business activities is the work ethics, a form of guideline that allows

harmonious interactions between traders. However, the human being is a very creative creature

and the way he practises business, apart from being very dynamic, is embedded into culture and

local or regional settings. These include language, limits, values and many forms of

understandings that are consciously known and practised amongst the people. It pays to

understand all these elements to do well in business. Failures to understand foreign business

practices and ethics lead to failures in entering international markets.483

In the 21st centurys business environment, religion-based ethics is a challenge for

businesspeople. This is based on the reality that the number of customers from the Muslm

countries is significant large and is giving impacts to international business. In 2001 Saudi Arabia

invested over $800 billion in the USA.484 This is certainly similarly true for many other rich

Muslm countries as well as other developing Muslm countries. Beside that there is a more

intensified Islamisation process taking place in many Muslim countries such as Egypt, Malaysia,

Sudan, Algeria, Iran and Indonesia which is observed as Islamic trading block.485

483
M.A. Mayo (1991) 'Ethical Problems Encountered By U.S. Small Businesses In International Marketing', Journal of
Small Business Management 29(2), p188
484
M. Saeed, Z. Ahmed and S.M. Mukhtar (2001) 'International Marketing Ethics from an Islamic Perspective: A
Value-Maximization Approach', Journal of Business Ethics 32(2 July): 127 142; S.J. Uddin (2003) , Understanding the
Framework of Business in Islam in an Era of Globalization: A Review, Business Ethics: A European Review 12(1)
485
M. Saeed, Z. Ahmed and S.M. Mukhtar (2001) 'International Marketing Ethics from an Islamic Perspective: A
Value-Maximization Approach', 127 - 142.

136
There is a crucial need for an appreciation of diversity among people around the globe

including the ones based on religion.486 Although not being mentioned explicitly, the

inclination towards the appreciation of multiracial or multicultural society e.g. Australia and the

US is one form of response to such demands.

Ethics is a normative field regarding the set of moral principles that distinguishes right from

wrong. From the Islamic perspective it relates to the concept of al- khuluq.487 Studies of religious

ethics always stress the need to study the components of ethics such as obligation, virtue and

value.488 All of these aspects can be traced back to a component mn, Islm and Isn which

are well accepted by Muslims, especially among its scholars in understanding this religion.489

Beginning from the 90s, the importance of work ethics in the corporate and industrial worlds

has become very apparent. Perhaps this has grown along with the pace in which information is

being distributed and responded to, that pave ways for the needs of the businesspeople to

become concerned about work ethics490 The establishment of a particular code of ethics or a

code of conduct in the legal, medical, financial and engineering fields clearly show the

486
S.J. Uddin (2003) Understanding the Framework of Business in Islam in an Era of Globalization: A Review,
Business Ethics: A European Review 12(1), pp23-32
487
Khuluq (sin. Akhlaq) is good deeds or something refers to the concept of goodness. Among the terms generally
been used in the holy Qurn are; Khayr (goodness), Birr (righteousness), Qis (equity), <Adl (equilibrium), aqq (truth
and right), Ma<rf (known and approved), and Taqw (piety). c.f., R.I. Beekun (1997) Islamic Business Ethics,Herdon,
USA: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, p2
488
F. Carney (1983) 'Some Aspect of Islamic Ethics', Journal of Religion 63(2), p 159
489
See, E.O. Moad (2007) 'A Path to the Oasis: Shariah and Reason in Islamic Moral epistemology', International
Journal for Philosophy of Religion 62, pp135-138
490
J. Hoerr (1989) 'The Pay Off From Teamwork', Business Week( July 10), pp56-62; P.J. Dean (1992) 'Making Codes
of Ethics Real', Journal of Business Ethics 11(4-April), p10.

137
importance of the issue and are being closely checked by many professional groups.491 The

ethics affects individuals, organisations, employers and employees in many ways. It can improve

workers productivity, improve product quality, boost employees motivations at work, encourage

positive attitudes and improve employer-employee relationships.492

Religion-based business ethics is also important to be understood. History shows that studies on

this field especially from the Western point of view can be traced back to when Max Weber came

out with his book, The Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism in 1904. He argued;

The religious valuation of restless, continuous, systematic work in worldly calling, as

the highest means to asceticism, and at the same time the surest and most evidence
proof of rebirth and genuine faith, must have been the most powerful conceivable
lever for the expansion of that attitude toward life which we have here called the spirit
of capitalism.493

His prominent works are still being consulted by many in this field.494 Webers Protestant

ethics supports the assumption that a new individual with the individualistic character exist

in the early capitalism. It derives from a religious belief that one could control a farm,

business or workshop; ... only God should be your confidant...495 This was to say that

491
P.J. Dean (1992) 'Making Codes of Ethics Real', p1
492
Ibid, p1
493
The original edition was in German and was entitled: Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus. An
English translation was made in 1930 by Talcott Parsons, and several editions have been released. For this quotation
See his (1930) The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, T. Parsons (edit), London: Allen & Unwin, p172.
494
For further reading on his works see, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Max_Weber_works; (17. 06. 2008)
495
M. Weber (1930) The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, T. Parsons (Tran), London: Allen & Unwin, P106

138
there are no magical ways toward salvation through priest intervention but with the

combination of science and technology, faith and industry.496

Understanding the teaching of Islm and its people may shed light on the reality of this religion

both as it is commanded in the scriptures as well as how it is practiced by its follower. This will

correct the false impressions that Islamic business culture co-evolves with the Arab culture. The

Arabs represent only a minority in the Muslm world. Therefore Arab business ethics or custom

may have been wrongly justified as mode of conduct of Muslm businesspersons.497

Islm, as a comprehensive religion, gives more attention to the work ethics. Qutb explains that

motivational spirit comes from the Islamic spirit, which manifested itself in persons whom it has

charged and renewed by the process of rebirth.498 Qutb maintains that the Islamic spirit is

essential in Islm, where all Islamic systems depend upon it. The individuals conscience creates

a keen moral sense. This flame which Islm kindled in the human conscience has not failed,

even in the darkest passage of history, and during its lifetime has illuminated various example of

a free conscience, and a spirit rose above all worldly values, temporal powers, and

considerations.499

496
M. Maccoby (1983) The Managerial Ethics in America,Chicago: Industrial Relations Research Association Series,
p185
497
S.J. Uddin (2003) Understanding the Framework of Business in Islam in an Era of Globalization: A Review,pp 23-
32
498
S. Qutb (1970) Social Justice in Islam J. B. Hardie,( Tran) New York: Octagon Book, p140
499
ibid

139
Fadhil upholds the principle that the concept of excellence in Islm brightly surfaces in the

multiple aspects of Islamic teaching.500 For example, God has manifested Himself to possess

superlative attributes such as al-Rahmn. Al-Rahm, Akbar and Karm. Moreover, man has been

described as the best of Gods creations. Fadhil is convinced that Islamic work ethos, encompass

motivation and sacral values that might contribute towards economic activities. Muslims,

therefore, ought to fully understand the concept of life as indicated in the Quran which asks

them to be excellent both in deeds and productions.501

Whilst discussing work ethics from the Islamic perspective, Nasr also points out that Islamic work

Ethics is based on the concept of fulfilling agreement. According to him, there are three kinds of

agreement: agreement between God and man, agreement between an individual with himself

and agreement between man and man.502 The concept of accountability towards God on the

day of resurrection can force Muslims to mould their characters for hard work.

As mentioned earlier, the ethical factors distinguish Islamic economics from other systems. As

Naqvi puts in; in the climate of Islamic philosophy, it is ethics that dominate economy and not
503
the other way around. From the Islamic perspective ethics are fundamental because it

structures the society and sets common values that the community can share.504 Understanding

500
S. Fadhil (1992) Minda Melayu Baru,Kuala Lumpur: Institut Kajian Dasar, p114
501
67:2
502
Nasr, S. H (1993) .Young Muslim's guide to the modern world,Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society.
503
S.N.H. Naqvi (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis,Leister: Islamic Foundation,
pp18-19
504
ibid

140
the Islamic ethical system also brings about the originality of Islamic economics. The ethics

guides all aspects of human life and is important as a guidance for human behaviour - for man

to be social members as well as being Gods Khalifah (vicegerent).505 Islam is different from the

Marxist-Socialist economics in this case where economics dominated ethics. Compared to the

Capitalist paradigm of economics Islam never takes the materialistic view as the most

fundamental roles in the society as it does.506

The ethical issues in business environment were highlighted as crucially important for both

producers and consumers.507 However it is sometime limited to the management and

organization ethics as a result it simply limits its frame of reference to organizations.508 In

contrast Islam constantly admits the ethics governs all aspects of life regardless of the place,

people and time. This is because Muslims are looking for everlasting success or Falh and there

is no difference between carrying daily duties and doing business.509 From the Islamic point of

505
From the Islamic point of view happiness or joy comes from the element of spirituality as well as materiality.
Economics is one of human needs in their material of physical part in life and it will serv as a tool to achieve spiritual
needs such as happiness. See: S.N.H. Naqvi (1981) Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis, Leicester: Islamic
Foundation, p19
506
Ibid
507
The importance of ethics in human economics is not a new issue. The medieval scholastics such as al-Ghazali and
St.Thomas Aquinas for example viewed economic matters as part of their larger concern for the common good and
social justice. Both share the idea that materials are not an end but as a means to achieve the highest level of salvation.
C.f., S.M. Ghazanfar (2000) 'The Economic Thought of Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali and St. Thomas Aquinas: Some
Comparative Parallels and Links', History of Political Economy 32(4) p859. Aquinas point of view however has been said
to have been taken from al-Ghazalis work, see, G. Sarton (1927) Introduction to the History of Science,Baltimore: Williams
and Wilkins; Vol. 2, p914; M. Smith (1944) Al-Ghazali: The Mystic,London: Luzac and Company, p220
508
R.I. Beekun (1997) Islamic Business Ethics, p2
509
Ibid, p1-2

141
view seeking success is not only in certain days and times nor in certain places. ... Inviting to all that

is good (Khair), enjoining what is right (Ma<rf ) and forbidding what is wrong (Munkar) ... 510

3.8 Business Concept From the Shar<ah Perspective

The Islamic culture is mainly based on the Shar<ah (Islamic legal system). Al-Bay< (business /

trade) in this regards is part of it.511 In discussing the concept of goods it is important to note

that it is always referred to as Ml in Islamic jurisprudence. Generally speaking Bay< is the

512
exchange of is the exchange of Ml for Ml. However its concept is still in a continuing

debate.513 In general, mal refers to everything that can be owned by someone.514 In definition,

Ml is generally needed and can be kept up to the time desired;515 ...beneficial in nature,

allowed by the Shar<ah not under the circumstances of al-harrah (necessity);516 ...something

with a material value for which it is sold, and by which its destroyer will be charged.517 Al-Zarqa,

defined al-Ml quite similar to al-Shafie and Ibn-Qudamah. However he argues that the

510
3:104
511
M. Ahmad (1999) Business Ethics in Islam,New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, pp14-17
512
From the Islamic perspective the concept of Ml is more general in terms of meaning. For clarification see, M.
Zahraa and S.M. Mahmor. (2001) 'Definition and Scope of the Islamic Concept of Sale of Goods', Arab Law Quarterly
16(3), pp215-238
513
For clarification see, M.W. Islam (1999) 'Al-Mal: The Concept of Property in Islamic Legal Thought', Arab Law
Quarterly 14(4): 361-368; M. Zahraa and S.M. Mahmor (2001) 'Definition and Scope of the Islamic Concept of Sale of
Goods', pp215-238.
514
See M. Ibn-Manzur (1995) Lisan al-'Arab, Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-'Arabi under entry mim-wau-lam
515
M.A. Ibn-'Abidin (1979) Hashiah Ibn-Abidin, Vol. (4),Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, p501, see also his, Vol.5, p51
516
A.M. Ibn-Qudamah (n.d) al-Mughni fi al-Fiqh, Vol. (2),Qatar: Qatar al-Wataniyyah, p5
517
J. Al-Suyuti (1998) Al-Ashbah wa al-Naza'ir fi Furu` al-Shafi`iyya,Bayrut.: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah,p258

142
concept of Ml is different from Mulk (ownership).518Other scholars attempted to summarise

different views on the issue suggesting that Ml must be capable to be possessed, and it is

beneficial in usual condition. 519 From the above discussion it is clear that the concept of Ml is

an important point before discussing of Bay< (sale) because they effect one another, Therefore,

it is essential either to refine the meaning of the term Ml (property) in such a way as to suit the

contract of sale, or to redefine the concept of sale.520

Some scholars concluded that in terms of classification Ml are in three types; <Ain (corporeal),

Manfa<ah (usufruct) and aqq (right).521 It is also important to note that al-Bay< directly

concerns contracts and there are certain yt in the Qurn which refer to contracts. Al- Bay< is

one of them. 522 In definition the word Bay< means sale or purchase.523 Allh says in the Qurn,

518
See his, M. Al-Zarqa (1967) Al-Fiqh al-Islami fi Thawbihi al-Jadid: Al-Madkhal al-Fiqhi al-Am, Vol. (1),Damascus:
Dar al-Fikr,pp240-242, see also Vol.3, pp114-120
519
See, A. Al-Sabuni (1978) al-Madkhal Lidirasah al-Tashri' al-Islami,Damasc: al-Matba'ah al-Jadidah, pp85-86; A.
Al-Khafi (n.d) Ahkam al-Muamalat al-Shari'yyah,Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-'Arabi, pp25-26
520
M. Zahraa and S.M. Mahmor (2001) 'Definition and Scope of the Islamic Concept of Sale of Goods', Arab Law
Quarterly 16(3),p221
521
The 'ain refers to any good that has a physical existence, the manfaah refers to any benefit that can be utilized for
example staying in a house,and, the haqq (right refers to a special right over a particular property, such as the right
over a passageway. See M.A. Al-Sharbini (1994) Mughni al-Muhtaj, Vol. (2),Bayrut: Dar al-Kitab al-Ilmiyyah. Vol. (2),
pp2-3; Manfa<ah such as dwelling in a house shows how benefit is obtained in a special way. See, Ibn-Qudamah, al-
Mughni, p196; aqq such as the right over a passageway (aqq al-mar-mar) is a special right that can be obtained
from a perticular property. See, Al-Sharbini, M. i. A. (1994) Mughni al-Muhtaj, Vol. (2),Bayrut: Dar al-Kitab al-
Ilmiyyah, pp2-3
522
1) The word bay< in the Qurn refers to many actions of people. For example it refers to a people bargain with
God in their good deeds (9:111), appears to refer to exchanges between believers and the Prophet. It also refers to
trade and profits. At other places it refers to swearing, to sell and trafficking from one to another. Other words are; 2)
The word <Ahd. It means covenant or promise. Most of these connotations are used on covenants to God and at
some places they are referred to as agreement among people. 3) <Aqd (<uqd, plural) appears in the Quran for
example O believers, fulfill your <uqd (your contracts (5:1). This word in its usage in different yt refers to a
marriage contract and to the oath of promise to Allh. 4) The word Mawthiq means an agreement or a pledge In the
Quran this connotation refers to Gods covenants with various prophets and peoples. For more clarification see, S.

143
Verily, Allah has purchased of the believers their lives and their properties for (the price) that

theirs shall be the Paradise. They fight in Allh's cause, so they kill and are killed...524 Bay< is also

defined as the exchange of Ml for Ml with mutual consent (bi al-Tar)525 ; exchange of

mal for mal by the transfer of ownership (Tamallukan).526 As the ongoing research stress more

on Ml in a daily market place the discussion above hopefully sheds light on the basic meaning

of property from Islamic view.

3.8.1 Business Practices shown by the Qurn and Sunnah

Another important point to note about Islamic culture in business is the guidelines from the

Qurn and practices as shown by the Sunnah. Of note, it shows that Islm has a divine code of

practice in business, the code that is permanently embedded in the holy book of the Muslims

and was lived through in the examples shown by the Prophet Muammad. Examples of some

verses regarding business in this holy book are as follows;

a) The meaning of Wealth

Obviously, the concept of wealth as indicated by God is not the same as the concept of wealth as

what is seen by humans. A wealthy man might be a person who has tremendous amount of

Akhavi (2003) 'Sunni Modernist Theories of Social Contraction in Contemporary Egypt', International Journal of Middle
East Studies 35, p24
523
M. Al-Zarqa (1967) Al-Fiqh al-Islami fi Thawbihi al-Jadid: Al-Madkhal al-Fiqhi al-Am, Vol. (1),Damascus: Dar al-
Fikr, p539-541
524
9:111
525
Z. Ibn-Nujaim (1993) Al-Bahr al-Raiq, Vol. (5),Beirut: Dar al-Ma<rifah, p277.
526
Ibn-Qudamah al-Mughni, Vol. (4),p2.

144
property of money by having which he becomes rich and gains high status within his community.

However, God measures a wealthy servant based on the amount of charity and good service that

he does solely in the cause of God:

That which ye lay out for increase through the property of (other) people, will

have no increase with Allah: but that which ye lay out for charity, seeking the

Countenance of Allah, (will increase): it is these who will get a recompense

multiplied.527

Allh rewards those who give charity from their hearts.

b) All deeds are witnessed and rewarded

A man can never escape from the observation of God and that all of his deeds, either good or

otherwise will be rewarded or otherwise punished: Allah says in the Qur'an;

In whatever business thou mayest be, and whatever portion thou mayest be reciting from the

Qur'an,- and whatever deed ye (mankind) may be doing,- We are witnesses thereof when ye are

deeply engrossed therein. Nor is hidden from thy Lord (so much as) the weight of an atom on

527
30:39

145
the earth or in heaven. And not the least and not the greatest of these things but are recorded in

a clear record.528

c. Faith supersedes life and business.

In Islm, all other activities come secondary after faith, a priority that is not negotiable.

Say: If it be that your fathers, your sons, your brothers, your mates, or your kindred,

the wealth that ye have gained, the commerce in which ye fear a decline or the

dwellings in which ye delight - are dearer to you than God, or His Apostle, or the

striving in His cause;- then wait until God brings about His decision: and God guides

not the rebellious.529

This verse among other things reminds Muslims despite the variety of things a man can do for

his life, there is one thing that he is not given the freedom to choose i.e. the place of faith as the

highest priority to a servant of God and the follower of the Prophet. In a very obvious manner, a

Muslm is always safeguarded in the eyes of God for his faith in Him and his Prophet a

characteristic that keeps him as true Muslm. Other things come after faith.530

528
10:61
529
9:24
530
HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar,Jakarta, Indonesia: Pustaka Panjimas, (Juzuk 10 Surat Al-Taubah), pp455-456.
This Tafsir is a famous work of Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah, famously called Hamka a prominent <Ulam in the
Malay Archipelago. The author refers to this book because of its important place in the Malay literature. In many

146
And do not eat up your property among yourselves for vanities, nor use it as bait for the judges,

with intent that ye may eat up wrongfully and knowingly a little of (other) people's property.531

The greed of wealth and property drives man to ...use ones own property for corrupting

others-judges or those in authority - so as to obtain some material gain even under the cover
532
and protection of law. The words your property refer to public property.533 However

Hamka argues that those words indicates that Muslims are in unity and should respect others

property as theirs.534 They can not obtain from them through fraud such as;

1) Publication and selling pornographies

2) Misleading promise and advertisement

3) Committing Itikar (Hoarding up goods of necessity with the object of raising the price)

4) Cheating in weighting and measuring.535

d) Islm encourages trade

In the Qurn Allh says: O ye who believe! Eat not up your property among yourselves in

places in his work he refers to the Malay social life when discussing certain issues. Some chapters of this Tafsir can also
be accessed from; http://us.geocities.com/hamkaonline/ (19.06.2008)
531
2:188
532
A.Y. Ali (2004) The Meaning of the Holy Quran, 10 Edition,Maryland, USA: Amana Publications, pp75-76.
533
Ibid.
534
HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar, (Juzuk 2 Surat al-Baqarah), p443
535
Ibid, p443

147
vanities: But let there be amongst you who traffic and trade by mutual goodwill: Nor kill (or

destroy) yourselves: for verily God hath been to you the Most Merciful!536

Trade refers to many aspects such as merchandising, exchange of goods, weighing, letting,

importing and exporting goods i.e. any kind of transaction that allows the exchange of goods or

service that result in mutual benefits among the parties involved. It is through such transactions

that profits are made and wealth is created.537

And when the Prayer is finished, then may ye disperse through the land, and seek of the Bounty

of God: and celebrate the Praises of God often (and without stint): that ye may prosper.538

Muslims are strictly forbidden from doing business after the call of the Friday prayer. All Muslm

men are expected to ...close your business and answer the summons loyally and earnestly, meet

earnestly, pray, consult and learn by social contract...539 Basically, this verse gives a clear signal

that at that very time, the priority is to uphold remembrance of God. Any other activitiy other

than answering the call for Friday prayer must be put to a halt. However after finishing the Friday

prayer they are allowed even encouraged to scatter and go about their business.

536
4:29
537
HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar,Jakarta, (Juzuk 5 Surat An-Nisa), p26
538
62:10
539
A.Y. Ali (2004) The Meaning of the Holy Quran,10 Edition, Maryland, USA: Amana Publications, p1469, endnote
5462.

148
This verse indicates Fridays and the Friday prayers are not to be used as excuses for a day off.

Islm does not forbid works or any other business activity to place on Fridays. Instead it gives

...higher prosperity-the health of the mind and the spirit.540 This prosperity is gained through

Barakah in works.541 Some Salafi542 <Ulam used to say that whoever manages to do business

dealings after the Friday prayer will gain seventy times of Barakah from Allh.543

e) Trading by sea

Even in the time of the Prophet, trading goods through various means of transportation was not

an alien subject. The fact that it was uttered through the mouth of the Prophet made it all the

more remarkable when the Prophet himself never went to sea to trade. Allh says;

It is He Who has made the sea subject, that ye may eat thereof flesh that is fresh and tender, and

that ye may extract there from ornaments to wear; and thou seest the ships therein that plough

the waves, that ye may seek (thus) of the bounty of God and that ye may be grateful.544

540
Ibid, endnote 5464
541
HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar, (Juzuk 28 Surat ke-62), p245
542
Salaf or Salaf al-Salih refer to first three generations of Muslim
543
As cited in HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar,(Juzuk 28 Surat ke-62), p245
544
16:14

149
f) Grievous penalty for those who are greedy for money

Wealth (and money), although could be the general aim of a trader, must never become

something that makes the trader to become overly engrossed by wealth, disregarding his

function as just a servant of God who should in many ways observe good deeds amongst fellow

humans. Such traders are warned:

O ye who believe! there are indeed many among the priests and anchorites, who in Falsehood

devour the substance of men and hinder (them) from the way of God. And there are those who

bury gold and silver and spend it not in the way of God: announce unto them a most grievous

penalty.545

On the Day when heat will be produced out of that (wealth) in the fire of Hell, and with it will

be branded their foreheads, their flanks, and their backs, their flanks, and their backs. "This is

the (treasure) which ye buried for yourselves: taste ye, then, the (treasures) ye buried!"546

The grievous penalty is only for the rich who did not contribute to the religion through Zakat.547

In Surah al- M<n the one who does not help the orphan and the needy is stated by Allh as the

one who denies the Hereafter. Allh says: Seest thou one who denies the Judgment (to come)? Then

545
9:34
546
9:35
547
For justification on Islam and wealth see, HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar, (Juzuk 10 Surat Al-Taubah), pp 512-518

150
such is the (man) who repulses the orphan (with harshness). And encourages not the feeding of the

indigent 548

g) Remembrance of Allh while in any circumstances

True, there is for thee by day prolonged occupation with ordinary duties. But keep in

remembrance the name of thy Lord and devote thyself to Him whole-heartedly.549

h) Be just in doing business

Islm disallows cheating in whatever form of however little. All measurements and weighting

(i.e. all calculations in all transactions) must be exactly as they should be agreed:

To the Madyan People (We sent) Shu<aib, one of their own brethren: he said: "O my
people! Worship God: Ye have no other god but Him. And give not short measure or
weight: I see you in prosperity, but I fear for you the penalty of a day that will compass
(you) all round. "And O my people! give just measure and weight, nor withhold
from the people the things that are their due: commit not evil in the land with intent
to do mischief.550

548
107:1-3
549
73:7
550
These versus were revealed to the people of Madyan where they were asked to worship God, give full measure and
full weight, 11:84-85

151
i) The forbiddance of fraud while in business dealing,

Woe to those that deal in fraud. Those who, when they have to receive by measure

from men, exact full measure. But when they have to give by measure or weight to

men, give less than due.551

These three verses are derived from chapter 83 of the holy Quran. This chapter namely al-

Mutaffifin means the dealers in fraud.552 Fraud is a kind of injustice and comes in many

activities of life and are done by people at various levels.553 The second and the third verse give

clear meaning of al-Mutaffifin i.e., people who are giving too little and asking too much.554 For

these people cheating in business deals is one way to gain more profit. They often use two

different scales; when selling something they use the first but use the second for buying from

people - both are modified for their benefit or ; ensure that sellers give exact full measure for

them but when they measure for others they will give less from the exact measure.555 With

regards to commercial dealings the negative act from those people will affect;

1) The market integrity

2) The traders good names because their negative act is the root cause damages in the

marketplace

3) Their spiritual beings because their souls will become harsh through the negative act they
551
83:1-3
552
A.Y. Ali (2004) The Meaning of the Holy Quran,10 Edition,Maryland, USA: Amana Publications, p1616
553
Ibid
554
Ibid
555
HAMKA (1986) Tafsir al-Azhar, (Juzuk 30 Surat ke-83), pp67-68.

152
 produced. As a result they feel innocent to feed their family from the unlawful works.556

Other being touched in the Qurn, business regulations are also mentioned in the Hadith and

in the history of abah. For example since a marketplace in Islm is a free going place as the

mosque, Muslims ... should follow the same Sunnah as the mosque: Who gets his place first has

the right to it, until he gets up and goes back to his house ( in this case, suggesting that until he

finishes his selling).557 The arrival of the Muhjirn in Madnah served has been a very

significant history, and similarly this has a lot of significance to the business practices. <Abd al-

Ramn b. <Awf upon his arrival was reported as saying: Show me the way to the

marketplace!558 <Umar b. al-Khab similarly chosd trading as the best way to support his

familys need. He was reported as saying: There is no place that I would prefer to be overtaken

by death than in the marketplace, buying and selling for my family .559

556
Ibid, p68
557
R.U.I. Vadillo (2002) The Return of the Islamic Gold Dinar,Kuala Lumpur: The Murabitun Institute, p147. The
importance of the market place and trade in Islam was not only shown from the example of the Prophet but also from
his successors. Abu Bakar and Umar showed a good example for their interest in the market mechanism. Abu Bakar
had planned to go to the market on the first day he was sworn in as a caliph. This signifies the importance of the
market from his view. He also organised public finance as part of Baitul ml. The second Khalifah <Umar set a kind of
mode of exchange. This regulation gave a standard mechanism which was not in practice earlier. See, S. Din (2006)
Trading all Commodities: Opportunities and Challenges for the Muslim World,Johor Bharu, Malaysia: Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia,p2
558
G.W. Heck (2004) .Islam, Inc. An Early Business History,Riyadh: King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, p
82
559
R. U. I. Vadillo (2002) The Return of the Islamic Gold Dinar, p 83

153
The Prophet envisaged the time when people might disregard the guidelines to gain money

(and wealth); A time will come upon the people when one will not care how one gains ones

money legally or illegally...engage only in lawful trade.560

More ethics in business is discussed by Khan (1996) and is summarised as follow;

1. Explaining the truth561

2. Persuading buyers562

3. Cheating is not allowed563

4. Be blessed in trading564

5. Loan565

6. Let the villagers know the market price before buying from them566

7. Keeping promises567

Some examples given above clearly point out that the Shari<ah covers not only religious beliefs

and the moral aspects but also economic issues of human life. The paragraphs below discuss

regulations on business practises from Muslim scholars point of view.

560
M.M. Khan (1996) Sahih al-Bukhari.988 p465
561
Ibid, , 996,p468
562
Ibid, , 999, p469
563
Ibid, 1008,p473, on animal, 1023, p479
564
Ibid, 1013, p475
565
Ibid, 1014-1015, p476
566
Ibid, 1025, p479
567
Ibid, 1104, p520

154
 3.8.2 Important Views from al Ghazali with Regards to Business Ethics

In al-Ghazalis prominent work, Iy <Ulmuddn various aspects of economics as well as trade

were discussed.568 He discussed three kinds of people based on the ways they make their

earnings and about the destruction of those who forget their eternal return (death/ the next

world).569 Al-Ghazali also discusses many important issues especially basic principles of business.

He argues that the one who is doing business to gain enormous wealth is said to put himself in

danger because it is the root of attachment to the world which is the basis of all sins.570 A

person who wants to be a tradesman should be knowledgeable because it was reported that

Umar the second Khalfah instructed inexperienced tradesmen to be whipped because of their

lack of knowledge in business.571

There are three business principles according to al-Ghazali; Buyer and seller; commodities for

sale; and a contract for sale and purchase.572 He explains that the buyer and the seller should

follow certain conditions as follows:

568
The Iy is made of four volumes. Business ethics is discussed in volume two chapter three. Four sections are
discussed namely; I. Earning and Trade and Commerce, ii. Lawful earnings, justice, kindness and fear of religion, iii.
Justice to be observed in business, iv. To do justice in mutual transactions. In this research the researcher will
summarise the ethical consideration as suggested by al-Ghazali. To do so, only certain verses and Adith will be
quoted beside his suggestions. See, Al-Ghazali Ih
ya ulum al-din, Vol. 2, (Trans) Maulana Fazul-Ul-Karim,
Lahore, Pakistan: Sind Sagar Academy ,pp52-74
569
Ibid, p 53
570
Ibid, p56
571
Ibid
572
Ibid, p57

155
i. Transaction is invalid when done with a minor, an insane, a slave or a blind except in special

conditions.

ii. Goods for sale. He underlined six conditions:

a. The commodities must be legally accepted by the Shari<ah.

b. The goods should be necessary and beneficial

c. The commodities are under the possession of the seller

d. The goods are transferable

e. The things to be sold are known and certain

f. Things to be sold must be in the possession of the owner

iii. Contract for sale and purchase. He underlines a few important conditions for the contract:

a. The contract must be expressed clearly and precisely;

b. The intention is vital

c. After the agreement, the transaction is final and no one can impose any condition

d. In the case of auction it is only lawful if terms are proclaimed beforehand.573

With regards to the concept of Ml, among other important issues to be noted is the legality of

goods under the Shar<ah .574 There are several ayat in the Qurn mentioning the lawful and

573
See, al-Ghazali (1978) Ih
ya ulum al-din, Vol. 2, pp57-58
574
The ruling of all not only comes from al-Qurn, Sunnah but from other sources of the Sharia<h.

156
unlawful goods. For example: Eat of the good things We have provided for you.575 . In terms of

food several ayat discussed on several issues such as; slaughtering, dead meat, pork and non-

slaughtering animals. They are clearly mentioned in the Qurn;

Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which hath been

invoked the name of other than Allh ...576 He has only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and

the flesh of swine, and any (food) over which the name of other than God has been

invoked...577 Eat not of (meats) on which Gods name hath not been pronounced: That would

be impiety...578 Lawful unto you are (all) things good and pure... 579

From the adith; both legal and illegal things are obvious and between them are doubtful

matters. Whoever forsakes those doubtful things, lest he may commit a sin, will definitely avoid

what is nearly illegal...580

Al-Ghazli also discussed justice to be observed in business. He admits it is unlawful to give any

trouble to the public in any way such as unjust dealings and oppression and by deceit and fraud.

575
2:57
576
5:3
577
16:115
578
6:121
579
5:4
580
M.M. Khan (ed) (1996) The English translation of Sahih al Bukhari with the Arabic text, Alexandria: Al-Saadawi
Publications, Hadith 985, p464

157
One example of deceit and fraud581 is hoarding. It caused the public loss especially on food

stuffs.582 It definitely gives the trader greater profits but is cursed by the Shari<ah through the

Qurn and adith. 583

Concealing defects of commodities is also forbidden. It comes in two kinds; concealing the

defects and, concealing in weights and measures. The Prophet even said the one who defrauds is

not of Muslims.584 Al-Ghazali admits that the blessing of Allah comes to the transaction in which

the seller and buyer tell the truth and wish good. Similarly there is no blessing of Allh on a

transaction where both the buyer and seller tell falsehood and conceal the defects.585 In terms of

concealment in weights and measures al-Ghazali suggests; Give more when you measure out to

others and take less when you take by measure from the people. 586In terms of profit al-Ghazali

admits that the profit in the next world is better than the whole things in this life.587 Market

information such as prices for goods is also open for customers as well as for tradesmen to know.

With regards to this case al-Ghazali says: Telling truth in selling commodities and do not
588
conceal anything... He further quoted a adith: Dont meet the riders who bring

581
Fraud comes in many ways. It is more than hoarding or giving short measure or short weight. See A.Y. Ali (2004)
The Meaning of the Holy Quran,10 Edition,Maryland, USA: Amana Publications, P1616.
582
Al-Ghazali admits that hoarding is unlawful only on principal food stuffs. There are different opinions on things
which are near principal food stuffs such as alternative foods (Oat with barley, or chicken with meat). See, al-Ghazali
Ih
ya ulum al-din, ,p62
583
ibid, p61
584
Ibid, p64
585
Ibid, p65
586
Ibid, p66
587
Ibid, p65
588
Ibid,p65.

158
commodities.589 The tradesmen can choose to break any agreement with those who meet them

in advance before coming to the market place.590 It shows that Islm encourage people from

rural areas to know the price of goods they wanted to sell. In this way they will not be

discriminated by middle men in the market.

In section four of his book al-Ghazali discusses doing good in mutual transactions. He suggests

six ways to these good deeds;

i. To gain less profit. Although taking much profit is not unlawful. To take less profit is

considered as doing good (Isn) to the buyers.

ii. Buyers are recommended to buy goods at higher price from the poor to show good to him.

iii. Sellers also recommend showing goods to the buyers such as;

a. Buyers can accept less price at times

b. Demand can be made with good manners.591

iv. Debtors are also recommended to do good at the time of the payment. They are considered

as doing good (Isn) and can be achieved from;

a. Pay the debts before demand

b. Debtors should go to the creditor personally

589
Ibid, p66. See, p78 There are two narratorsof this dith amongst the abah as quoted in Sunan Ibn.Majah: Abu
Hurairah and <Abdillah, Ibn <Abbas. Fuwad Abd al-Baqi (1995) Sunan Ibn Majah-Abi Abd Allah
Muh
ammad ibn Yazid al-Qarwini-H
aqaqa Nus
us
ahhu, Bayrut, Lubnan : Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, Juz.2:
2175, 2176, 2177, pp 734-735. adth Muttafaqun <Alaih, See, Al-<Iraqi,
Abd al-Rahim ibn al-Husayn. (1984)
Al-Mughni <An amlilasfr fi al-Asfr- Takhrj mfi al-Iy min al-Asfr, Beirut: Dr al-Ma<rifah, Vol.2, p78.
590
Al-Ghazali Ih
ya ulum al-din, Vol. 2,p66
591
Ibid, p67

159
 c. Pay more than the principal. In this case debtors pay more than the principal

voluntarily and not because of any agreement between the debtor and the creditor.

v. A seller is considered doing good deed to a buyer if a thing sold is returned if the buyer thinks

that he/she has suffered loss.

vi. It is also recommended to sell things to the poor or needy on credit not in cash.592

From the above discussion about doing good in business al-Ghazli has demonstrated that

business should be conducted not only as a way for earning ones live hood but it goes beyond

that. It is a way to realize social responsibility with no religious obligations sacrificed. Indeed it is a

place where a Muslim is tested as al-Ghazli states: ...Trade and commerce are the places for

trial of religious persons593

Lastly al-Ghazli suggests seven ways how a Muslim businessperson can gain perfection for

his/her religion while in the business world;

1. Keeping ones faith firm and good intention from the beginning;

a. With the intention to avoid depending on others

b. With the intention not to be greedy

c. To keep satisfaction with lawful earnings

592
Ibid, pp68-69
593
Ibid, p69

160
d. Remain on the paths of religion

e. With the intention to maintain the family

d. With the intention to do good to the Muslims and love for them

e. Remain on the paths of equity, justice and Ihsan

f. Enjoining good and forbidding evil while in the market.

2. Always realizing that being a businessman is part of Farh Kifyah.594

3. To keep in touch with the mosque for prayer.

4. Remain in the condition of Zikr (remembrance of Allah) while in the market. Al-Ghazali

insists that there is no difference for the one who fears God whether in the markets, houses and

mosques.

5. Always to remember not to be too greedy in markets and business.595

6. Always to ensure to keep away doubtful things on top of unlawful things.596

7. To be aware with the business accounts since one is responsible for all accounts on the day on

the Day of Judgment. 597

594
Farh Kifyah is a collective responsibility that should be undertaken by all to ensure the success of the ummah. For
example al-Ghazali mentions about trade commerce and says that, without them, it will be difficult for the people to
manage their livelihood and the majority of the people would be destroyed See his, Ihya ulu-Id-Din, Vol. 2, (Trans)
Maulana Fazul-Ul-Karim, p71
595
For Al-Ghazali the Hadith, The worst of places is the market refers to the one who is too greedy.
596
He verifies on doubtful things in the forth chapter of the second volume entitled Halal and Haram (lawful and
unlawful things). See his, (1978) Ih
ya ulum al-din, Vol. 2, (Trans) Maulana Fazul-Ul-Karim, Vol. (2),
pp87-92
597
See, Al-Ghazali, A. H. (1978) Ih
ya ulum al-din, Vol. (2), pp70-74

161
The work of al-Ghazli which has already been highlighted above has demonstrated some

ethical aspects in business ethics.

3.8.3 Some Examples and Issues in Islamic Business Ethics

1. Contract. Islm asks its followers to adhere to a promise. The forms in which promises are

made can be various; contract is one of them. The Qurn emphatically says:

O you believers! Fulfil your contracts 598

The fulfilment of contracts and promises may only take place if each party adhere to the

contract. Broken business partnership and business dealings always result from the failure of any

party to adhere to the contract or, in certain cases, loopholes in the contract have been taken as

an excuse to commit fraud.599

To avoid this problem from happening Islam gives guidance aimed at countering the causes of

breach of agreement through writing and witnessing the deal, even for small details600, avoiding

598
5:1
599
K.H. Wathne and J.B. Heide (2000) 'Opportunism in Interfirm Relationships: Forms, Outcomes, and Solutions',
Journal of Marketing; Vol. 64(Oct; 4), p38-40
600
2:283

162
bad faith and; enforcing agreements through legal apparatus.601 However Islam admits that

Taqwa in one self is the most important above all.602

2. Prohibition to mislead customers with wrong statements and promise.

Business can always be accelerated and assisted through advertisement a way a trader would

promote his goods or service. However, Islm promotes honest advertisement, statements that

are true and verifiable when customers buy the goods or services.

And O my people! give just measure and weight, nor withhold from the people the things that

are their due: commit not evil in the land with intent to do mischief. 603

The example of this practice is in advertisements or sale promotions where people are forced to

be attracted to buy because of many attractive factors which are not exactly the same with the

goods or services being advertised.

3. Prohibition of hoarding. For greedy businesspeople, one way to rake a lot of money is during

the period of scarcity. They hide the necessary goods and when the supply became short in the

market they offer them with the higher price. This is a clear manipulation of the concept of

supply and demand, only that the natural dynamics of the supply and demand is made artificially

601
A. Shafaat (2008) 'Islamic Rules Concerning Financial Dealings': http://muslim-canada.org/finance.html. (18.06.
2008)
602
Inner consciousness of the individual must be in line with Khilafah and <Adlah which will form the moral filter for
the Muslim. See M.U. Chapra. (1992) Islam and the Economic Challenge, Leicester: Islamic Foundation, p215
603
11.85

163
for the purpose of creating a false and desperate situation that results in higher demands

allowing the wicked trader making dirty profits. Islam not only prohibits this but condemns them

with the curse from Allah. Ibn Sa<id reported Allahs Messenger as saying: He, who hoards is a

sinner.604 With regards to this adth the one who preserves goods for a certain period and

helps in maintaining the constant flow of their supply in the market is not a sinner. A person

commits sin only when he holds goods for the purpose of creating artificial scarcity in the market

and sells them when the price is higher. 605

4. Prohibition of wasting economic sources to create artificial scarcity. The practice of

destruction of surplus to stabilize demand and supply in modern economics is accepted in

todays economic practice. However Islm definitely rejected it on the ground that it is a kind of

waste.

5. Command to be fair to workers. Islm recognizes workers as human beings and they need to

be treated with respect to their ability to work. They should be given fair wages and their welfare

needs to be taken into consideration as well. The Prophet say: Give the laborer wages before his

perspiration be dry.606

6. Command to be fair in recruitment practices. In this respect Islm asks it followers to be fair

and avoid discrimination and the likes toward the workers. This is important because during any

604
M.A. Khan (1989) Economic Teachings of Prophet Muhammad-A Select Anthology of Hadith Literature on Economics,
Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Economics, p127.
605
Ibid
606
This adith was cited by Ibn. Mjah and has been classified as adith ha<if. See. Fuwad Abd al-Baqi
(1995) Sunan Ibn Majah-Abi Abd Allah Muh
ammad ibn Yazid al-Qarwini-H
aqaqa Nus
us
ahhu, Vol.2, adith:
2443, p817

164
decision making Muslims are urged to be calm and put the Qurnic teachings into practice.

The Qurn says: Allh commands you to render back your trust to this to whom they are due;

and when you judge between man and man, that you judge with justice...607

7. The sale of animals and their remains.

Certain animals are permissible for trade on condition they are hir (pure) and beneficial.

Dead animals are not allowed if they were not slaughtered in accordance with the Shari<ah

regulations accept aquatic animals such as fish.608 For animal remains such as bones and their

skins Muslm scholars are of different views but their arguments are on the issue of whether they

are pure or not.609 The majority of scholars for example accept the legality of animal skins

(axcept for dog and pigs) on condition they are tanned before being sold.610

It can be concluded that Islm already sets standard on many parts of business practice. Islam set

standard on among others, prohibited and lawful goods, blessed business conduct, permitted

loans, regulation of partnership and regulation on weight and measures. All regulations that

607
4:58
608
See Muhammad ibn Ismail, Sanani, (1998) Subul al-Salam: Sharh Bulugh al-Maram Mam' 'Adillat al-Ahkam,
Vol. (3),Bayrut: Dar al_Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, pp10-11; also Vol (1), pp35-36.
609
See Al-Kasani, A. B. I. M. (1997) Badai al-Sanai fi Tartib al-Sharai, Vol. (5),Bayrut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, p142
610
See, A.B.I.M. Al-Kasani (1997) Badai al-Sanai fi Tartib al-Sharai, Vol. (1),Bayrut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah,p270;
Al-Nawawi, A. Z. M. (2000) Kitab al-Majmu': Sharh al-Muhadhdhab, Vol. (9),Bayrut: Dar al-fikr, p230, p272-274; Al-
Kasani, A. B. I. M. (1997) Badai al-Sanai fi Tartib al-Sharai, Vol. (5),Bayrut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah, p144.

165
were derived from the Qurn and adith were widened on their scope by the <Ulama< (fiqh

scholars) using the method of Ul al-fiqh.

8. Issues of Taking Profit and Price Control in Businesses

This is one of the important issues to be considered in this study since the objective is to engage

in business from traders point of view is maximising profits. One way to have a good profit is

through appropriate way of pricing. Imam al-Shfi<i admits the possibility of changes in value of

a commodity from two factors;

1) There is a change in price and peoples willingness to acquire the goods; 2) The quantity of

the goods i.e., in small or large quantity.611 Al-Shfi<i argument thus suggest a possibility for

higher and lower price for a commodity where traders can make profit from the above

mentioned circumstances. Ibn Qudamah similarly stated that price fixation also engages with

peoples property and it is up to them to sell goods with any price agreed with the buyers.612

Al- Ghazli also noted that by making them available at a suitable time and place activities of

trades add value to goods and create profit-motivated traders in the market.613 In the issue of

profit taking Ibn Khaldun is of the viewed that trade is boosted with moderate profits, it

611
Cited in A.B.I.M. Al-Kasani (1997) Badai al-Sanai fi Tartib al-Sharai, Vol. (2),Bayrut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyyah,
p.16
612
Ibn-Qudamah (1972) al-Mughni, Vol. (4),Beirut,: Darul-Kitab al-Arabi, p44-45
613
A.H. Al-Ghazali (1978) Iy<Ulmuddn, Vol. (2) F. Karim (Tran), p227

166
discourages traders from the markets with low profits and decrease demand with very high

profits.614

In general Islm allows the market to fix the price because the trader is the price taker not a

price maker.615 It was reported that Prophet Muammad refused to fix the price when asked to

do so and replied ... Allah grants plenty of shortage; He is the sustainer and real price maker

(Musa<ir). I wish to go to Him having done no injustice to anyone in blood or in property.616

Because of the Prophets refusal, price fixation has become a controversial issue in Islamic

jurisprudence.617 However as Islm came to people who had trading as the main source for

living, price control should not be taken as a negative effect on the society. Moreover the

Prophet himself used to be a trader and should understand very clearly the issue of pricing. Ibn

Khaldun for example states that fixing the price is against the economic factor however it is not a

general ruling in all market situations.618 For Muslm scholars the issue of market forces were in

their deep insight.619Al-Kinni also opposed price fixation but agreed it to be imposed in an

abnormal market situation.620 Al-Baji621 agreed with price fixation in certain situations but only

614
See his, (1967) pp 340-341.
615
A.A. Islahi (2004) Contributions of Muslim Scholars to Economic Thought and Analysis (11-905 A.H./ 632-1500
A.D.),Jeddah: Islamic Economicss Research Centre King Abdul Aziz University, p28
616
Cited in Ibn Taymiyyah (1976), al-Hisbah, Cairo: Dar al-Sha<ab p25, with reference to Ab Dwd and Tirmidh.
617
For clarification see, A.A. Islahi (1988) Economic Concepts of Ibn Taimiyah, Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, pp. 94-
97
618
See Ibn Taymiyyah, (1976), p42
619
A.A. Islahi (2004) Contributions of Muslim Scholars to Economic Thought and Analysis (11-905 A.H./ 632-1500 A.D.),
p27
620
See al-Kinani (1975) pp44-45 as cited in A.A. Islahi (2004) Contributions of Muslim Scholars to Economic Thought and
Analysis, p32
621
Abul Walid Sulayman Al-Baji (1012-1081). A scholar from Maliki school and famous with al-Muntaqa Shar al-
Muwaa, his commentary on Imam Maliks Muwaa.

167
after the market situation is discussed with market representatives and customers.622 Ibn

Qudamah admited that price fixation is injustice (ulm).623 With regards to the adith of the

Prophets refusal on price fixation, Ibn-Qudamah624 comments that from an economic point of

view price control is bad for economics. Although the intention is to maintain the price low it will

bring about an opposite result because local traders will hold their goods while outside traders

will not come in to sell their goods with the price they dont agree to.625 He goes further by

saying that the economic situation will become worse as there will be shortage in supply. Since

the consumers are in real need for the goods they bid the price up and as a result the price will

go higher.626 Al-Dimashqi suggested a just price (al-Qimat al-Mutawassiah) i.e., price is

determined by competitive market forces, as a solution for the pricing issue.627

3.9 Conclusion

In brief this chapter has discussed issues pertaining to the Islamic culture in business. It
demonstrates that Shari<ah plays an important role in the application of Islamic teachings in
Muslim society. Basically, the culture of a Muslim society is influenced by the Shari<ah, and it
should preferably be so in order to maintain the spirit of Islamic as a way of life. But, other
influences might also have also contribute to a Muslim society, either the influences were present

622
Abul Walid Sulayman Al-Baji Al-Baji, Vol. 5, p19 as cited in A.A. Islahi (2004) Contributions of Muslim Scholars to
Economic Thought and Analysis, p32
623
Ibn Qudamah (1972) vol.4., pp44
624
He was Shams al-Din Abd al-Rahman Muhammad Ibn Qudamah al-Maqdisi, born in 1200M and died 1283M.
He was among the prominent <ulama<of Hambali fiqh in the 13th century.
625
Ibn-Qudamah (1972) al-Mughni, Vol. (4),Beirut,: Darul-Kitab al-Arabi. vol.4., pp44-45
626
Ibid
627
A.F.J. Al-Dimashqi (1977) 'al-Ishrah il Maasin al-Tijrah', Al-Bushra al-Shurbaji (editor), Cairo: Maktabah al-
Kulliyyat al-Azhariyyah, pp29-30. The term al-qimat al-Mutawassitah similarly cited as qimat al-mithl or qimat al-<adl.
For clarification, see A.A. Islahi (2004) Contributions of Muslim Scholars to Economic Thought and Analysis (11-905 A.H./
632-1500 A.D.),Jeddah: Islamic Economicss Research Centre King Abdul Aziz University, p31; A.A. Islahi (1988)
Economic Concepts of Ibn Taimiyah, Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, p83

168
before the incoming of Islm, or during the time of Islm. From many angles, a lot of the
cultural pcactices brought about by Islm have been practiced before the time of Islam and that
not all pre-Islamic culture or cultures of other societies are unacceptable in Islm. This can be
seen today in that different Muslim societies throughout the world look and function rather
differently, although with significant overlaps. In short, Muslm societies everywhere have been
enriched by other cultures. For the current study it is important for the researcher to reasonably
acquire the meaning of the Shari<ah concept as business matters are always evolving and
developing and the Shari<ah should provide clear answers to any doubts with regard to them. It
is clear from the above discussion that the Shari<ah provides enormous space to answer new
problems regarding business matters within its flexibility through the method of Ijtihd.

169
 Chapter 4

Research Methodology

4.0 Introduction

The main aim of this research is to explore the influences of culture on Muslim businesspeople.

As such, it is vital to systematically capture the perspective of the Malay businesspeople within

their business world. Inevitably, it becomes an intricate web since people are linked to their

religious beliefs, cultural traditions, social behaviours and their experience. This complexity is

taken into account allowing a development of a research approach that could examine and

provide insights to these relationships as they are reflected in businesspeoples everyday

behaviour.

It is important to note that this study will focus on the businesspeoples real-life experience

thus the inclusion of real illustrative material is one of the strengths of this kind of

presentation.628 A quantitative research approach is therefore less suitable because it will only

derive information and conclusion from static reality of life viewed from sample perspectives.629

Alternatively, this study will be carried out by employing an approach that understands and

628
D. R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research: An Integrated Approach, New York:
Longman, p 347.
629
Burns, R. B (1994) Introduction to Research Methods. 2nd. Edition, Cheshire, Melbourne: Longman.
, pp10-11.

170
makes sense of insiders perspective about the experience they have in a natural setting. More

importantly the chosen approach aims to avoid loss in the elements of interpretation in

context.630 Along the line, the outside factors such as the societys norms, values, beliefs,

customs and traditions will also be studied and understood. Through this way, it will be possible

to see how these elements come into context and how they, together, influence the

bussinesspeoples experience. Consequently, because human beings can relate their experience

to others, it will be they themselves who will interpret the meanings of their experience. This is

the basis of the framework within which this case study approach will be employed in this study.

4.1 The Research Approach

This research takes a qualitative approach, which is also known as naturalistic inquiry and focuses

on meaning in context. It is suitable for an in-depth study of a phenomenon that requires

elaborate description with great details and where measuring would be overly obtrusive or

impossible.631 One important characteristic of this kind of research is its detailed description of

the phenomenon or events under study in an attempt to understand and explain them.632

The outcome of this study is a holistic picture of a phenomenon rather than a normative

process.633 Qualitative methods are used to explore a particular point of view in explaining

630
L.J. Cornbach. (1975) Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology American Psychology, Vol. 30, pp 116-
127.
631
D. R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research: An Integrated Approach, New York:
Longman, p 352
632
Ibid, p 311
633
Ibid

171
human behaviour.634 Other than elaborate description and holistic in terms of the outcome, it is

also inductive where the problem under study emerge through out the study or remain open for

any interpretation.635

4.1.1 A Case Study Research

It has been stated briefly earlier in the first chapter that the researcher is employing a case study

approach. In this section the method will be illustrated in detail. In order to understand the

nature of this kind of investigation it is a crucial need to analyse and define clearly the nature of

the case study. There are several definitions for a case study as detailed below: A case study

is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life

636
context; is the preferred strategy when how, who, why, or what questions are

being asked637 and vividly and precisely conveying the characteristics of a single individual,

situation, or problem, it is used to illuminate a generic problem.638 A case study is termed as an

interpretation in context.639 This study also seeks a context-dependent knowledge where it is

necessary to allow people to develop from rule-based beginners to virtuoso experts.640 Yin

supports this statement by adding that a case study is particularly designed to suit situations in

634
Ibid,
635
ibid, see also S.B. Merriam. (1988) Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
p 13
636
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, London: SagePublications, p 10.
637
R.B. Burns. (2000) Introduction to Research Methods,4th. Edition, London: Sage Publication, p 460.
638
D. R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research: An Integrated Approach, New York:
Longman, p 347
639
L.J. Cornbach. (1975) 'Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology', American Psychology Vol. 30, p 123.
640
B. Flyvbjerg. (2006) 'Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research', in: Qualitative Inquiry (April), p 221.

172
which it is impossible to separate the phenomenas variables from its context i.e. when the

boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple

sources of evidence are used.641

In this study it is the researchers intention to conceptualise a case on the culture of Muslim

businesspeople in business practice within the boundaries642 of a Malay-Muslim society.

Using the various definitions as a guideline, the researcher is going to investigate how Muslim

businesspeople are influenced by differing cultures. Their daily practices while dealing with the

business environment will be investigated and observed. Their responses and practices in the

light of cultural influences will also be discussed from the Islamic perspective. Holistic views of

these situations are going to be taken into consideration.

A case study is also concerned about process. The researchers main concern is on how the

respondents interpret their experiences and structure their social worlds rather than identifying

the outcomes of their practices. The researcher will also consider Merriams suggestion on the

two meanings of process, the first is monitoring while the second is causal explanation.643

Monitoring refers to the explanation of the context which provides feedback of formative type.

641
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p 23
642
Krathwohl argues that case studies are bounded by particular programme, institution, time period, or set of
events. Within those boundaries, what ever is the focus of attention is described in perspective to the context
surrounding it. See his (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p347
643
S.B. Merriam. (1988) Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p32

173
Causal explanation is confirmation of the process.644 Merriam goes further on a case study

characteristic, referring to its reliance on inductive reasoning.645 Therefore the verification

or predetermined hypotheses are not necessary in a case study approach. This is because new

relationships, concepts and understanding emerge through out the data analyses. Whatever

emerges from the data analyses facilitates new meaning and extends the researchers experience,

thus confirms what is known. In the case of new variables, they will lead the researcher to explore

and rethink of the phenomenon being studied thus bring significant insights into the

phenomenon under study.

Unlike other research techniques such as historical and quantitative research approach, the

researcher is able to understand the meaning of particular phenomenon in its natural setting by

using the case study., i.e: the nature of the setting what it means for the participants in the

setting, what their lives are like, what is going on for them, what their meanings are .646

One advantage of doing investigation in a natural setting is that the researchers get themselves

close to the subject of interest. This can be gained, for example, from direct observation as well

as on subjective factors of the subject such as thoughts, setting and desires.647 Compared to other

methods, multiple sources for data gathering such as this will spread the focus of the study.

Researches solely based on experiment, for example, or the ones carried out on surveys, may

644
Ibid
645
Ibid, p13
646
M.Q. Patton. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Method, 2nd. Edition, London: Sage, p5
647
D.B. Bromley. (1986) The Case-Study Method in Psychology and Related Disciplines, New York: Wiley, p23

174
have to narrow the focus of the studies as, their ability to investigate the context is extremely

limited.648

The complexity of the subject matter for this research is acknowledged. In view of this, there is a

great potential for significant contribution to the field of study -as well as to the community

being studied- if a case study approached is applied successfully.

A case study approach is also chosen because the researcher is going to do such a critical study

about people.649 The researcher plans to use a technique where cases information-rich can be

identified.650 With this in mind a few traders can be identified to represent the wider group of

the Malay Muslim traders where a great deal can be learned from them. This will be elaborated

in the section on sampling procedures.

Moreover, a case study approach is more comprehensive in dealing with issues of interest. This is

because special features of a case study approach such as its particularistic, descriptive and

heuristic nature will suit this research.651 A study is said to become particularistic when it provides

more valid description and better support for personal understanding for further considering

648
R.K Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p23
649
M.Q. Patton. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Method, p54
650
For more clarification on information-rich cases and sampling size for purposeful sampling in a qualitative
research see, M.Q. Patton. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Method,2nd. Edition, London: Sage, pp181-186,
M.N. Marshal. (1996) 'Sampling for Qualitative Research', Family Practice 13: 522-525, I.T. Coyne. (1997) 'Sampling in
Qualitative Research: Purposeful and Theoretical Sampling; Merging or Clear Boundaries', Journal of Advanced Nursing
26: 623-630.
651
S.B. Merriam. (1988) Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach, p29

175
action.652 As in this study, description means a literal description of the incident through the

businesspersons interpretation of their cultural norms, religious values, and social practices were

closely observed and investigated. It is expected that the descriptive nature of the reports in this

study will be presented in detail.

Finally, a case study is heuristic when it can confirm, challenge or extend a theory. Although this

study is a single case study, it is expected to give a significant theoretical contribution and would

assist future investigations in the area. A case study approach is selected when the relevant

behaviours cannot be manipulated.653 On top of that the case studys unique feature is its

ability to deal with a full variety of evidence - documents, artefacts, interviews, and

observations.654

The researcher also notes that a case study approach requires a lot of skills. It is not a kind of easy

work as some people think. As Yin puts it, In fact, case study research is among the hardest
655
types of research to do. Apart from what has been discussed in a case study there is

something underlying a social process. It is called a case or body of cases.656 In this study the

author will investigate the impact of different cultures of the Malay especially on the historical

652
M.Q. Patton. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Method, p54.
653
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p 19
654
Ibid, p 20
655
Ibid, p 55
656
N.K. Denzin. (1989) The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction to Sociological Methods, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
p185

176
evidence and try to understand how the Malay have been influenced, in their daily life in general

and in business culture in particular.

4.1.2 Research Cycle in Data Collection.

A research design is very important and serves as an architectural blueprint of a research project.

It enables a researcher to assemble, organise and integrate data and its result in a specific

finding.657 In this study the research design is developed after taking into account various

influential factors such as the type of the research, its objectives, research questions and the types

of desired result in findings.

Based on the research objectives and questions, the researcher developed a research design for

this study. One important element in a research design is the data collection cycle. Nine stages

are included for the purpose of this study, exemplified as follows:

a. Stage 1: Pre-field work

b. Stage 2: Pilot study

c. Stage 3: Field work orientation-Establishing the relationships

d. Stage 4: Interviews and Observations

e. Stage 5: Backing up using available documents

f. Stage 6: Triangulation

657
S.B. Merriam. (1988) Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach, p6

177
g. Stage 7: Verification and findings

h. Stage 8: Theoretical saturation and Theoretical Sampling

i. Stage 9: Formatting the Grounded Theories

The cyclical pattern signifies a watertight framework of the study within which all required

components of the study will be controlled. It is important to keep in mind that the process only

stops when the researcher is satisfied with the data that has been collected, especially when the

same specific pattern of behaviour emerges over and over again. One way to ensure that the

findings from the data are accurate is to verify the data and findings with the respondents. The

stage of the research cycle in the next page gives a clearer picture of the whole process.

178
 Figure 4:1 : Research Cycle in Data Collection

Stage 1: Pre-field Work

Stage 2: Pilot Study

Stage 9: Formation of
Grounded Theory/ies

Stage 3: Field work

orientation-Establishing the
relationships
Stage 8: Theoretical saturation
and Theoretical sampling

Stage 4: Interviews and

Observations

Stage 7: Data Verification

Stage 5: Backing up using
and Findings
available documents

Stage 6: Triangulation stage 4 and 5

Adapted from A.H.H. Omar (2000) The Influence of Culture on Muslim Athletes. A Case Study of 1998 Malaysian
Commonwealth Games Athletes. Ph.D Thesis, Queensland, Australia: Queensland University of Technology

179
4.1.3 The Field Work Instruments

To gain the meaning of a phenomenon under study it is important to ensure that the

instrument used in the study is sensitive to the underlying meaning of the data.658

(a) Merriam suggests that humans are well suited for this purpose for their ability of making use

of human sensibilities during the time they spare in the field e.g. during interviews and

observations.659 Humans are also responsive to the natural context and are sensitive to nonverbal

aspects of behaviour. This will help the researcher clarify and summarise as the study develops660

and as a consequence, the researcher himself becomes a part of the research instruments. As

Krathwohl says: indeed, observers are judged by whether they are sensitive enough to capture

the critical aspects of what is occurring, how well they can make sense of it, and how well the

explanations they induce from it fit.661 While posting any question, it is important for a

researcher to find a right place and time before making any decision to ask. As an important

instrument in research, a researcher must learn when to question and when not to question

as well as what questions to ask.662

658
R.B. Burns. (1994) Introduction to Research Methods, Cheshire: Longman, p 365
659
S.B. Merriam. (1998) Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p 3
660
Ibid
661
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research l, p 315
662
W.F. Whyte. (1955) Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p
303

180
(b) As a guide for the interview a set of questions and case study protocols were prepared in

advance. Nevertheless, the instrument means more than what its name sounds to be. The

protocol contains the instrument but also contains the procedures and general rules that should

be followed when using the instrument.663 It guides investigators on the work they are doing

and give idea on what to do next and how to write the report to suit the audience; and the most

important thing, the case study protocol for a research is to increase the reliability of the study.664

(c) The researcher recorded information from interviews by taking notes and by recording

conversation accounts into audiotapes.665 Two voice recorders a still camera and a video

recorder were used regularly during the interviews.666 However there were occasions when the

researcher only used notes, or audiotapes or both depending on the necessity of doing so. For

example, some interviewees declined consent and at other times, the researcher felt that some

of the respondents were not at ease when the equipments were used. In such cases the

researcher maintained that taking notes were the best strategy. Other negative factors that

impeded the use of audiotapes were background noise from megaphones and conversations by

other customers and passers by.

663
The protocol is suggested to have four important sections; overview , field procedures , case study questions and a
guide for the case study report. R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, pp64-66
664
Ibid
665
This technique is recommended in J.W. Creswell. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches,
London: SAGE Publications,p152.
666
As part of research ethics, the traders permission was asked when the researcher wanted to record the interviews.
The still camera was used to capture pictures of the interviewees however not all of them were willing to be
photographed. The researcher also captured pictures of the city and the market environment using the still camera
and the video recorder. They were also very helpful to be used in the library. They were used to copy some important
pages from books available in the library that were important for this research. By this way the researcher was able to
use his limited field work time efficiently.

181
(d) Log books were used to record important notes during interviews and observations.667 The

researcher used the field notes while collecting data in the field. Field notes are running

observations or interviews interspersed with comments.668 As an observer, a researcher is like a

sponge, listening carefully and viewing open-endedly.669During the time in the field, the

researcher recorded what he observed and described individuals, the settings and the

conversations as completely as possible. However, the question about the importance to note any

relevant subject in his field note is always up to the researcher.670 Printed documents related to

the study were also gathered.671

4.1.4 Data Collection Techniques.

Three important points have been considered in the process of data collection in this study.

They are:

a) Identification of the demarcation for the boundaries of the study site

667
The case study protocol contains the procedures and rules that should be followed in the study. In increases the
reliability of the study by ensuring the standard procedure is followed, an essential if several persons are to do the
interviewing or observation. See B. Gunter (2000) Media Research Method, p466.
668
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research p336. This writer further describes field
notes consist of a chronological account of venture. They may include relevant incidents from outside the formal
observation process as well-comments elicited at a party, reflections on an interview from an informants encountered
later, and so on. Ibid, p330.
669
Ibid, p326
670
Ibid, p329.
671
Instead of getting information about the city and the market from the interviews and observations the researcher
was given printed materials such as flyers, weekly and monthly bulletins etc. These were gathered especially from the
meetings with the council officers.

182
b) Collection of the actual data through observations, interviews, documents, and other visual

materials, and

c) Establishment of recording protocols 672

All three steps were accordingly followed whilst taking into account the need to meticulously

observe the actors i.e. the traders during interviews. 673

Some limitations were also calculatively imposed as follows:

1. Traders experience in their business environment, which can be elaborated further as follows:

a. Cultural experience

Traders daily business practice. It focussed on the traders;

i. Perceptions on their business culture

ii. Conceptualisation of their daily business practice

iii. Identification of how this experience influences the development of their economic

behaviour

b. Experience related to their religious beliefs

c. Conflicts of cultural experience

d. The method on how they deal with the experience

672
J.W. Creswell. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, London: SAGE Publications, p148
673
See, M.B. Miles and A.M. Huberman. (1984) as cited in Creswell, J. W. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches, London: SAGE Publications, pp148-149.

183
2. Traders understanding of their business culture and their religious belief

To further understand the Malay community, the next section elaborates the preliminary results

of the part of the study that investigated the Malay-Muslim traders who were involved in this

study and how they formed part of the existing Malay-Muslim society. The in-depth

investigation of their background is expected to provide further information about their cultural

identities, and the way these are reflected in their daily practices. Some of the elements that

could contribute to their background are as follows:

a. The background of the traditional Malay beliefs and religion.

Islm as a faith and as it is practised may have significant impact on the background. However

the many other traditional practices known as the <Adat (customs) and the influence of other

culture might have also come into play. In the traditional setup, <Adat, also have a religious

basis. To the traditional everything is infused with religion. Moreover Islamic law itself has

principle for customary law/practice.674

In order to have a clear picture of the different cultural influences, the researcher examined the

traders daily practices in business. Their practices were observed in the market where they were

674
For further discussion see, M.H. Kamali (2003) .Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence 3,Edition,
Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, pp 369-383; J. Auda, (2008) .Maqasid al-Shariah as Philosophy
of Islamic Law,Herdon, USA: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, pp 57-98

184
practising and trading. This enabled the investigator to identify which cultural influences

remained and to what extent these have affected the traders daily practices in business.

b. Traders religious beliefs

The traders undoubtedly faced constraints in their trading activities due to the conflicts of

religio-cultural influence. For example, some traders believed that certain numbers bring good

luck and others bring bad luck and may even be damaging to business. Luck in numbers is

essentially a Chinese influence. Still some others believe that certain verses from the Qurn bring

luck and good fortunes. Two of the most commonly referred verses from the quran that are

almost always linked to luck and good fortunes are:

And for those who fear God, He (ever) prepares a way out And He provides for
him from (sources) he never could imagine. And if any one puts his trust in God,
sufficient is (God) for him. For God will surely accomplish his purpose: verily, for all
things has God appointed a due proportion.675

Locally known as the Verse of a Thousand Dinar (Ayat Seribu Dinar), it is believed that if

beautifully framed and hanged on the walls of the house or the business premises, it may bring

exceeding profits to the business. This takes root from the religious material regardless if the

practices were in accordance with the code of Islamic ethics. Further, such materials were used

together with other non-religious materials such as old coins and meticulously drawn figures,

675
See, A.Y.Ali. (2004). The Meaning of the Holy Quran 10, Edition, Maryland, USA: Amana Publications, 65:2-3.

185
sometimes with geometrically design. Medicine men, Shamans and Bomohs also retain their place

in the Malay Trading society. It was between these various elements and influences, the tendency

to have negative and positive trading activities took place.

4.1.5 Gaining Admission for the Field Work

The important question the researcher has had in mind was how he will be accepted into the

community of this place. He was also aware that gaining entry to any place for data collection

depends on the condition he can be trusted. One way to gain entry to a new place or situation is

by asking help from colleagues, research team or from someone who is familiar and has already

been accepted in that particular place. Finally the access to the Siti Khadijah Market was

successful. Friends and close contacts whom were personally met much earlier gave a lot of

assistance, and further helped the investigator become familiar with the norms and the language

atmosphere of the ambiance. This was carefully thought not too strictly done following the

standard social analys is methods.676

Indeed, the technique was proven well and beneficial in removing barriers to the market settings

and community. Just like getting access, the researcher was aware that he would be well

676
See, J. Lofland, and L.H. Lofland. (1984) Analyzing social settings, Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Inc, p 25. In this study the KO-CT (Siti Khadijah Corporative body) chairman, two of the invesigators old
friends and a senior trader in the market helped the researcher understand the market quickly. They introduced a
few traders to the investigator and this helped the researcher during the interviews as some of them had already
become acquainted with him.

186
recognised and accepted when people felt he is trustworthy.677 With this regard the researcher

tried his best in communication skills, command of the local language, politeness and

understanding that enabled the investigator to have access into many aspects of the traders

background, including access to the daily lives, minds and emotions.678 To get the information

required, it is important for the researcher to maintain rapport with the people from whom data

could be gained while at the same time maintaining sufficient psychological distance not to

be identified with one adversarial group or another.679 The researcher also maintained his

natural stand while undergoing works with the case. With this in mind the researcher treated

them as instrumental membership as has been suggested by Wax.680

Studies and investigation began with the application for permits from two central bodies namely

the Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu-Bandaraya Islm (MPKB-BRI) (Islamic City of Kota Bharu

Municipal Council) and the Koperasi Siti Khadjah (Siti Khadjah Cooperative Body). The

researcher clearly informed the purposes of the visits. Relevant documents including the student

ID and authorisation letter from supervisor were also shown and copies were made available to

these authorities. Among the officers met at MPKB-BRI office were, a public relation officer, a

licence department officer, a legal advisor, a market division officer and the head of the

Secretariat for the Islamic City (Bandaraya Islm). The investigator also met with the

677
C.L. Bosk. (1979) Forgive and Remember: Managing medical failure, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p194
678
For more clarification on field work access technique see, ibid
679
Ibid.
680
R.H. Wax (1985) Doing Fieldwork: Warning and Advice, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p 50

187
Chairperson, the Secretary, the Tresurer and all the three Committee Members for the Siti

Khadijah Cooperative Body. All of them were also interviewed.

4.1.6 The Interview

Interviews conducted on site form one of the most important sources of information for a case

study. Consequently, interviews became the main technique to be used in data collection in this

study. Because they have been used to examine the influence of religion and culture on a social

community, language, too, took an important role681 Therefore the interviews were conducted

by taking due considerations of the types and forms of interviews and the respondents involved.

One thing the researcher considered the most was to get highly reliable information and it could

be gathered by having well-informed respondents in the interviews.

Before the interview began the researcher assured them that this interview was solely for the

purpose of academic study and all information gathered were strictly confidential. They were

informed clearly about the aims of this research and why it was being carried out. The researcher

was fully aware that in the naturalistic inquiry i.e. qualitative research practitioners have to

provide respondents with straightforward description of the goals of the research and this was a

681
L. Holy. (1991) Religion and Custom in a Muslim Society: The Berti of Sudan, Vol. 78, London: Cambridge University
Press , p 202

188
part of ethical issue to be considered.682 The researcher also told them that withdrawal as

participants was possible at any time.

Most of the interviews took place during week days from 0900 in the morning to 1700 in the

afternoon. It was difficult to conduct interview session during the weekends because the traders

were too busy handling their goods and serving customers the market was very busy during

weekends. As much as possible, meeting the informants and interviewing them was done in the

market while they were doing their business to get a real story from them in a real situation and

in their natural setting. This was an attempt to...make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in

terms of the meanings people bring to them.683 Only three sessions were conducted the homes

of the respondents. While in the field conducting interviews, the researcher also carefully

observed the activities and any other relevant aspects that were to generate and influence data

for this study.

The respondents were identified in two ways; They were introduced to the researcher through

the contact persons in the field. In few cases the researcher asked the particular respondent to

introduce another person that fulfilled the criteria needed684 and ; A few respondents were

682
See, J. Lofland and L.H. Lofland. (1984) Analizing social settings, Belmont, California: p25.
683
N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (eds) (2003) Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials, 2 Edition, Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publications, p5
684
This method is called snow-ball sampling. See, M.Q. Patton (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Method,2nd
Edition, p176

189
chosen by the researcher himself after getting in touch with some potential respondents.685

Respondents were identified in the field to ensure the datas relevance to the impersonal criteria

of the emerging theory. It was the researchers choice while in the field to determine the

respondent in order to control the data and the emerging theory, data collected according to

a pre-planned routine are more likely to force the analyst into irrelevant directions and harmful

pitfalls.686 This technique also helped the researcher to freely determined the respondents and

to adjust the collection procedure or even redesign the whole project if really needed687

It was the researchers decision to conduct an open ended interview. However some changes

were made in the filed. It was because some respondents were not able to deliver their opinion

by giving lengthy and mostly unfocussed statements. To overcome this problem the researcher

used focussed questions where they in turn would answer according to the questions asked.

Although the technique was changed the interview still remained open-ended to get as much

information as possible. Probing questions were followed where possible to get more

information or to clarify unclear statements.688

The subjects of this study involved personnel from various groups who were, somehow, related to

the trade activities and the religious aspects of trading. Table 5.1 shows the details of the groups

and the number of people involved in each group.

685
They (theoretical samplings) are continually tailored to fit the data and are applied judiciously at the right point
and control of data collection to ensure the datas relevance to the impersonal criteria of his emerging theory.
686
B.G. Glaser and A.L. Strauss. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory, New York: Aldine Publishing Company, p 48
687
Ibid
688
B. Gunter. (2000) Media Research Method, pp465-466

190
Table 4.1: The subjects involved in this study showing groups and the number of people from
each group.

Group No of people Code

Traders in Siti Khadijah Market 46 TR01-TR46

Officers from the Kota Bharu- 7 MP01-MP07

Islamic City Council
Members of the Board of Siti 4 CO01-CO04
Khadijah Market Cooperative
Body (Ko-Siti)
Members of religious authority 3 RE01-RE03

Muslim Scholar 2 MS01-MS02

Malay Medicine Man 3 TM01-TM03

Members of the public 8 OT01-OT08

Officers from the City Council were legal advisors, licensing officer, market invigilating officer
Comment [rn1]: Masukkan
bilangan pegwai ini, sebab mereka
and enforcement officers. Their opinion were sought after to gauge the actual administrativehanya ada 7 orang.

experience of these officers, which include the day-to-day running of the market and the legal

aspects of the administration.

The cooperative (Ko-Siti) is a very influential body and plays a very important role in ensuring

the smooth running of the entire market, especially in issues related to the welfare of all of the

registered traders. Their opinion is very important being the body that deals with the needs of

the traders and the real behaviour of the traders and the people within the market system.

191
The members from the religious authority were chosen amongst the officers of the Baraah

Mosque. The three members of the religious authority were an Imm, a Bill or Muazzin (one

who calls for the prayer) and a Tok Bilal Nikah Kahwin (One who manages the marriage affairs in

the system). The researcher believed that they could facilitate his study and provide him with

important information as far as the religious matters of the traders in the market were

concerned. Amongst the Malays, religious people such as an Imam are well respected and their

advice always needed hence the choice. From his own experience being a Malay himself, the

researcher believed that information from these very important section of the society will help

him understand some parts of the traders behaviour from the perspective of Islam.

Muslim scholars were also involved with the intention of understanding the issues and how these

are related to the academic debates from the Islamic points of view. The two Muslim scholars

were a deputy President of Kolej Islm Dr al-Na<im (The Islamic College of Dar al-Na<im) and a

lecturer of Maktab Perguruan Kota Bharu (Kota Bharu Teachers Training College). This was

done by sitting and listening to the dialogues from pre-recorded conversations with the traders.

Their interpretations were then sought after through such sessions. However, because this study

is operating in its own right, the purpose of referring to the scholars was to seek clarification and

not to put down Shari<ah judgement.

192
Adding to the perspective of the Malay-Muslim trading culture was the involvement of Malay

medicine man, three of them, two men and a woman. Looking from their perspective was also

important taking into account that medicine man plays important roles in the society. Not only

they prepare medicine to cure illness, medicine man are also important in giving advice.

Similarly important was the need for the researcher to obtain clarification from the medicine

man on issues related to the places, the time and the practice of sorcery within the Malay

community. There can be no better alternative to seek clarifications on these issues other than

getting them from the people who are directly involved.

Because the general public are the people who patronize the market and are involved in the

activities in the market as customers their views were seen as significant. It was important to

obtain views from the general public especially on issues being studied. Most of the respondents

were selected using purposeful sampling to meet the objectives of the study.689

Those were the various groups of people who were involved in the data collection of this study.

Their opinion, views and points of debates and rebuttals within and between groups were

important in the validation process of the research. Available information from interviewing the

different groups triangulated among themselves and would improve the validity of data.

689
B.L. Berg (1989) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, London: Allyn and Bacon, p110

193
4.1.7 The Observation

There are many kinds of observation in research. Some of them are known as covert participant

observation, concealed observation or recording from a hidden or unobtrusive viewpoint,

unconcealed participant observation, non-participant observation and participant

observation.690

Observations can almost always be made in the field and such opportunity is always available. Yin

suggests two techniques in doing observations. Firstly, an investigator develops observational

protocol as a part of the case study protocol when certain types of behaviours during certain

periods of time in the field are the objectives of the study. The secondis a direct observations

through a field visit. This is suggested when other data are being collected e.g. interviews. In the

latter case observations are part of the techniques that were used for data gathering since the

observational evidence is often useful in providing additional information about the topic

being studied.691

4.1.8 Physical Artefacts

Artefacts can provide culturally significant inputs taking into account the important involvement

690
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p318
691
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p85

194
of culture in this study as Merton, Fiske and Kendall put on ...physical artefacts are also known

as cultural artefacts and they can be an important component in the overall case.692 During

the field work the researcher came across a number of artefacts, which he found important in

giving the practical meaning of the of Malay culture. For example the respondent introduced

different Wafak to the researcher. Wafak are used as shield or a protection against witchcraft and

evil intentions. A small piece of cloth, which the respondent was told was a small cut-piece of

the veil of the kaaba (Kelambu Ka<abah),693 a small Kris and many different kinds of gemstones

were among other artefacts shown to the researcher. Still, acquiring artefacts, in whatever form

even in a small trading community of the Siti Khadijah Market in the State of Kelantan would be

non-exhaustible. Obviously, there are many and only means one thing artefacts are important

in this culture.

4.2 Pilot Case Study

Before the actual case study is carried out it is important for the researcher to do a pilot case

study. It is important for the researcher as it will help to refine plans of data collection whether

on the content or the work to be followed.694 It is suggested that the researcher uses convenience

692
R.K Merton, M. Fiske, and P.L. Kendall (1956) cited in D.R. Krathwohl, (1993) Methods of Educational and Social
science Research, p371. Other interview styles discussed are; nondirective approach, focussed interview, multiple
interviewers and multiple respondents.
693
From the researcher point of view is difficult to believe is it really a piece of the Kiswah. The other thing is, is it
a ruse to sacrilize the this particular artefact?
694
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p74

195
and easy access factors in determining the first pilot test. Yin says that: in general,

convenience, access, and geographic proximity can be the main criteria for selecting the pilot

case or cases.695 The researcher is also recommended to choose a site which has easy access via

personal contacts. In conducting the pilot study, the site assumed the role of a laboratory

allowing the researcher to observe certain phenomena from many different angles or different

approaches on a trial basis.

In this project, the pilot study was conducted on three small traders who have had experience in

trade for several years. Two of them were selling fresh Malay food and the other was selling cloth.

All of them were Muslim and this study was conducted during their daily time at their trading

sites. In doing a pilot case study the researcher did focus on the issue that was going to be taken

for the actual research. It was only on much broader and less focused in data collection but

covered substantive and methodological issues. In terms of report for the pilot case study, it was

written clearly and reviewed. The texts were then carefully read one by one while noting key

points using a process that has been referred to as immersion crystallization.696 The pilot data

695
Ibid
696
Immersion crystallization. This term is given to the analysis process and interconnected to each other. The analysis
process involves two steps; Immersion-where a researcher is examining some portion of the data in detail. Through
this process the researcher immerse themselves in the data they collected; Crystallization- It is the continuation of the
first (immersion) where researchers suspend the examining or reading of data and start reflecting the analysis
experience. The attempt is to identify and articulate patterns or themes noticed during the immersion process. For
more clarification see, J. Borkan. (1999). "Immersion/Crystallization." In B.F. Crabtree and W.L. Miller (1999) (Eds.)
Doing Qualitative Research (2nd. Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 179-194; W.L. Miller and B.F.
Crabtree. (1992). "Primary care research: A multimethod typology and qualitative roadmap." In B.F. Crabtree and
W.L . Miller (1992) (Eds.) Doing Qualitative Research (1st edition). Newbury Park, CA. Sage Publication. pp. 3-28; W.L.
Miller and B.F. Crabtree, (1994). "Clinical Research." In N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.) Handbook of Qualitative
Research (pp. 340-352). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications and W.L. Miller, B.F. Crabtree. (1994). "Qualitative
analysis: How to begin making sense." Family Practice Research Journal, 14(3), 289-297.

196
was invaluable for the researcher as it provided considerable insight into the basic issue being

examined such as the nature of their works, the cultural context and their real life as Muslim

traders.

With regard to the methodological issue, data from the pilot study provided understanding

about relevant field questions and about the logistics of the field inquiry and was very meaningful

when preparing the field work.

4.3 Sampling Procedures

The researcher has been very careful in selecting the approach of this study especially in the

procedures of selecting the respondents. It is the researchers awareness that lack of knowledge

in the sampling procedure put this study in jeopardy.697 As this research is a qualitative case

study, non-probability sampling was chosen because it is a popular means of data collection

procedure in such approach of studies.698 Compared to the probability sampling method which

is dominantly used in quantitative researches, non-probability sampling is a different one. In

697
The sample was gathered in a way to avoid confusion between qualitative and quantitative sampling. Morse
provides the example of a researcher who used random sampling in a qualitative study and points out that a small
randomly selected sample violates both the quantitative principle that requires an adequate sample size in order to
ensure representativeness and the qualitative principle of appropriateness that requires purposeful sampling and a
good informant (i.e. one who is articulate, reflective, and willing to share with the interviewer) See, J.M. Morse.
(1991) 'Strategies for sampling', in J. M. Morse (ed) Qualitative Nursing Research: A Contemporary Dialogue, California:
SAGE Publications, pp 127-145 and: I.T. Coyne. (1997) 'Sampling in qualitative research. Purposeful and theoretical
sampling; merging or clear boundaries?' Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26: 623.
698
In non-probability sampling method it is termed as purposive, purposeful or criterion-based sampling. In this approach
a researcher selects a case because it serves the real purpose and objectives of the researcher of discovering, gaining
insight and understanding into a particularly chosen phenomenon. See, B. Gunter. (2000) Media Research Method,
p465

197
probability sampling (in quantitative researches) one can specify the probability of including

an element of the population in the sample, make estimates of the representative of the sample,

and generalise the result back to the population. However, such things are not the issue in non-

probability sampling (in qualitative researches) because, there is no way to estimating the

probability of being included; there is no guarantee that every element has had an equal chance

of being included, or that the case is representative of some population.699 More importantly in

the non-probability sampling method the research has no validity in generalising the

account.700

For this study the purposeful procedure, a popular technique in non-probability sampling was

employed.701 This is because the idea of qualitative research is to purposefully select

informants or documents or visual materials that will best answer the research question.702

Moreover Purposeful sampling looks for information-rich cases, which can be studied in depth

699
Gunter, B. (2000) Media Research Method, p465
700
Ibid
701
There is a different logic in sampling approach between quantitative and qualitative research. While larger samples
are needed and will be selected randomly in a quantitative research small samples, even single cases purposely selected
are accepted in a qualitative research. They are also different in the purpose of the study. While the purpose of
probability -based random sampling is generalization from the sample to a population, what would be biased in
statistical sampling, and therefore a weakness, becomes the intended focus in qualitative sampling, and therefore a
strength. See, M.Q. Patton, . (2002) 'Two Decades of Developments in Qualitative Inquiry A Personal, Experiential
Perspective', Qualitative Social Work Vol. 1(3), p273.The purposeful sampling should not be seen as convenience
sampling that has been discouraged in quantitative research. Particular settings, persons or events are selected to get
important information which will not be gained through other sampling strategies, c.f., Patton, (1990)Qualitative
Evaluation and Research Method p169. See, M.B. Miles, and A.M. Huberman,. 'Drawing Valid Meaning from Qualitative
Data: Toward a Shared Craft', Educational Researcher Vol. 13 (May, 1984)(5.),p25. For more detail of arguments on
purposeful sampling see, D.T. Campbell. (1975). Degrees of freedom and the case study. Comparative Political Studies,
8 (2), pp 178-193, J. Lofland. (1974). Styles of reporting qualitative field research. American Sociologist, 9, pp 101-111,
see also Bogdan, R.C., & Biklen, S.K. (1982) Qualitative research in education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, and Bickman, L.
and Rog, D. J. (eds.) (1998) Handbook of Applied Social Research Methods, London: SAGE Publications, p87.
702
J.W. Creswell. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage
Publication.p149.

198
and this is the logic and power of purposeful sampling. 703 It is from the Information-rich cases

that researchers can learn much about issues of core importance to the study.704 Rather than

empirical generalizations i.e., in quantitative researches, information-rich cases produce insights

and in-depth understanding about the issues under study. As Patton explains;

for example, if the purpose of an evaluation is to increase the effectiveness of a program in

reaching lower-socioeconomic groups, one may learn a great deal more by studying in depth a

small number of carefully selected poor families than by gathering standardized information

from a large, statistically representative sample of the whole program .705

Therefore purposive sampling method which is also known as theoretical sample was employed

for this study because of its suitability with this kind of study.706 It is defined as, samples

assembled by intentionally seeking individuals or situations likely to yield new instances and

703
There are 16 different types of purposeful sampling. These include: extreme or deviant case sampling; typical case
sampling; maximum variation sampling; snowball or chain sampling; confirming or disconfirming case sampling;
politically important case sampling; convenience sampling; and others. See, M.Q. Patton. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation
and Research Method,2nd Edition, London: Sage, pp169-186
704
Ibid
705
M.Q. Patton. (2002) 'Two Decades of Developments in Qualitative Inquiry A Personal, Experiential Perspective',
Qualitative Social Work Vol. 1(3),p273. Purposeful sampling is chosen in this research to get typicality of the settings,
activities or individuals selected. Far more confidence can be gained through a small sample that has been
systematically selected for typicality and relative homogeneity. The conclusions made are hoped to adequately
represent the average members of the population than does a sample of the same size that incorporates substantial
random or accidental variation. Purposeful sampling moreover can capture the heterogeneity in the population
adequately. The conclusions that are adequately representing the entire range of variations can be ensured through
this sampling procedure. On the other hand only the typical members or some subset of this range are covered if
random sampling is used. See, L. Bickman and D.J. Rog. (eds) (1998) Handbook of Applied Social Research Methods,
London: SAGE Publications, p87.
706
A. Straus (1987) in D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p324

199
greater understanding of a dimension or concept of interest.707 purposive samplings include

any kind of sources that might help the researcher gain information about the focus under

study. It includes individuals, situations, process, times, events; documents and others that can

give and develop target area of information for researchers.708

It was the researchers conclusion that the question under study was justified by applying the

purposeful sampling where information-rich cases became the central focus to generate data in

the field. The sampling was first selected based on certain criteria or standards necessary for a

unit to be chosen as a case. A blueprint of attributes was constructed and the researcher then

identified a unit that matches the blueprint recipe.709 In this research the researcher had

prepared a field work protocol as a guideline in choosing respondents. In this research the

samples to study influential factors of Muslim behaviour at work in a market place were some

selected individuals who run business in the market place. Information from religious individuals

and the Malay bomoh / pawang are sought after to clarify certain issues as well as to broaden the

focus of the study. The focus of this study will be narrowed to these individuals as well as the

market place itself.

In this study the researcher chose the snowball or chain sampling i.e. initial contact to suggest

informants to be interviewed. Through this method he identified cases of interest from people

707
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p740
708
Ibid, p324
709
B. Gunter. (2000) Media Research Method, p465

200
who knew the information-rich target cases. The researcher believe the respondents who were

introduced to him were credible and can provide him with information. This belief stemmed

from the fact the initial contacts who provided the information (and consequently came up with

suggestions) have lived and worked in the area for many years and knew the correct persons to

be involved in the interviews. Because information-rich individuals were the target and who

would have enabled the high-precision case references, random sampling could have produced

a diluted effect, in which case, high quality information could only be obtained from random

probabilities. For this reason, random sampling was not employed. Other factors that were also

taken into consideration were the fact that the researcher had limited time frame and the

unidentified length of time for familiarisation with the local anthropogenic and physical

environment .

4.4 Understanding the term informants.

There is a difference between the terms samples and informants. The former are random or

systematic sample and may be considered replicable. Informants are selected for their sensitivity,

knowledge, and insights into their situations.710 However in a quantitative research samples are

contacted after they were selected systematically and the status of the entire groups were inferred

with some characteristics such as opinion, value and socioeconomics status.711 Yin suggests that

the difference between respondents and informants depends on the role they play while

710
T.J. Bourchard (1976) as cited in D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p326
711
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p360

201
assisting a researcher in interviews. The more that a respondent assists in this latter manner, the

more that the role may be considered either as an informant or a respondent.712

The author notes that it is vital to understand the kinds of sampling techniques and how

respondents will be selected. It is the authors intention to get information needed from specific

informants. In a field research where information is going to be sought from people, the people

from where the information taken is important. In a qualitative research, informants are chosen

with an understanding that they have their own perspectives on the situation under study in

which a researcher can benefit from.713

It is the authors hope that taking into consideration of time limitation and the nature of the

case study being carried on a contemporary phenomenon within the real-life context of specific

people in a specific time, some informants that are going to be selected will enable the author to

establish reliable data from cases information-rich where a few traders can be identified to

represent the wider group of the Malay Muslim traders where a great deal can be learned from

them. Burns states that,

...observation in a case study enables the researcher to probe deeply and analyse

intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle of a particular

712
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p83
713
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research. p360

202
 observed group with a view to establishing generalisations about the wider population

to which the group belongs.714

It is also the researchers intention that the informants will give fruitful advice on people and

situation of the case understudy. It is also important to get along with other individuals and

situations with their help as well as getting any advice about how to behave to suit the

community. Informants help the observer understand the views of the people being observed,

introduce new individuals and situations, and may teach the observer how to behave modestly

within the under study community.715 The informants are also important in situations where

the researcher is not welcome or should be in other places for some other commitments.716 This

consideration is extremely important for the case study like this because key informants help an

investigator with insights into a matter. Apart from that they are also a key for the success of case

study research with suggestions of any evidence and access to new sources.717

Apart from taking into account the importance of understanding the informant the researcher

also has to bear in mind the kind of information that shall be gathered from the informants.

714
R.B. Burns. (1994) Introduction to Research Methods. Cheshire: Longman, p 313
715
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p327
716
Ibid
717
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p83

203
It is suggested to consider carefully one important question, Why is this person willing to talk to

me? What point of view is she using.718 The writer goes further considering three kinds of

available informants;

a. Persons who have different views on particular situations or have no self interest in a system;

b. Persons who have hidden agendas such as rebels who welcome the opportunity to share their

view most likely in a negative manner; and

c. Persons who are natural on a particular issue. This type of informant was suggested as long as

they could communicate their perspectives about the issue under study.719 The researcher

believe that such informants were credible sources.

It is also important to consider the information given by the informants. It is not being suggested

that one became overly dependant on the informants to avoid interpersonal influence or in

some cases, to avoid them from superseding the investigator.720 Not only that; after all the

researcher still has to interprete the information provided.

718
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p327
719
Ibid, pp 326-327
720
R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, p83

204
4.5 The length of a Case Study

There are a few guidelines that prompt the researcher on when data collection process should

be stopped and the researcher wrapped-up the field work. They are; exhaustion of

resources; emergence of regularities; and overextension, or going too far beyond the boundaries

of the research... 721 Emergence of regularities is also known as data saturation. It is the point

when data collected become redundant.722 With regards to this research the researcher stopped

data collection when he was confident the data he gained was already saturated. After a number

of interviews, new concepts and themes began to be repeated and became ordinary during

which regularity was established. When this took place, information relayed by respondents

ceased to differ between informants i.e. data saturation has certainly been achieved. M. David

and C.D. Sutton state that, saturation refers to the point at which the currently held set of

concepts seems reasonably able to describe and even predict the situation they seek to

theorize723 For this research data saturation means the three categories of questions in the

interview were answered and the acceptable amount of regularities were found.

721
See, E.G. Guba (1978) as cited in M.C. Hoepfl. (1997) 'Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology
Education Researchers', Journal of Technology Education 9(1 Fall), p54
722
The point when a researcher stops hunting the data when similar instances were seen over and over again is also
named as theoretical saturation. See, B.G. Glaser and A.L. Strauss. (eds) (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory, New
York: Aldine Publishing Company, p61
723
See theirs, (2004) Social Research: The Basics, London: Sage, p 80.

205
4.6 Data Analysis

This research will employ Constant comparison method for data analysis. Constant comparison,

is a funnel-like process as the range of new informants and situations is increasingly focused

on ones that will add to and test previous formulations.724 It is suggested to start from the very

beginning of research. Coding plays an important role where it is established through concepts

which will become an indicator for the study. Other concepts in a theory or explanation of the

phenomena have been linked with the new concepts which have been established in the study.

Finally data from the field have constantly been compared with explanation from the theories to

explain any information and findings for the research.725 In this research, data from the field

work will be coded with particular concepts and they will be linked to any relevant theories in

this field of study area in particular to Islm, culture and human behaviour.

One important of the most concerning issue worrying the researcher the most was during the

transcription of the recorded interviews. He was aware that there were two languages involved

namely Bahasa Melayu and English. The interview was conducted fully in Bahasa Melayu. The

main question of concerns had been on the use of precise English words to translate the

description of the working experience of the respondents. The question that started coming

into the researchers mind was Am I using the correct English words to describe the working

experience of the respondents under study? This was resolved by permanently recording the

724
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research , p325
725
Ibid, p325

206
original conversation using an audio recorder to retain the information in the original state

during the time it was recorded. This way, the transcription could always be checked and re-

checked for precision to avoid the loss of intentions, expressions, literal and underlying

meanings. To make sure recorded materials can be checked again and again with out losing any

important part in the interview data the researcher purchased a set of transcribing machine. This

machine was very useful and eased the process of listening and taking notes of the recorded

data. As the control switches for rewinding, stopping and forwarding the tape were on foot

pedals, the researcher transcribed the conversation recorded in the audio tapes into the

computer and saved them in word file.

The transcript from the interviews was then translated into English. The translation was done as

faithfully as possible. The researcher had to go through the transcript many times to ensure the

precision of the translation. This was further examined by an expert who is fluent in both

languages.

The use of computer softwares for data analysis is not new in the modern days. In this study the

researcher took benefit from it by using the qualitative data analysis software package NVivo that

also facilitates the construction of case study databases. The NVivo product line incorporates the

NUD*IST a product of QSR, Pty in Australia which was first released in 1981.

207
This product is designed to help academic and researchers to organize and analyze complex

unstructured data. It helps the users to classify, sort and arrange a lot of information and can be

used to investigate complex relationships in the data. Moreover it is a powerful tool for analysis

which looks for shaping, searching and modelling. Among the advantages of using computer

aided software in data analysis are to make researchers work easier, more productive and

potentially more thorough.726 In a qualitative research a large amount of data will be collected

from various sources. An appropriate system is needed in view to support the data by linking it

with other data, which in turn helps develop themes and relationships that are vital for the

research of this kind. As such, the traditional manual system is not promising as it consumes a lot

of time and at the same time the data may get lost. NVivo supports qualitative analysis in many

ways. These can be summarised into five principal ways namely; manage data, manage ideas,

query data, graphically model and, report from the data.727

The use of this software package to help in analysing the data will also be helpful to the

formation of grounded theory and forms the major focus of the research methodology for the

study.

726
R.M. Lee and N. Fielding. (1991) Computing in Qualitative Research: Options, Problems and Potentials', in N.
Fielding and R. Lee (ed) Using Computers in Qualitative Research. London: Sage, p6
727
For clarification see, P. Bazeley. (2007) . Qualitative Data Analysis with NVivo, London: Sage, pp2-3.

208
4.7 Data Validity and Reliability.

There are differences on validity of a qualitative and quantitative style research. Qualitative

research places stress on the validity of multiple meaning structures and holistic analysis, as

opposed to the criteria of reliability and statistical compartmentalisation of quantitative

research728

There are three main principles the researcher followed when collecting data for this study.

They are; Using multiple methods; Establishing a Data Base, and; Keeping a chain of evidence.

Throughout the study the researcher gave an important consideration to them because of their

crucial role for data validity and reliability. Details of the three principles mentioned above are as

follow.

4.7.1 Using Multiple Methods.

First of all it is suggested that in a case study multiple methods are fully recommended.729 In this

research multiple methods in seeking information of data included documents, interviews and

observations.730 Other than being a major strength of a case study methods, using multiple

methods is necessarily important for triangulation purposes to improve reliability and validity of

728
R.B. Burns. (2000) .Introduction to Research Method, p11
729
A.L. Hall and R.C. Rist. (1999) 'Integrating multiple qualitative research methods', Psychology and Marketing 16(4),
pp291-304.
730
See, R.B. Burns. (1994) Introduction to Research Methods, p321

209
data and findings. Moreover authentication through lines of inquiry of findings makes a report

more convincing. Evidence shows that wide varieties of data evidence make case studies better.731

Moreover, a major strength of case study data collection is the opportunity to use many

different sources of evidence.732 It is also important for the researcher in this study to use

multiple sources of data evidence because the sources will help to tackle the problem under

study and more importantly to construct validity and reliability of the study.733

4.7.2 Establishing a Data Base

It is also a vital for a researcher in a case study to establish a data base of the study. It is not for the

use the researcher alone during the study and for the future but also important for other

investigators benefit. The investigators can review the evidence directly and not be limited to

the written reports.734 Yin further suggests there are two kinds of collections in developing a

data base for a case study;

a. The raw data from the study itself where it is a kind of evidentiary base

b. Reports from the investigator. This may take form in any written or unwritten materials such

as reports and audio recordings. Generally case study notes, case study documents, tabular

731
R.K. Yin (1984) Case Study Research, p90
732
Ibid, p90
733
Ibid, pp89-91
734
Ibid, p93

210
 materials and narratives735 are kinds of example. Whatever form the reports were it is vitally

important that they are stored in the manner that they can be retrieved by anyone for any

reasons.736

4.7.3 Keeping a Chain of Evidence.

The third principle to note is maintaining a chain of evidence. A chain of evidence in research is

gained when researchers are able to maintain evidence from various sources in the study. As in

this study, data from sources such as the businesspeople and other people need to be stated and

cited when the researcher presents his findings. Maintaining chain of evidence in presenting

findings of a research is again very important for the validity and reliability purposes of research.

Chain of evidence refers to a kind of method used by a researcher in a report where facts in the

data base are constantly referred to. The researcher noted the four examples on how a report is

said as kept in a chain of evidence form;

a. The report refers to specific sources from the data base created,

b. The actual quotation or citation was there in the data base with indicated

circumstances such as time, place and date for an interview for example,

735
Tabular materials usually in quantitative forms such as a survey. One example of narratives is the open-ended
answer for an interview. See, R.K. Yin. (1984) Case Study Research, pp92-94
736
Ibid

211
c. The circumstances in the data base are consistent with the case study protocol,

and

d. There is a link between the protocol and the question of the study.737

The researcher noted these steps while analysing the data in order to increase the overall quality

in the case under study and so does the reliability.738

It has been discussed earlier that the purposeful sampling technique is going to be used in this

research where a few number of the samples will be chosen as informants of the study. The

validity of data from purposeful sampling can be done through triangulation. It is a way to check

the consistency of evidence gathered from different sources of data across time, space

and/or persons, by different investigators and/or different research methods.739 There are

three types of triangulation; (1) triangulation from data, (2) triangulation from investigators,

and (3) triangulation from method.740 Data triangulation which is the common one uses two or

more sources to establish accuracy of any fact. For example data which is gathered from

observations are compared with the ones from historical record.741

The second type of triangulation is investigator triangulation. Perceptions on the same

phenomenon are to be obtained from different investigators to find similarities on them For
737
Ibid, p96
738
Ibid
739
See D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research , p744
740
N.K. Denzin, (1978) cited in D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p328
741
D.R. Krathwohl. (1993) Methods of Educational and Social science Research, p328

212
example comparing data from two observers. Finally the method triangulation is comparing two

methods of the same aspect of a phenomenon. For example a researcher compares observation

data with questionnaire responses.742

Through out the study the researcher set his mind on the fact that triangulation is of vital

importance for the study to be accepted as truthfulness. In fact it is a process of making sure all

information of data are true and authentic as it has been argued by Miles and Huberman. They

state that; triangulation is a state of mind. If your self-consciousness sets out to collect and

double- check findings, using multiple sources and modes of evidence, the verification process

will largely be built into the data-gathering process, and little more needs be done than to report

on ones procedures.743

742
Ibid, p328
743
M.B. Miles and A.M. Huberman (1984) as cited in Creswell, J. W. (1994) Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches, London: SAGE Publications, p329

213
 Chapter 5

Case Study Presentation

Part 1

5.0 Introduction

The field work was carried out over the period of two and a half months dating from early of July

2007 to early September of the same year. Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah (Siti Khadjah Central Market)

in Kota Bharu, Kelantan Malaysia was chosen for the field site of this research. During the study

data from Malay businesspeople in field were collected in real time.744

In this research three major issues were focussed on for data collection. The first part was on the

different cultural influences on the businesspeople. A Malay-Muslim society with a special

consideration on the respondents background was examined in the second part. Both of the

two major issues were manipulated using a coding system as suggested by Straus and Cobin.745

Finally, the businesspeoples daily practices were examined in the final part using the same

approach.

744
Rationale behind each of these samples was highlighted in the methodology chapter.
745
For justification on the grounded theory and data collecting method in qualitative study see, A.L. Strauss, and
J.M.. Corbin. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research : Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, London: Sage.

214
5.1 The Portrait of Islm in Kelantan Dr al-N<im

In the general election of 1990 PAS won with a landslide majority and formed the State

Government. Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat a prominent <Alim was sworn in as the Menteri Besar (Chief

Minister) of Kelantan. The party won three more times in a row (1999, 2004 and 2008) and

Kelantan has since been under the Islamic ruling party for eighteen years. Since then, the state

government has been trying to govern the state according to the principles of Islam. With this in

mind, the state introduced a development policy called Membangun Bersama Islm (Developing

with Islm).

This development policy reaffirms the Islamic ethos that the Holy Qurn and the Sunnah

(tradition) of Prophet Muammad as the highest and authentic references as far as Islamic way

of life is concerned. The main philosophical idea is to establish Tauid (the Oneness of God) in

daily practice. Every single plan of the development policy should adhere to the principles of the

development policy. In short, the philosophical approach toward the states development can be

categorized into three concepts;

1. <Ubudiyyah - Referring to the essence that man is the vicegerent of Allh in this world. Man is

created to worship Allh, therefore the whole of his body and soul must be kept in the

obedience of Allh. Consequently, the administration of the state must be realized through

the concept of <Ubudiyyah .

215
2. Masliyyah - Referring to the sense of accountability and integrity, in which, a job is a

responsibility and must be fulfilled as a duty towards Allh. For every action, a man is to be

accountable and will be asked about it on the Day of Judgement.

3. Iqn- Referring to the quality at work. This will include qualities such as hardworking,

commitment and focus. It also includes continuity at work without any failure such as the

feeling of taking for granted.746

The concept of Developing with Islm has been promoted in the past eighteen years and was

an important factor that gave the Islamic image to this state in general and to the city of Kota

Bharu in particular. Dinsman (Othman) admits the importance of the Municipal council to

establish the Shari<ah in the state.747 He further admits; We conclude that Kota Bharu is an

Islamic city because here we see the obligations to Allh are fulfilled and administrated by the

City Council. We see that all the infrastructure and public facilities are developed in a way to

usher people to the remembrance of Allh and to stop themselves from doing what Allh

forbids. We can see that this city always maintains its cleanliness, far from being a place of sin,

Mungkar and injustice748

Islamisation policy in the state under PAS leadership has changed the phenomenon in which

public entertainments have been taking place. Respondent (TR-30) reported;

746
N.A.A.N. Mat. (2005) . Amanat Menteri Besar Kelantan', in Pejabat Setiausaha Kerajaan Negeri (ed) Dasar-dasar
Kerajaan Negeri Kelantan ,Kota Bharu: Pusat Kajian Strategik, p2-3. The same book also illustrates more details on the
implementation of the concepts, see ibid, pp 3-6
747
C.S. Othman. (2004) Kota Bharu Bandar Raya Islam,Kota Bharu: Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu, p ii
748
Ibid (2004), p 10

216
 Sure! There are a lot of changes leaning to Islam. When PAS took over, Tok
Guru was adamant in eradicating Khurafat i.e., superstitious notions in the society.
Take Makyong (an ancient dance-theatre form incorporating the elements of ritual,
stylized dance and acting, vocal and instrumental music, story, song, formal as well as
improvised spoken text) and , Wayang kulit (shadow puppetry), the mantras in those
activities. In the old days, there were mantras before any performance. Many names
were invoked but all these names have nothing to do with Islam

Asked on the reaction from the Kelantanese he said; Local performers were angry initially,

the policy hurt their income, of course. They have been living that way for so long. In time, they

adapted and found ways to bring their work closer to Islm. I think they are not too bad at the

moment

The Islamic image in Kota Bharu in particular and Kelantan in general was argued as the

positive outcome of the Parti Islm Se Malaysias struggle toward establishing Malaysia as an

Islamic state. One businessperson in Pasar Khadjah welcomes the partys principle in this state.

Respondent (TR-38) said;

We have to give our support to PAS around here. We can make a living this way.

Let the people in Kuala Lumpur and Negeri Sembilan support UMNO, here, we stick

to PAS. I think the State Government is doing good things for the people here.

Nothing unusual that I can see... The same opinion was also given by a woman (TR-

24); Tok guru doesnt teach nonsense. He only advises against doing what the

Qurn and Tradition forbid

217
Kota Bharu is the capital city of Kelantan and it is the only capital city in Malaysia known as

Bandaraya Islm.749 In Malaysia the title city (Bandaraya) is given once population of place

reaches 500,000 or more. This is not the case in Kota Bharu that has a population of less than

half a million people. However, the State Government names it Bandaraya without linking the

name to the standard qualification. It is more towards image building rather than to qualify its

status as a city.750 In the following section the author will discuss the Islamic image of this place.

This will be done by looking from the angle of how the Islamic culture runs amongst the people

and the environs.

Visual images of Islamic quality can be seen in various forms in the city; symbols, giant billboards,

architecture, posters etc.751 In many ways, the name that it carries i.e. Bandaraya Islm goes along

in parallel with the states administration policy.

Not far from the central bus station leading to a well known beach, Pantai Cahaya Bulan, there is

an open area which is famously known as Padang Bas or Dataran Rehal . It is within a walking

distance from the Muammadi Mosque and located just in front of the state Museum. The name

749
Although there are other cities in Malaysia known as Bandaraya none of them is called Bandaraya Islam. Other
Malaysian cities are; Georgtown (Penang), Miri (Sarawak) Kuala Lumpur, Putra Jaya (Federal Teritory), Shah Alam
(Selangor) and Kuala Trengganu (Trengganu).
750
Respondent MP-07.
751
From cultural studies point of view culture is very important because a symbol expresses a cultures ideology. This
ideology guides the members of the culture to orientate, interpret, transform and legitimise their everyday concerns.
See M. Rosaldo and J. Atikinson. (1972) 'Man the Hunter and Women', in W. Lesse and E. Z. Vogt (eds) Reader in
Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach, New York: Harper and Row, p 130

218
Padang Bas (Field for busses) is given for its function; chartered buses are usually parked in this

space especially during school holidays and weekends. Dataran Rehal (Rehal square) is its

alternative name, which was derived from the replica of a Rehal.752 The entrance has to gigantic

arches known as Pintu Gerbang Sulan Ismail Putra (The Sultan Ismail Putra Gate). They are crafted

with Kelantanese Malay traditional motifs blended with Qurnic versus carved in gold-coloured

Arabic Khat (calligraphy).

On the right and left hand sides of these arches are several pillars standing 10-12 meters high,

each with an opened image of the holy Qurn on a Rehal. Immidiately underneath the opened

Qurn is the word Iqra written in Arabic calligraphy, also in gold colour. Apart from that lamp

posts stand high with the name of Allh and Muammad crafted in green colour of Arabic

calligraphy, which are very attractive especially at night. This landscape is illustrated to express a

meaning inter-alia the important message to call people to appreciate the Qurn and to hold

it firmly as a guidance.753 In addition, another part of the city is developed with emphasis given

on the landscape, currently known as the Lanskap Kerohanian Islm (Islamic spiritual landscape).

The site was formerly known as Tanah Serendah Sekebun Bunga (The garden of flower

blossoms).754

752
It roots are from the Arabic word; RAHIL "That which is fit for travelling." A small book stand made so as to fold up
for convenience in travelling. See T.P. Hughes. (1895) 'A Dictionary Of Islam', : W.H. Allen & Co,
http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Hughes/index.htm (23.06.2008). From the Malay view it is made from
woods and beautifully decorated where the Holy Qurn is placed on. The idea is to place the holy book higher than
ones foot while in sitting position. It is one way how Qurn is honoured by Muslims.
753
C.S. Othman. (2004) Kota Bharu Bandar Raya Islam, Kota Bharu: Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu, p 18
754
ibid, p19

219
Indeed, the difference of Kota Bharu as compared to other cities in Malaysia can be felt and

clearly seen. The combination of structures, architecture and the culture of Islam is significantly

abundant and is presented in many forms. A giant billboard at a junction displays the Asm al-

usna755 (all The 99 Beautiful Names of Allh). It is big enough and can clearly be seen from

some hundred metres away. In many places there were notice boards advising people to wear

proper clothes756, to pray and to do good deeds. Most of the advices on the notice boards are

from the holy Qurn or adith.

In many ways, billboards in Kelantan, in general, and in Kota Bharu in particular (for the sheer

reason of Kota Bharu having the largest number of billboards in the state) are different from

billboards outside of Kelantan. As the case in many advertisements, popular figures (film stars,

comedians, television personalities) are used to promote advertised products, most of whom,

however, are women. In Kelantan, all the figures are pictured in attires conforming to the

Islamic dress codes; in many cases, this involved the head-scarf or the ijab. In other states,

similar personalities, promoting similar products, in similar poses, are often pictured without

head-scarf.

Apart from giant billboards, arches and banners, most of which promote and uphold two of the

most frequently written names i.e. Allh and Muammad, the verses of the Qurn are also

written or carved in many types and colours of Arabic calligraphy. Included are also the pictures

755
The 99 Beautiful Names of Allah, also known as The 99 Beautiful Attributes of God.
756
In the Malay language it is always referred to as Tutup <Aurat.

220
of the Sulan (the King) and Raja Perempuan (the Queen). In general, all things that promote the

idea of the Islamic State follow a certain protocol. The emblem of the State is usually placed at

centre top. Otherwise, it is replaced by various references to the King e.g. Daulat Tuanku, Raja

Tonggak Kedaulatan Bangsa (The King is the pillar of the nation) and Ya Tuhanku Lanjutkan

Usia al-Sulan dan Raja Perempuan Kami (May Allh bless the life of our King and Queen).

Basically, all articles point to the expression of the peoples love for the religion and the King. All

of these are blended very well in yet various forms of the culture of the people. Other Islamic

articles include words depicting the names of Allh and advices.

In many places locals do not usually bother about knowing the directions of north, south, east

and west or the state of the weather. Because of this, finding the direction of the Ka<abah, which

is essential for prayers can be a continuous problem especially for travellers who just arrived. In

the city of Kota Bharu the direction of Ka<abah are found in many places in this city.757 Generally

they are found in hotel rooms through out Malaysia but uniquely in Kota Bharu, they are found

in many open places, even on soccer pitches. For example in this city the Ka<abah direction was

shown by an arrow symbol in Padang Bandaran (municipal court). This is because the Jam<ah

(congregation) prayer has been held here especially on certain occasions when the chief

minister is present. Moreover Solat jat (prayer to fulfil ones need) for the purpose of the state

757
When the Islamic party took control of Kelantan among the important changes in the administration was to put in
guidelines on official programmes. The programmes should be stopped prior to the time for prayers or should be
started after finishing prayers. See, Dinsman (2000) Sepuluh Tahun Membangun Bersama Islam-Kelantan di Bawah
Pimpinan Ulamak, Kota Bharu: Pusat Kajian Strategik, p 57

221
administration became familiar since PAS came into power.758 But the most attractive example

of the Ka<abah direction structure can be found in front of the MPKB-BRI ( Kots Bharu-Islamic

City Municipal Council) building. Here the direction of Ka<abah is a structure built with an

attractive traditional Malay carving, with an arrow pointing towards the direction of the Ka<abah.

Just below the arrow are digital monitors on each face of the square-shaped column indicating

date and time as well the times for the five daily prayers. Nik Abdul Aziz the Chief Minister of the

state has given serious consideration about the importance of daily prayers for Muslims in this

state. He once said; It has been part of culture for people in this region to pray and ask from

Allh when they are in need...759 With this in mind it is not difficult to understand why the Chief

Minister emphasises the importance of prayers. Medan Selera Buluh Kubu i.e., a famous food

court, in its opening ceremony on the 1st of June 2004 for example was started with the Jemaah

prayer and the speech from the Chief Minister afterwards.760

There is a certain feeling, or at least, a noticeable change in the atmosphere within the Pasar Siti

Khadjah, whenever the Azn (the call for prayers) is heard. A particularly noticeable change

takes places during Maghrib (the early evening prayer). There is a food court just outside the

market called Medan Selera Buluh Kubu (the Buluh Kubu Food Court). In the morning, the place

is used as an open market where villagers come in to sell all sorts of vegetables, fruits and

groceries. It turns into a food court sometimes around 5pm. Fifteen minutes before Maghrib

758
For explanation on the Solat Hajat in the Kelantan administration see C.S. Othman. (2000) Sepuluh Tahun
Membangun Bersama Islam-Kelantan di Bawah Pimpinan Ulamak, Kota Bharu: Pusat Kajian Strategik, pp 65-72
759
N.A.A.N. Mat. (1995) Kelantan Universiti Politik Terbuka, Nilam Puri: Maahad al-Dakwah wa-al Imamah, pp 17-20
and foot note 17 in page 229.
760
C.S. Othman. (2004) Kota Bharu Bandar Raya Islam, Kota Bharu: Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu, p 16

222
prayer time, officers from the Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu Bandaraya Islm will come to make

a patrol. Using a loud speaker, an announcement is made that all activities are to stop in respect

of the Azn and Maghrib prayer time; this will be a break of half an hour. This is usually given in

the general order as follows;

...A<zubillhi minashshainirrajm Bismilllirramnirram, good afternoon brothers and sisters

who are coming from far or from nearby area of Medan Selera Buluh Kubu. And good afternoon

to all traders who are running businesses this afternoon...Please be informed that now you are

advised to halt your work temporarily prior to Azn for the in coming Maghrib prayer. It is wise

for everyone to take a short break preparing for the prayer and to the remembrance of Allh...

It was observed that people from out side of Kelantan were a little confused with the

announcement, especially for those who have just arrived.

Further investigation showed that prior to 1990 such regulation was not in place. It was only

implemented when Kelantan was politically controlled under PAS. Changes from the old

regulations to the present ones did not come into place without argument. Respondent (MP-

02) said; It was not easy when imposed for the first time in 1990. It is not a problem now. We

inform tourists politely. We implement this regulations for Maghrib prayer only. As you know,

Maghrib is very short and we take it as an obligation for them not to be carried away and miss the

prayer altogether. ...They (the traders) have to obey this regulation; if any of them are found to

be multiple offenders, their license will not be renewed

223
His view was supported by respondent (MP-05) who used to be in charge of the Implementation

Division of MPKB-BRI; Yes, there was a little problematic at first. It got better after

sometimes, as all things do. People made a little fuss here and there but I think the situation is ok

now

The respondent (MP-05) further commented that although the regulation has been

implemented, some people are still reluctant to observe their prayers seriously Yes, we know

there are people who do not perform prayers, do not fast, but we have our limitations. We do

not take actions on offence related to prayers, there is no regulation for that. We do take actions

on non-fasting offenders because this is under the enforcement of the powers of the Shari<ah

court His experience also showed that most offences only involved small cases such as not

wearing ijab, late renewals of licenses and selling goods outside of their allocated premises.

Further observation showed that Azn is dearly respected particularly during Maghrib by the big

stores such as MYDIN761 and The Store762. Both were observed to be giving respects as they should.

761
MYDIN currently has 40 outlets nationwide inclusive of two Hypermarkets, 24 Emporiums, one Superstore, seven
Mini Markets and six Convenient Stores. The stores are located all over the Klang Valley, Terengganu, Kota Bharu,
Seremban, Nilai, Johor, Alor Setar, Melaka, Penang, Pahang and Kelantan. The two Hypermarkets are located at USJ,
Subang Jaya and Kuala Terengganu. See http://www.mydin.com.my/mydin/catalog/exchange/c22.html
(4/12/2008)
762
The Store Corporation Berhad is a leading operator of supermarkets, departmental stores and hypermarkets in the
country. It is the only Malaysian retailer with outlets established in every state of the Peninsular Malaysia, with 53
supermarkets & departmental stores operating in the name of 'The Store' under the legal entity The Store (Malaysia)
Sdn. Bhd. The Store Group also operates hypermarkets through its wholly-owned subsidiary Pacific Hypermarket &
Departmental Store Sdn. Bhd. See http://www.tstore.com.my/profilets.htm and http://www.tstore.com.my/bod.htm
(4/12/2008)

224
MYDIN store, for example, stops business activities when Azn was aired through loud speakers.

Cashiers at the checkout counters were observed to temporary stop working and only continue

with their work after they recite Azn Do<a. Prior to the Azn an announcement was made, clearly

heard from the loud speakers; Muslim brothers and sisters, the Azn should be aired shortly

for <Asr prayer for zone one of Kota Bharu and similar area of zone times. All counters are now

temporarily closed during the Azn... Shortly after the Azn has finished there was another

announcement telling the customers that counter operations are resumed. It was observed that

supermarket such as The Store in this city went a bit further by broadcasting the recital of the

Qurn and Islamic songs from Malaysian Nashid group before and after the Azn.

There is also a clear segregation of sexes for many activities including providing separate check-

out counters for ladies and men at supermarkets. It is noted that in big stores checkout counters

for women are labelled Perempuan (Ladies) or Lelaki (men) with the signage of man and woman

wearing Songkok i.e., velvet cap and Tudung i.e., Muslim woman head cover, respectively.

However the regulation only applies during busy hours where hundreds of people are queuing

to make payment. Outside peak hours customers can still pay at any counter they feel

convenient.

225
5.2 The Islamic Image of Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah

Statistical records from Dewan Perniagaan Melayu Kelantan ( DPMK, Kelantan Malay Chamber of

Commerce) shows that commerce is the biggest business sector the Malay in Kelantan are

involved in.763

Table 5.2: The proportion of the participation of the Malay in Business in Kelantan

Business sector Number %

1 Commerce 834 41

2 Construction 460 22

3 Consultancy 358 17

4 Manufacturing 248 12

5 Consultation (Professional) 78 4

6 Property 49 2

7 Agriculture 48 2

Total 2075 100

Source: The Kelantan Malay Chamber Of Commerce, Malaysia (2007), Kota Bharu, Kelantan

763
The figures show the number of registered Malay businesspeople with Dewan Perniagaan Melayu Kelantan (DPMK,
the Kelantan Malay Chamber of Commerce) 2007. It was informed that this body is opened to any people who run
any licensed business in this state. However only small traders in the state have registered. Interview with Zaharuddin
Bin Ismail, Public Relations and Research Manager, Dewan Perniagaan Melayu Kelantan (DPMK), Kota Bharu.
(16.8.2007)

226
From the total of 2075 people registered with the DPMK, 834 or 41% are from this sector

followed by construction with 460 (22%) and consultation with 358 (17%). Although commerce

includes all sorts of business, the statistics show that the Malay in this state prefers this sector the

most compared to other sectors. The Malay in Kota Bharu run different kind of businesses.

There are book stores, gold smiths, electrical stores, hard wares, clothes stores and so on. In

other big cities in Malaysia business is dominantly run by the Chinese. Indian Muslims who are

the pioneers in providing alal restaurants in other cities are contrastingly very few in the Kota

Bharu area. It was found that food courts in most part of Kota Bharu are run by the Kelantanese

Malay and a few by the Thai community. It gives signs that night food courts are popular in the

state because of higher demand from local people as well as tourists.

Malay traders are also popular in market places apart from the food courts around the city.

There are many daily markets around this city and the well known one is Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah

( Siti Khadjah market). The old name of the market was Pasar Besar Buluh Kubu. But Nik Aziz Nik

Mat (locally called Tok Guru) the new Chief Minister after PAS won the 1990 general election

changed the name to Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah because the majority traders are women.

Respondent (CO-01) says the Chief Minister has his reason for doing so Tok Guru wants best

of the spirit of Siti Khadijah to become the example of the traders in that market. In all respects;

as a successful lady in business, as a blessed wife, as a good mother to children The new name

227
given by the Chief Minister is seen as PASs appreciation for women in trading;764 the women in

Kelantan, under the political administration of PAS are said to be discriminated against.765

Pasar Siti Khadjah is a huge three storey edifice which, can accommodate 3243 small traders. The

number of traders during the study were around 2356 people.766 The traders get their supplies

from suppliers (middle men) called Tok Peraih, who are mostly men. Women suppliers, though

present, are in small numbers. Suppliers are either local people or international immigrants

from Pakistan, India, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia. These people supply local and

imported goods to the traders normally in credits and will come to collect their money on the

agreed instalment such as weekly or monthly. Currently there are more than 190 suppliers in the

market. RM 20.00 fee is charged on each stall every month by the city council.

Pasar Siti Khadjah is under the administration of the Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu-Bandaraya

Islam (MPKB-BRI), under a special section, Pasar (market). It is not administered directly under

this section; rather it is privatised to a company or agency to manage the market through an

open tender made every two years. Currently the ground and the first floor including the area

764
See, C.S. Othman (2000) Sepuluh Tahun Membangun Bersama Islam-Kelantan di Bawah Pimpinan Ulamak,Kota
Bharu: Pusat Kajian Strategik, p 60
765
The Chief Minister used to say that "ugly" women should be given preference in public service recruitment in
Kelantan, as "beautiful" women can easily find a husband. With this statement he has been accused as, perhaps one
of the most extreme examples of discrimination against women in the workforce See Women in Asian
Management -Women in Management Review, 20th December to 10th January 2000,
http://www.apmforum.com/emerald/women-in-management.htm (24.02.2009); Sisters in Islam Malaysia for
example had submitted three memoranda on discrimination against women and infringement of fundamental
liberties in the Islamic Family Law and the administration of justice in the Shariah system, the Shariah Criminal
Offences Act and the Hudud Enactment of Kelantan. See Step Forward for the Women of Malaysia, Asian Source,
http://www.asiasource.org/asip/sis.cfm (24.02.2009)
766
Data from Bahagian Pasar, Majlis Perbandaran Kota Bharu-Bandaraya Islam, (August 2007)

228
surrounding the building are under the management of a private company. The second and

third floors are managed by the Siti Khadjah cooperative body. The main responsibility for the

selected management bodies are to collect fees from Peraih (middle man) or charge special fees
767
known as Duit Bakul (Basket fees) for irregular traders at the marketplace. They are also

responsible to ensure the market area is in order for all traders as well as the customers and

visitors.

Images of Islm are dominant in this place. If someone is entering this building from the main

entrance it is easy to note that there is a small but attractive mosque located on the right hand

side which is in-between the main entrance and the second gate. The mosque is locally known

as Masjid al-Barah. It was officially opened by the Menteri Besar, Dato Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat in

1991. It is a two storey building and when fully used it can accommodate about one hundred

people on each floor. Apart from being used by the traders and the customers of this market, it is

also a popular mosque for tourists visiting Kota Bharu.

Leading to the front part of the mosque there is a building accommodating toilets. Interestingly

Du< recited before and after entering toilets are written in Arabic calligraphy on the right and

left of the two entrances to the two buildings.768 The second building which also has toilets and

767
It is a small fee paid by irregular traders in the market. Most of them are local people who come to sell vegetables,
fruits and other things.
768
This is the common Du< that Muslims in Malaysia are generally aware, "O Allh. I seek refuge in You from the male and female
evil and Jinns". "All Praise be to Allh, who removed the difficulty from me and gave me ease (relief)". See, Ahmad Hasan (1984)
Sunan Abu Dawud : English translation with explanatory notes, Lahore : SH. Muhammad Ashraf , Book 1, Number 0006.

229
ablution facilities can be found nearby Laman Khadijah i.e., a conjunction area between Pasar

Besar Siti Khadjah and Bazaar Buluh Kubu similarly have the same Du< for entering and exiting

the toilet. They were similarly written on the wall in an Arabic calligraphy. The translation in

Bahasa Melayu is written underneath of the Du<. These areas are reasonably clean. A translation

of a adth, concerning the importance of cleanliness, which was also written on the front wall of

the buildings seems to be fulfilling.

Places for ablution can be found in the building other than the nearby the mosque. It is here

where traders clean themselves before coming to the mosque for prayers. Most of them however

conveniently perform their prayers in their small business premises. These are normally the

traders who do not have assistants to look after their business premise while they were away

performing prayers in a Surau or mosque nearby.

Most of the traders in this building are Malays but there are a few Chinese and Siamese traders as

well. It is not difficult to distinguish the Malay women from the non-Muslims. Malay women are

easily recognised with their traditional Malay Baju Kurung or Kebaya and are wearing Tudung.

Few of them especially the younger generation wear modern cloth but still with Tudung. Non-

Muslim women usually wear Baju Kurung or other casual cloth without any Tudung. Wearing

Tudung for Muslim trade women is compulsory and failing to do so will be fined by the authority

and their licence will not be renewed. In further investigation the researcher found that the

obligation to observe the Islamic dress code is stated clearly in the Government of Kelantan

230
Gazette. The licensee shall, in the course of her controlling and supervising of food

establishments if she is a Muslim woman, wear an attire covering the <Aurah and ensure that all

her Muslim women employees wear the same and if the licensee and the employees are non-

muslim to wear a proper attire.769 In this respect cloth that is considered covering <Aurah

means an attire or outfit of a Muslim woman covering the whole body except her face and

both hands and it shall not be tight or transparent that will allow her body shape to be seen.770

Under this law <Aurah is defined as the whole body of a woman except her face and both

hands.771

Similarly, the regulations for observing the Islamic dress codes has evolved for the better and is

no more an issue. Respondent (CO-02) commented on the earlier days of the regulation;

there were many traders who did not follow the current regulation, no Tudung. The Tudung

came like a storm in the 80s, that time, there were many traders who did not wear Tudung... His

view was also shared by respondent (CO-01), a Co-CT member;

It worked in stages. First, the MPKB enforced the Tudung on traders. Once this was done, we

promoted the dress codes to the customers and visitors. Now you can see the results, those who

are not wearing Tudung are Siamese, most likely

769
Warta Kerajaan (2003) Local Government Act 1976, Hawkers (Kota Bharu Municipal Council) (Amendment) By-
Laws 2003, New by-law 13A, Kuala Trengganu: Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad, p 452
770
Ibid, p 451
771
Ibid, p 452

231
Enforcing dress codes is not easy given the multitude of attitudes, cultures and religions of the

traders and the visitors. Whilst the dress codes for Muslims are clear, differences in application

(and probably also, interpretation) can be seen. Nonetheless, the advice and the guides for the

dress codes are made clear in all places. Non-Muslims are advised to wear acceptable cloth

which is generally accepted by the community. Respondent (CO-04) said ; It is a huge

market (Pasar Siti Khadjah), you know? Many visitors come from outside Kelantan. They need to

be informed and reminded (that here, Islamic culture applies). But people from outside

Kelantan are always seen to wear Tudung when visiting here

232
 Chapter Five

Case Study Presentation

Part 2

5.3 Introduction

In the second chapter the researcher presented the picture of different cultural influences on

businesspeople by tracing back the Malay historical background. The Malay culture has evolved

from a mixture of many different influences. It started from animism to Hinduism-Buddhism

and later, dominated by Islm.772 In this chapter the research investigates those influences in a

Malay community in their daily works which focus on their real life experience in business.

Findings of this investigation will be presented descriptively.

The findings based on the field work in Malaysia will be presented in two sections. The first will

focus mainly on the Malay people, Islam and the marketplace. This section highlights some

important issues which will help the writer to understand the people under study and the culture

of their business environment, which will be discussed in the later section.

772
Ryan, N. J. (1971) The Cultural Heritage of Malaya, Longman: Malaysia, p 24

233
5.4 The Significance of the Bomoh

The place of the Bomoh used to be important in the Malay society during the time when Hindu

culture was strong. This was reflected in the interview sessions in the field. Looking back into his

young days, respondent (TR-30) said; Our elders and Bomoh at some places and satisfied the

spirits of those places. You know, our people were not educated. Later, this belief slowly eroded

and they moved away from Kuraft (temptations). Look at the young people today, they can tell

between the alls and the arms or the Shirk in our society

This study discovered that the position of the Bomoh had been of paramount importance to the

Malay society in Kelantan. For instance a strange illness befalling a family member would

normally be referred to the Bomoh for explanation and cure. It was perceived that modern

medicine did not work and would not be able to explain, let alone to cure the illness.

Respondent (TR-02) - a tradewoman agreed that only the Bomoh can trace someone who

suffered from black magic; Theres only one Bomoh who told me, someone sent bad things

to me I wasnt sick he told me because he could feel it when he massaged me

An expert who was consulted in this study reported that the Malay are well known for their high

respect for Bomohs. They were so important to the people for many reasons. For example, the

Bomohs services were needed when they wanted to build a house, to find water sources, to start

businesses etc. Usually their advice was needed to fix dates for any special occasions or

ceremonies such as marriage, building a house and to plant trees or to start with agriculture.

234
Some of their practices might even be questionable from the Islamic point of view. However this

case was only for the bomoh who was weak in Islamic faith. Respondent (MS-01) says;

The uneducated village Bomohs mixed their spells with Bismillah and then went on with their

spells, we wouldnt understand what they say. They mixed with certain beliefs and then closed it

by saying Lilha Ilallh Muammadurraslallh The expert further explained the significance

of the Bomoh in the daily lives of the Malay; In the old days, we would call for a Bomoh

before building a house. He would show the best site to position the house and even mark the

sides of the house. The first post will be marked with a piece of yellow cloth. Also, a Bomoh will

come and tell the best dates to start growing rice. For all of these dates, the Bomoh would refer to

the days when the umbilical cords were separated from the bodies. Our elders believe that the

planting dates for crops are better done on specific dates otherwise there will hardly be any

harvest or that they will rot ... Sundays and Fridays are also said to be good days for planting ...

Determining dates were also important in other fields such as for marriage and for digging wells.

Respondent (MS-01) continues; Well, they did not only believe such things there are

dates for marriages, too. So, are some special months. This is less practiced now, but some

people here still call Bomoh for determining dates. Say, digging a well. He will come and inspect

the site. When he says a site is a good one, and when we dig, its proven! You see, we dont know

the kind of knowledge that he has. Im not saying they do not use spirits and Satans as

mediators

235
Bomoh advice is also crucial when someone is venturing into business. One of the popular needs

is to ensure the business takes off nicely and immediately and make good money. (MS-02)

explains; There is something that is called the traders magic in bussiness. If one is

intending to open a shop for the first time, one must refer to certain dates, perform alat jat

(prayer for the granting of requests) or recite some verses on those dates. There are good dates,

bad dates and disaster dates.

5.5 Sorcery

Black magic (sorcery)773 which is part of the practice of animism was found to have been

popular. The interviews conducted in this study revealed that the practice of black magic has

taken place in the Malay society and is still being practised by a few. In this research, some

individuals who claimed to have experienced the effects of black magic were interviewed.

Apparently, black magic was practised by the Malays in the 1970s but still in practice today at a

lesser degree. A respondent reported that her mother became the victim of a black magic

because his was a well-to-do family. Perhaps it was out of jealousy. Respondent ( OT-01)

reported;

773
R.F. Ellen(1993) Introduction', in C. W. Watson and R. F. Ellen (eds), Understanding Witchcraft and Sorcery in
Southeast Asia ,Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp 1-26

236
just imagine, back then in the 70s, my house had electricity and good water supply. We even

had TV! People rarely got in touch with all these luxurious items His parents suffered a lot

from the black magic which was aimed towards them. He strongly believed that the black magic

was the reason for his mothers death because it was confirmed by many Bomoh he and his family

consulted. Consultation with doctors, on the other hand, found that his parents were not

suffering from bad health.

In another case, a respondent claimed that nowadays, very few people are practising the sorcery

in order to harm people they dislike. His opinion was based on his familys own experience.

Someone sent supernatural being into his wife because of jealousy, i.e. somebody was jealous of

him for being chosen to marry the woman. As a result the wife was not able to sleep because she

claimed she saw ugly faces that kept lurking before her. The respondent (OT-02) says When

she talked, it wasnt her voice. It sounded as there was some other being that was possessing her

and was controlling her. But when the Bomoh touched certain parts of her body using the black

pepper, she gave a hysterical scream and wanting to leave At this point the respondent said

how could we not believe this? Besides, these kinds of stories are not strange in Islam. If I was

not mistaken, the Jews tried this sort of magic on our Prophet

The authors investigation revealed that some respondents believed in the existence of this

practice as well. Respondent (TR-09) explains; I am not (formally) educated. I was sick,

attacked by somebodys Pelesit. My mother told me that out neighbour kept Pelesit and I was

237
attacked because we lived so close, you see. So my brother and I became so thin and did not

grow much. We got better after he passed on It is believed that one of the usual mediums

used in the Malay magic is the ashes from a human dead body. The Malays believe that this is

one of the most effective ways, the sorts of voodoo used in the neighbouring country, Thailand.

These sorts of ashes are very dangerous. Drinking it makes you go nuts, the kind of witch with

evil intentions. For me, it is not impossible, Tok Guru Nik Aziz got it once despite the very pious

man he is. People like us must be much more vulnerable Respondent (RE-03) admits. Joss-

stick ash from Siamese temples is also a popular medium that is frequently used. The respondent

further explains Some people used the ashes of a murdered person or the bits from the pot

used by a Tok Cha (a Siamese priest). These things are buried or put around shops depending

on their intentions. Some use chin oil, but this is usually for love charms

One of the traditional Malay practitioners who were interviewed agreed that in certain cases,

jealousy or resentment can be a factor and could be the reason for one to be attacked by black

magic. Respondent (RE-03) admits;

It is not unusual for people to use black magic because they are jealous and discontent. But

we must remember, sometimes God is punishing the person for taking other peoples rights by

not paying the Zakat.

5.6 Animism: Belief and Practice

238
Traces of these influences were also strong as cited by some respondents. Many a time, animism

seemed so familiar to respondents suggesting the strength of how people believe or at least

understand the nature of this belief. For example the practice of making offerings to Penunggu

(resident spirits). These offerings might also be given as a special gift to supernatural beings that

are supposed to own or guard parts of the universe. They can be residing and looking after a

large tree, a forest, water springs, agricultural fields, rivers, seas etc. The intention of such

offerings might be linked to good harvest of crops or for having good catch in fishing. Other

than being a thanksgiving it was also a kind of Persembahan (special gifts) to a supernatural being.

This was made in order to reap good harvest especially for the Padi field. It was also to make

fishermen successful when they go fishing at sea or in the rivers.

Respondent (CO-01) insisted; Animist and Hindu practices were once rampant. I still

remember when our folks gave offerings, put food in floats and let it go down river off into the

sea. Sometimes they put food beneath large trees or near large termite mounds

He further says; When I was young, people practised animism quite openly. I remember

seeing people preparing Jamu (offering to the gods/spirits) especially during the harvesting

season. These practices are gone now. Only uneducated people are still doing it, I think ...But

now this practice no longer exist but few people who are not very clever still believe in some of

them (animist practices).

239
Apart from these practices, animism can also be seen in other occasions. For example, people

believe that trees would bear more fruits more if their stems are beaten up or cut little during the

lunar or solar eclipse. The respondent further says nowadays she never see this in her area where

she lives.

5.7 A Malay Business Environment: Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah

The majority of traders in the Siti Khadjah Market are Muslm. Consequently, the dominance of

a variety of Islamic forms and characteristics of a market is highly visible. During the field study,

the daily prayers, particularly the zuhr and asr prayers though understandably a compulsory

deed for all muslim were performed openly, either in the trading premises (shops), the little

prayer rooms within the market precinct, or in the mosque (Masjid al-Barah) that is almost an

annex to the market. Places for ablution can be seen in many parts of the market. During Friday

prayer, which is only compulsory for men, the segregation of the Farh between men and women

was almost instantly observed. Because Masjid al-Barah does not qualify for a Friday

congregation, men took a 10 minutes walk to Masjid Muammadi. During the period of about an

hour or so, only women were seen trading in the market.

The study also showed that the Islamic characteristics, although can be recognized as a cultural

traits amongst the traders, were upheld and kept fresh by the institutionalisation of the teachings

of what, even in the market. The mosque plays an important role in the Malay community and is

an integral part of the Malay-Muslim culture. It is not just for daily prayers but also a special

240
place where Muslims learn and study Islm. Masjid al-Barah takes the central role in keeping

tradition of continuous teaching and learning of Islm within the market system. Although

visitors also attend the mosque to perform their prayers, the role of the mosque is more

important for the traders who spend most of their time in the market. Here, religious scholars

are invited to teach and deliver lectures almost every day before the uhr prayer. The class ends

after about ninety minutes and can be heard through loudspeakers in the market area. The

Imm and the Muslim scholar who are invited to teach in the mosque help the traders to solve

various problems. Respondent (RE-04) admits they asked to organize the jah prayer,

people who have family problems would want to have spiritual supports, and we join them in

prayers . We have counselling sessions headed by our Imam. On Saturdays and public holidays

we would be making rounds and take actions on wrongdoings teenagers from opposite

genders holding hands, for example. We would send them for counselling or fine them. Of

course we will refer them to the Office of Islamic Affairs if the vice activity was quite heavy.

Normally, we never go beyond fines. These works are done under the committee, al- isbah

under the Kota Bharu Municipal Council

Since the Jam<ah are mostly from the market community questions regarding business matters

from the Islamic perspective were raised directly with the invited teachers. The same respondent

further explains; They refer all questions on bussiness and trading to the teachers directly,

not the committee of the mosque. This is usually done after the prayers

241
From the field observation, it could be said that all trading members in the market get along

well. Happy and sad moments are shared and the brotherhood is apparent within a commuity of

their own that also shares responsibilities. Initiatives are taken collectively for the benefits of the

commuity. The set up of the funeral benefits (Khairt Kematian) sees that members are given

back up assistance for funerals. This is done by collective contribution of RM24.00 a month and

the fund is used to provide assistance during funerals and for paying other related costs. Also, a

small amount of money will be given to the grieving family as adaqah.

It is also very interesting to see that not all activities involving money in the management of the

market is aimed at making profits. By a large part, activities might include assistance and

empowerment to ensure that more members are involved in bussiness and trades and continue

to do so. Koperasi Siti Khadjah (KO-SITI)774 offers a non-profitable financial assistance service

by lending money to its members. This is done through an Islamic lending scheme called al-

Qarh al-asan775. The maximum limit for each loan is twenty five thousand Malaysian Ringgit

(RM 25,000.00). Because the corporation belongs to the members of the trading community in

the Pasar Siti Khadjah, many of the stocks for the whole of the market are purchased in bulk

allowing the corporation to act on behalf of the community but at the same time giving it a high

negotiating power for the purchase price. For ecample, KO-SITI buys cloth in bulk and might be

valued at hundred of thousands of Malaysian Ringgit in each transaction. Traders acquire their

774
KO-SITI is established under Persatuan Kebajikan Peniaga-Peniaga Kecil Pasar Besar Siti Khadijah (Siti Khadijah
Market Small traders Welfare fund). It was founded in 2003 for the traders benefit. This corporation is still new and
has been under advice of the state corporation agency.
775
Loans fixed for a definite period of time without interest or profit sharing.

242
stock from the corporation and pay over an extended scheduled time through the concept of

Bay< al-Murbaah776.

Observation also showed that transactions are carefully weighted and referred against the Islamic

guidelines. On one occasion during a regular meeting at the corporation, it was found that

officers of the cooperative body were very careful in evaluating and making transactions

involving corporation funds. A member wanted to pay RM500.00 more on top of RM10000 that

has been borrowed. They were discussing whether the RM500.00 is Rib or not. As they did not

have a good knowledge on that particular matter they decided to ask an Ustz for clarification

regarding the issue.

Not all assistance and empowerment worked and the corporation is continuously learning to

carry out better management of the corporation. It is human nature that activities are very

dynamic and the nature of the business environment follow similar patterns. At some point, the

administration of Masjid al-Barah offerred help to traders in need by lending them a small

amount of money to assist members purchasing merchandise. However since most of the traders

that received the assistance failed to repay the management of the mosque then made a decision

not to continue the scheme.

776
Bay< al-Murbaah means sale at a specified profit margin

243
As a show of the adherence of the corporation to the Islamic values, an <Umrah Fund (Tabung

<Umrah) has been formed and it is opened for those who plan to go to Mecca for performing the

<Umrah. Every month each member will pay the instalments for a trip to Mecca which dates are

usually planned earlier. The corporation also collects Zakh and adaqah and distribute them to

the needy such as to orphans. In addition, the traders welfare fund called the Badan Kebajikan

(Welfare fund) is used to give health benefits to trading members including hospital allowance

once a member is hospitalized i.e. one is paid a hospital allowance up to seven days if he was

admitted. The children of the members will also be given certain amount of money if they were

doing well in their education. Religious matters which are carried forward by the cooperative

members will be solved promptly however complicated the issues are ; inheritance will be one of

the most complicated issues and will be referred to religious authorities such as the Majlis Agama

Islm Kelantan.

Malaysian banks or financial institutions offer many alternatives when it comes to banking and

finance. There are two running systems within these institutions; the conventional and the

Islamic. In both systems, the institutions require guarantees; land titles and salary pay-slips are

the most common guarantees. For small traders like the majority of the traders in Pasar Siti

Khadjah, these are rare things. Over time, they established ways and means on how to go about

having enough money without having to borrow. Many resort into saving and they do this in

groups.

244
 There is a saving activity which is called Main Kutu (saving by a group who agree on the sequence

of payments seen as a game). A group of around ten people would get together and form a

group and later vote for a leader. The leader is responsible to collect the amount of saving from

each member at the agreed amount and intervals, daily, weekly or monthly. The money is

pooled and the sequence of payment is either agreed at the beginning of the establishment of

the group or by a random draw. The amount collected every day will depend mainly on the

traders success on business. Generally, the lowest is RM10.00 and the highest is RM100.00.777 It

is illustrated from the table 5.3 below;

Example

Number of depositors: 10
Amount collected per day :RM10.00
Mode: Weekly draw
Period: 10 Weeks

777
RM (Ringgit Malaysia) is Malaysia currency.

245
Table 5.3: Weekly Saving in Main Kutu
Days / Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Total

Depositor

Amount In RM
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
2 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
3 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
4 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 70
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 700
Illustration: Each week a member will be selected from the draw to win the pooled money. He / she will get the
RM700.00 collected that week. For the next week draw he/ she will continue to pay in the money as usual but
excluded from the draw. After ten weeks all participants will get the RM700.00 and if they agreed the round can be
started all over again.

The field observation showed that most of the traders join Kutu group. The cash they get from

the Kutu game enables them to settle debts, buy household or family needs as well as using it for

business purposes. When asked about the benefit they get from the game, respondent (TR-43)

admits; This is a kind of saving. It is difficult to get the big amount such as this if I saved it

myself every day. The money I get is used for my children especially for schooling needs...

The Kutu game is also a way to avoid Rib. Respondent (TR-30) says; ...this is an important

method for me to get much money at once especially for my stock. By this way I get rid of Rib

should I get the money from financial institutions. This is the easiest way to get quite lot of

money as we dont have to provide anything as the assurance. The important thing is that we

trust each other...

246
A trader (TR-14) emphasized that Main Kutu with regular friends is a way how he saves money;

I do it to save money If I didnt do this, I cant save money Another trader illustrated to

the researcher how Kutu is played in details. He said he has 15 members and they pay RM10.00

every day for ten days. Every ten days one of the members will get RM1500.00. In one year every

member can get at least three times of the draw. He said some people pay RM50.00 every day but

admitted that the sum would be too big for him and his friends, He (TR-29) admits; we cant

afford RM50.00. We received a fortune when out turn comes, no? But our sales forbid that,

were not making much like them. Clearly, Main Kutu depends much on an individuals

business situation. Those who are doing well in business normally agree to pay more in the

game. One trader (TR-30) noted when he was asked about Main Kutu; Sure, most of us

here play the game. People play all sort of amount, some might pool up to RM1000.00. It

depends if people can afford it, you see. Mostly only RM10.00 or RM20.00, that small. Others go

for RM50.00 or RM100.00

In general, such games are reactions to the difficulties in getting loans from financial institutions

and the need to avoid Rib that almost is perceived to have departure from the Islamic concept

of financial assistance. Further, proof of wages or documents in the form of pay-slips are not

readily-available documents and the chance of getting loans from financial institutions, even

through the Islamic systems that are now running, is a long shot. Such is the case in the Pasar Siti

Khadjh in the Malaysian State of Kelantan.

247
 5.7.1 Different Cultural Influences on Malay Businesspeople

The long historical traditions of the Malay people have apparently influenced the Malay

community in many ways; the business people are included and can be explained through their

experience or can be seen from their culture of trading activities. The literature in chapter two

highlighted that the spiritual-faith of the Malay has evolved from animism (2500 BC) to

Hinduism-Buddhism (682 AD ), Colonial and finally to Islam in the thirteen century.

During the field observation it showed that the four main cultural influences still exist and

continually giving impacts of different levels on the behaviour of Malay businesspeople. Based on

the observations and the interviews it is noted that Islamic culture is currently the dominant

norm. Post-Colonial culture is still influencing the traders in some ways but at a lesser degree

and to some extent, it can be seen in the ways documents and records are meticulously taken

and kept, a legacy of the British Administration. The Malay traditional culture is still strong.

Hindu-Buddhist culture is the weakest in terms of making impact to the Malay. The details of

such qualities and the levels of impacts will be given in the following sections.

Throughout the fieldwork, the practices of Islamic culture were observed in the adherence of

the Muslm traders to the five pillars of Islm; their daily prayers were the most visible one. They

had a strong belief in the Hereafter and believe that they are accountable for their good and bad

deeds including of all their actions in trade.

248
The levels of faith and how much understanding they have in Islm, in particular, are notably

obvious. It can be seen on how these traders explained their Imn (faith) in Islm, their strong

belief in monotheism (Allh), the supreme power that holds justice and truth. In fact all of the

informants agreed that the absolute Truth is Allh. The belief in a supreme power by all traders

in this study can be seen when most of them related their good deeds to Barakah, regarded trade

as a kind of worship and started their business with reciting Du< or by reciting certain verses and

chapters of the holy Qurn.

The Muslm scholars who were interviewed noted that the continuation of upholding these

values is very important for Muslims. It enables them to follow their Islamic belief more closely

amid the modern sub-cultural aspects of life that run contrary to the Islamic priciples. Muslim

are guided by the Qurn, adith and Ijtid as their main references.

The absorption of Hinduism in the Malay community in Kelantan is more on practising the

Indian culture, rather than the faith of Hinduism. For example a newly married Malay will go

for Adat Bersanding a ceremony during which the bride and bridegroom sit together on the

bridal couch, marvelled by friends and relatives. An expert (MS-01) who was referred to for his

justification on this matter admits;

The presence of the Hindu and Buddhist culture in Kelantan is obvious. The people are

Muslm, sure, but there are other influences too. A lot of this can be seen during a wedding

249
reception. Old people say we need to uplift the spirit of the couple and we should receive and

sprinkle some turmeric-rice on them

In Malay the bridal couch is called Pelamin (dais), normally two Pelamin are made; one in the

brideegrooms house and the other in the bride's house., A tiered pedestal led tray, is also placed

in front of the Pelamin. Each tier contains a mound of cooked Pulut Kuning (yellow glutinous rice

the yellow colour comes from the mixture of turmeric) studded all over with red-painted eggs.

This tray will later be presented to close family members especially the parents of the couple to

honour them.

Bersanding is clearly a non-Islamic influence. Sitting together on the bridal couch, the presence

of yellow rice are clearly from the Indian culture.

Hindu influence in the Malay community Kelantan today, however, is increasingly unpopular.

From the interviews conducted in this study, there were three main factors that have contributed

to the decline of the Hindu influence as follows;

a. The role played by Malaysian education system and Tok Guru in the society. An expert
(MS-01) when asked about the changes that took place on this situation replied this
thing will gradually go. Our <Ulam continue to preach, and out education system
eliminates pseudo-religious practices including Tahyul (supernatural beings), Khurafat
(superstition) and Shirk. It will be gone, or negligible if any. I think it has been long gone,
anyway The religious schools within the States education system are seen to be very
important in giving religious awareness compared to ordinary schools. He further
explained;

250
 Ordinary schools are not doing much, I think. I bet this is done by religious
schools. You see, the religious schools are only re-empowered during the time of Nik
Aziz. Maybe books have helped, partly

b. Increasing number of Muslim scholars in the community. They are people who received
Islamic education from Middle Eastern universities or from the Malaysian university systems.
They played their role by educating people through the Friday sermons or in their lectures. The
same expert says .They came back and teach our people, gave Friday sermons

Nik Aziz the current Chief Minister is seen as an example because of his seriousness in
teaching since he came back to the country from the Middle East. His role to educate the Malay
Muslm community in Kelantan is significant. The respondent (MS-01) says Oh, Tok Guru
did a great job! When he came home, he taught at Masjid Muammadi but he was later denied
teaching access to the mosque by the National Front government. So he continued to teach
from the PAS Headquarters, until today

c. The new generations of the Malays are not interested to continue the practices and beliefs
because of the increase in their religious awareness. The expert (MS-01) explains; When the
old people are gone, their children refuse to adopt those practices. <Ulam< are free to teach and
they do not go to Bomoh anymore. I think the <Ulam< are doing it right...

5.7.2 The Practice of Sorcery

Amongst the Malays, sorcery is almost always defined as a bad condition as a result of targetted

black magic. Respondents in this study learned that they were struck by sorcery when they were

told by shamans whom they attended. Initially, they went to see shamans when feeling that

something was not right about themselves or their bussiness. For example, they would think that

something must have gone wrong when the usual crowd of customers suddenly dropped in

numbers. Some others would go and see shamans when they saw that customers seemed

uncomfortable being in their premises.

251
Respondents in this study did not deny the existence of magic in their business environment.

Fighting with bare-hands is a term used to indicate the someone that is unprepared to face the

possibility of being attacked by black magic. A respondent (TR-23) says; We must be

prepared (spiritually). Some respondents believe that one needs to adhere to daily Dhikr and

religiously carry out such practices. By doing so, one will be saved from any evil deeds that were

intended for him including the practice of sorcery, stealings, robberies. Nevertheless, daily Dhikr

is almost always intended to avoind sorcery. A respondent (TR-25) says that he will recite

Bismillhi Tawakkaltu <Alallh (In the name of Allh and I put my trust on Allh) every time he

set out to work. Furthermore after the Maghrib prayer he will take time to sit down and do some

more Dhikr. This practice is important as barrier from the practise of black magic. well, some

people start to feel uneasy once we do well in bussiness and resort to making magic to ruin our

life

One respondent (TR-23) agreed that sorcery is present in their bussiness environment. He

related his own experience that took place a long time ago when he had just started his business.

Nobody came to his stall for a month. He thought it was just impossible that nobody saw his stall

with that many people who passed by. Also, within that month, every day and at the same time of

the day between 10 am and the uhr prayer time, he would feel very uncomfortable,

experiencing pain all over his body. It changed in the other weeks but the pains came after

sunset. After consultation with an old man who used to be his fathers best friend he was told that

he was a victim of sorcery. To cure this he used his own way that he inherited from his father.

252
Further interviews revealed many more of such incidents and related to the researcher from

their first-hand experiences. For example certain substances might be scattered in the store or

buried in certain places in or near business premises. The substance refers to some ingredient

taken from the medicine man which is believed to have been been blown with certain

incantations. A respondent (TR-14) reports; Gosh, these people always sprinkle things into

shops then nobody sees your shop my shop was like so before I didnt believe it at first but

after sometimes, you know it was true, you see Similarly another respondent (TR-42) agreed;

For two reasons, ok? First, Ive been trading for a long time and I know how many customers

I should get in a day, I mean, you can never get too wrong on the number, you know? Suddenly

they were gone and I would have known that slapbang! Secondly, my friend told me that he saw

that my shop was dark, like I was not trading, or closed for the day, but, hey! I was there!

Once attacked by the magic spells, victims usually consult the Imam or Tok Guru for advice or ask

for help from medicine man. Others use their own ways, usually inherited or shared to them by

the members of their own families or other people. (TR-14) for example consulted a religious

man, I went to see the Imm and he gave me water that he had read verses onto, I got

better I had the same experience when I worked in the wholesale market some years ago A

trader used his own ways to cure himself. He (TR-42) said Well, we learned a little bit about

neutralising these spells, so we know how to deal with them

253
One of the experts referred to regarding the use of sorcery in business referred to a personal

experience. He (MS-02) explained his experience;

Sure, sorcery does take place. Once a man who was selling Nasi Lemak (rice
cooked with coconut milk) and his bussiness went very well, finishing many large pots
a day. Then disaster came and less people bought his rice. This was the work of some
bad spirits. Here in Kelantan, the trouble might come in the form that we call the
Genaing (a type of bad spirit that wipes out the happiness from ones face). When
people see a shopkeeper who was possessed by the Genaing, they will see an angry
person, thus avoiding his shop. This evil spirit is a Satan that will always be taking
advantage on human being. The Qurn tells us about the bad intentions of Satans.
You know that Satan will always create havoc and destructions

Moreover this expert insisted that people are still seeking help from Bomoh to assist them in

doing business. He saiys: ... A friend told me that once his shop was swarmed by flies, so many of

them that nobody came to his shop. Another friend told me that his customers reported to him

seeing grotesque images in front of his shop

5.7.3 The Belief in Semangat (Spirit)

The influence of the Malay traditional culture could still be traced amongst the community

under study. As far as the business community at Pasar Khadjah is concerned this culture was,

however, limited to certain kinds of businesses. Businesspeople who sell gems, iron product and

herbs believe the articles they sell are special, unique and rather different in a lot of ways

compared to merchandise of the other traders. For instance, it was found that iron products

(mostly traditional Malay metal weaponry for close fighting) such as Keris and old Malay weapons

were wrapped in red, yellow or black cloth. This was aimed to ensure that the spirit of the metal

stay permanently with the weapon they were selling. One businessman (TR-35) said, It is

254
important to keep the Semangat (spirit) in there by putting this thing in a good place. Keris has to

be applied smoke on it with Kemeyan (joss rocks)778. A few traders also admitted that they wrap

certain metal products such as Keris with the special-coloured clothes as an attraction for

customers to visit their premises. One trader (TR-27) noted;

When people see this kind wrapping, the know instantly that these are antiques.
They value these sort of things and it pays for us to show them to be special, not like
other ordinary things in the shop.... The respondents themselves were not very sure
why certain people are looking for the antique old weapons such as old Keris. Some of
the reasons given are quite interesting. Respondent (TR-27) explains why certain
people are looking for the old Malay weaponry; Some people believe that if one
owned this sort of old weapon, they will never become poor. Some others said that it
can become a charm to attract money. Of course old weapons are difficult to find so
they really believe that such things will attract money into his ownership...

A trader who was selling metal products and was interviewed in this study even claimed that he

(TR-35) knew how to ask Semangat to get into the Keris;

He went Bismillhirramnirram, O in the name of Allh, I know your origins. You descended

from the light of Muammad pbuh, thus by the words of Allh and his Messenger, eat this! Eat

this! Eat this! recite Surah al-Fatiah seven times, ask the spirit to eat what one has recited -

the Surah that is, blow with the mouth onto the metal weapon and then say: O in the name of

Allh, you say the Syahadat together with me, come together and say with me

Bismillhirramnirram Ash-hadu an-l ilha illallh, wa-ash-hadu anna Muammadar-

Rasulullah, Do that three times

778
Scientifically it is called Styrax benzoic Dryand. This stone like creature is always used in traditional medicine
particularly by the Malay medicine man (Bomoh)

255
The later respondent believes Keris is a symbol of power to the Malays especially the leaders such

as the Sulan and warriors. He claimed that he knew the root of the creation of iron i.e., the

essence of how Allh created the metal.779 He whoever has this knowledge, will never be

wounded by any metal weapon, because the metal would tend to respect him He further said

The body of old Malay warriors such as Mat Kilau in Pahang and Tok Bahaman in

Trengganu were not affected by bullets from the British guns because of this

Gem stone traders who were interviewed believed that certain stones are special. One trader also

reported that some of them are used to cure illnesses. When asked whether the practice leads to

Shirk (seeking reliance from other than Allh) he disagreed and regarded gemstones as Walah

(a means or a connection) i.e., he believes only Allh can cure illnesses but through something

which is believed as a medium. He (TR-37) noted that it is not impossible to get benefits from

gemstone. ...It is a Walah, like a plane you board to arrive to a specific destination. He

suggested further that people wear rings with gemstones because it is a Fitrah for human beings

to marvel and ardour beautiful jewellery. He quoted a verse from the holy Quran: Fair in the

eyes of men is the love of things they covet: Women and sons; Heaped-up hoards of gold and

silver; horses branded (for blood and excellence); and (Wealth of) cattle and well-tilled land.

779
He insisted that he knew a lot about metals. Among others, he claimed to know how metal was created (by Allh).
He said that before the first Arabic letter of Alf, there is another letter that is supposed to be the first of all letters. This
is not known to mortal beings. That letter has three names, and if it sits in the light, it two names, one after another.

256
Such are the possessions of this world's life; but in nearness to God is the best of the goals (To

return to).780

To strengthen the argument another trader who was interviewed said that certain gem stones

such as Marjan is cited in the Qurn and he (TR-39) believes that it make sense that the stone is

special. The stone Marjan is cited in the Qurn781 and is very good in curing health problems

such as, it cools our body. Put the stone in a glass of water and drink it as you would drink water,

and it takes out your excessive body heat...

Traces of Malay traditional culture can also be seen in the use of gemstones for lucky charms

only giving to more support that the traditional Malay belief is still strong within the community.

It was, however, notably clear that some sort of confusion or dilemma took place, giving a

mixture between the traditional beliefs and the Islamic faith and the concept of monotheism.

One man (OT-03) who was approached at the al-Baraah mosque said, people buy

Zamrud782 or Delima783 for their attractiveness. Allh is the creator of everything and every single

thing has Tuan (guardian/master). So if Allh blesses the person who wears the ring with this

special stone on it will get its luck with the help of the Tuan ... He argued that people who know

the worthiness of stones will hunt for them regardless of the cost. Further interviews revealed that

Delima is sought for because of the belief in its extraordinary power. A respondent (OT-04) who

780
3:14
781
55:22, Out of them come LuLu(Pearls) and Marjan (Coral)
782
Emerald, a gemstone green in colour.
783
Name of a gem stone red in colour.

257
was approached at Laman Khadjah i.e., an area between Pasar Besar Siti Khadjah and Bazaar

Buluh Kubu said, If you know someone who has Delima just tell me because I need one for a

rich man from Kuala Lumpur. If you have it you can easily be offered RM1000,000.... Although

he was not a trader in Pasar Khadjah his conversation with few traders in the area shows that they

shared common things about the gemstones including the belief that certain gemstones are

priceless for their extraordinary power.

Similarly, the influence of animism can be traced from traders who sell remedial herbs that

include dried wood cut into small pieces, dried tree-barks, grass, seaweed, ginger and many

other herbal plant mixtures. One of the popular wood is called Kayu Kelo (the Kelo wood) which

is also popularly known locally as Teras Gemunggal. It is believed to be able to cure a number of

sicknesses. Also, it is believed to be a remedy or prevention from black magic. A trader (TR-23)

noted that he was a victim of black magic but managed to get rid of it with the help of Kayu Kelo.

He felt very weak every morning especially before the uhr prayer. Amazingly a medical doctor

he consulted said that he was all right and no problem with his health. Suspecting he was a black

magic victim he asked an old man who was a friend of his late father for help. The old man said

You have it at home, son! Why didnt you use it? He thought about the mans suggestion and

searched in his house and found the Teras Gemunggal. He used to help is father and

remembered how the wood was used for medicine. He put the wood in a bucket of water and

took a bath from it, drinking a little. After three days, as he related, he felt that something came

258
out through his forehead, leaving his body completely. Soon he felt fine and never had any such

illness anymore.

Whenever Kayu Kelo was on display at Laman Khadijah, many people were attracted. They would

stop and ask the seller about the price. The situation might have been caused by either of two

things i.e. that most people who visited the area are informed about the wood and have always

been looking for some depending on the selling price, or that most people who visited the area

are the ones who knew that the wood is likely to be on display and sold in that part the market. A

trader explained that the wood can be used as beauty charms and provide protection from

attacks of black magic. A columnist who worked with a tabloid newspaper Mingguan Misteri

(Mystery Weekly a weekly tabloid providing mystery stories) wrote about his own experience

when he fell into a container of acid but was not harmed by the acid - he was wearing a ring

made of Teras Gemunggal, he further related. There was certainly no possibility to scientifically

prove such claims. Nevertheless, such stories that are being shared amongst people or spread

through the mass media will maintain their strength and impossible to cease spreading.784

Apparently, the strong traditional Malay beliefs that swirl around the story of the extraordinary

woods do not merely end as a traditional belief. As the culture progressed and being enriched

with other cultures and faiths, it was found that the belief in the power of the wood has been

mixed and linked with Islam. For example, the traditional belief only required the wood to be

available and could be used for remedial purposes with neither added mixture nor charms. It

784
Mingguan Misteri-Ruangan Pengalaman Misteri- Saya Bukan Buat kerja Gila-Sekadar Uji Teras 1 Jun 2007

259
was believed to work on its own because the wood itself has unexplainable powers. During the

time when the community adopted Islm as a faith and a culture, the belief also evolved into

requiring the recitation of verses from from the Qurn, lest it will never exercise its healing

power. For example, the researcher has been asked to recite Surah al- Fatiah seven times and

alawt twenty one times in case of being stung by an insect. He was also asked to recite

Bismillhirramnirram and to spit on the bitten part by simultaenuously placing the kelo wood

on it. Finally the researcher was advised to recite Ayt Seribu Dinar before using it for remedial

purposes.

Another kind of wood that has its place in the group of powerful woods is the Naga Sari. A

respondent (TR-25) explained that the Naga Sari was used by the Wali Songo785. Again, the

mixture of the Islm with the traditional belief, apart from linking it to the legendary imams of

java, was unveiled by the respondent. One needs to dedicate Al-Ftiah to Prophet Muammad

(pbuh), the Walis and all pious Muslims and to regularly be in remembrance of Allh through

Dhikr. The wood and the money change hands, but the transaction must not be termed as a sale

but rather as a gift of alms on the part of the buyer. In one conversation with a customer the

researcher heard a trader (TR-25) saying; Look, my dear brother, if you insist in having this

special wood, please, in the name of Allh, hand me alms of 53 Ringgit

785
The Nine Wali of Java nine legendary religious Imam in Java who fought and continue the Da<wah during the
Dutch occupation and who are highly praised by Muslims in that part of the world until today

260
The trader (TR-25) also insisted that there was nothing wrong in believing in the healing powers

of certain plants or parts of plants; Now, if I said this wood has powers, I would have

committed Shirk, but in its creation, Allh has put together so much. If it was in the will of Allh

and he wanted it to happen, we will be endowed with the benefits of this wood that we never

knew. There must be reasons for all things, you know?

Similarly, this was agreed by yet another trader. He believed that all ailments have their cures,

and he also believed that all creations other than human beings are for our benefit such is the

case that Allh created remedies in trees. He further led the researcher to two more kinds of

wood that were the Kemuning Hitam and the Kemuning Kuning. The two kinds of wood, if used

together will have unmatched healing powers for many ailments and diseases. Also, he said that a

small piece of the horn of the Kerbau Balar,786 if tied around ones waist with small pieces of both

kinds of woods (Kemuning Hitam and the Kemuning Kuning) will ensure the health of the bearer,

especially in maintaining the strength on the waist indicating their use as aphrodisiac.

Those kinds of wood are also used as protection from Sihir and as a means to good fortune to the

household, A trader (TR-28) explains; these woods are for protection and ensures good

fortune. Also, the seven times recitation of Bismillh and alawat will increase their effectiveness.

On top of these guidelines, the preparation must not be taken into toilets for it carries the name

of Allh, so it was said. Once the condition is broken, the power will be permanently gone.

786
An albino buffalo albinism is common in domestic buffalo in Southeast Asia due to the segregation of herds
according to households creating high rates of inbreeding and increase the chances of recessive traits e.g. albinism i.e.
the lack of melanistic pigment on skin and hair and the buffalo will appear white.

261
The discussion above demonstrates that the belief on spirit and healing powers of things are

basically traditional but have now entered the Malay-Muslim community and become a culture.

5.7.4 Pantang Larang (Taboo) and Petua (Malay Tips) 787

Pantang Larang (taboo) and Petua (tips) are two important aspects in Malay culture. Taboos must

never be broken lest there will be misfortunes. There are also taboos in business as have been

explained to the researcher from the sample of the trading community in the Pasar Siti Khadjah,

in Kelantan. The following accounts showed how the adherence to taboos are still fresh within

the community.

It is a taboo to give credits to the first customer of the day. The belief is that if that took place,

subsequent customers throughout that day will purchase with credit from the shop, disallowing

any incoming cash for all transactions. However, this will completely be different if the first

customer of the day purchased merchandise in cash. A respondent (TR-42) says; This is

from my day to day observation. If we give the first customer special attention and make the

easiest dealing possible, InsyaAllh our bussiness that day will be a good one... Another

respondent (TR-29) agreed that Once, I allowed credit, gosh! Everybody wanted to make

credit on that day too much! But, brother, we cannot believe in this one because that will take

us to commit Shirk. You know what I mean? Give-and-take sort of thing, eh? We cannot

787
Tips or advices given or taught by the elders to the younger generation

262
disregard that completely, though Another trader said these taboos are actually rules that

have been established by older generations, who knew better and is essential to be taken

seriously. Look, this is what we have been told to do by our folks, we better believe it

Another trader (TR-04) insisted yes, there are taboos. Take for instance, when you open for

bussiness for the day, make the first customer to pay in cash, never allow credit Responses

from respondents clearly showed that they did not have reasonable reasons why the rules need

to be obeyed but at the same time believed that rules set out by older generations must be

regarded as important.

The same goes for traders of metal products. Respondent (TR-23) explained when we sell

weapons of sharp irons, we know that we are dealing with dangerous things and we have to

acknowledge this. Another respondent (TR-27) added; We cannot simply pull them out

making fun. Our folks told us that this is dangerous and might bring injuries or death The

researcher then asked the basis of one taboo that prevents people from stepping over weapons

such as Keris and Parang. He (TR-23) explained: The Malays forbid us from stepping over

weapons because these things have usually been treated with Dhikr upon them and might have

been applied with the smoke from incense In these two reasoning, it can be seen that the

reason they gave were reasonably acceptable and logic. The first is likely a prevention of

accidents. Sharp objects are not supposed to be laid down in areas where people move about.

Also, people are not supposed to move around areas where sharp objects are placed. The second

263
reason shows how the Malays have high respects on Dhikr and this goes a long way, into similarly

treating things that have been treated with Dhikr with respect.

Certain Malay traditional medical practices require the patient to pay the Pengeras. It could be

gifts of some sorts and a kind of offering given to the healer after a consultation or service. If the

Pengeras was in the form of money, the values were usually small and in odd small change e.g. 15

or 25 cents or other odd multiplications of such figures. Still, there might be other kinds of

Pengeras that could be in the forms of, say, three pinches of salt, again in odd number of

quantification. The odd figure multiplications for prices are the same for all merchandise that

are regarded as having special powers. Failing to pay this, however, might return in the form

misfortune to the healer. A trader (TR-23) said My late grandfather was a famous medicine

man, no joke. He treated all kinds of illnesses and diseases especially on patients who suffered

from stroke or paralysis. There was a patient who came from Kuala Lumpur and he failed to pay

the Pengeras, and my late grandfather later became paralysed until he died... Clearly, trading in

the Malay-Muslim community is not limited to the exchange of money and goods but also for

services, including traditional medical practices. In this case it is difficult to answer on what

ground someone has to pay for Pengeras. Logically a Bomoh or a medicine person will make no

profit from that tiny amount of money or from three pinches of salt. However the answer given

by the respondent showed that it was from observation that this law was put into place in the

society.

Among the Petua which are still in practice amongst the Malay is the importance of getting the

first customer of the day as soon as possible. The first customer or the first sale of the day is called

264
Goghi.788 For many traders it is important to follow this practice. In other words, the first

customer must be allowed to purchase although the trader will only get a small profit or only for

breaking even. A trader (TR-29) said he did not know where this Petua came from but he

believes the Petua from the old people should be respected because these rules sometimes

become realities, and if we fail to follow, some bad things will happen to us. A lady trader (TR-

43) agreed with the suggestion and further says; Difficult not to believe. If we ignored the

first customer, we will definitely experience a bad business day. Same as the credit thing, you

know? Oddly, this belief was so firmly embedded within the community that the traders

would cross-purchase goods amongst themselves should they fail to get early customers within

the first hour of their bussiness. A trader (TR-14) stressed that If we did not sell for about an

hour, we start selling and buying among us thats normal, here. We give good discounts for the

first customers

Selling things measured in unusual amount of measurements is also a taboo. For example, the

usual measurement for cloth would be one metre and 500 grams for sugar, or the

multiplications of this amount. The taboo would be to sell cloth at a quarter of a metre or say,

300 grams of sugar. A trader (TR-29) related that he learned this Petua from his mother ...Oh,

788
Goghi (Normally used by Kelantanese Malay) means a lure aimed to attract the goodness of the trading day. It
only applies to the first customer for the day or the first sale of the day i.e. the first customer who makes the
transaction or the first sale of the day is called the Goghi for that day. Oddly, the Ghogi is the lure itself, although not in
the sense how a fishing lure would work. In the belief of trading Kelantanese Malays, once the Goghi comes (in the
form of the first customer who makes the first transaction) of in the form of the first transaction (by whoever,
including fellow traders who decided to buy and sell between them), then the Goghi is said to be present and the
business of the day is supposed to run well.

265
she would never sell if a customer ask to buy sugar for RM2.00. She would persuade the

customer to mark it up to at least half a kilo The basis of this taboo is that the subsequent

customers would do the same, and transaction in these unusual amount would depart from the

usual measurement a trader would have always been dealing in. He (TR-29) believes it and

admitted that he had been using the Petua since the first day he was in bussiness. I have been

following what she taught me since I started doing bussiness, like what I just told you The

researcher asked further questions on this belief on Petua and he said it is difficult to say, you

see. When I chose not to believe it, the worst happened. But at the same time we must also

remember that these are all Allh will. I think these Petua taught by our elders must have their

own rationales, but they never told us where they got them from The researcher asked if

practising this Petua had helped his business, he said Praise be to Allh! (Al-amdulillh!), I

have been having customers regularly, never been too bad, really Again, the belief in taboo in

this case was because of the respondents high respect to the elder generation. In Malay

community it is wrong to talk back when the elders ask the youngsters to do something or

prevent them from doing something.

Other Petua includes belief that the practice of reciting of hanging or keeping certain verses

from the Qurn help attract customer to come into their premises. The most popular verse

amongst the traders in Pasar Siti Kadjah is yat Seribu Dinar789 and Surah Ysin790. Other yt

from the Qurn are also believed to be useful for the same reason. The trader (TR-29)

789
65:2-3
790
36:1-83

266
continues; My mother also taught me to recite certain verses from the Qurn during the time

when I open my shop for a days bussiness and when arranging goods for display in the shop.

Usually I would read Surah Ysin or the yat Seribu Dinar

Further investigations revealed that there are well known stories about this verse. It is also

revealed that there are few books on Malay literature suggesting the benefits of this verse.

However, a religious teacher (RE-03) who was interviewed claimed that he never came across

the special place of yat Seribu Dinar as believed by so many people.

Petua is also important for, by practising it, the happiness of the customers are subtly being taken

care of. Butchers and traders selling poultry products practice some Petua that ensure all their

customers are happy with the goods and the service that they receive. This includes the tips that

must be observed during the slaughtering of the chicken. A poultry trader (TR-11) said

difficult to saywell, there are some Petua actually the way you slaughter, the way you make

the cut it must be just above the Halkum throat) the way you stand you cant simply place

your feet as you like on the ground. Then your knife, too, make sure it is razor sharp, cuts with a

single move, the Halkum and both jugular arteries, all in a single move. Recite Bismillhi Allhu

Akbar (In the name of Allh, Allh is the Greatest) The researcher then asked him about the

slaughtering practice from the Islamic point of view. He answered cutting below the Halkum

is allowed (in Islam), but the cow takes a little more time to die The researcher noted that

267
apart from Shari<ah requirement the trader was also concern on the Malay Petua while

slaughtering.

Another butcher (TR-44) agreed with the Malay Petua when slaughtering animals. He believes

that to ensure the meat is Manis (sweet/delicious) and odourless, a butcher must have to wear

clean cloth and to be clean inside-out. The slaughtering knife must never be used for other

purpose. Another respondent (TR-45) believed that the way animals are slaughtered affects the

taste of meat. The animals soul also need to be respected said a respondent (TR-44).

Saughtering must be done in the fullest respect - Adb. He further added said that

slaughtering cannot be carried out haphazardly I performed ablution He also said that

to ensure that the taste of the chicken is good, one must ensure that he puts his ring finger

(Jari Manis literally, the sweetness finger) at the back of the knife.

5.7.5 Pelaris (lures)

Some of the Malay businesspeople believe that certain practices are necessary to attract people to

their premises and buy goods. Literally the word Laris means that all goods to be sold are sold

quickly (as if the customers could not have enough of them) and the satisfaction will be when

goods are purchased within times that are quicker than expected. Thus, Pelaris means something

that cause this condition to take place. They believe that some verses from the Qurn that are

recited by the trader during certain parts of the day might serve as the Pelaris. So might certain

objects. It is different from the advertisements that are commonly used in any bussiness i.e. it is

268
neither because the traders are employing displays in the form of advertisement nor the ways the

goods are arranged. The Pelaris is believed to take the forms of the unseen powers that somehow

draw the customers attention and wanting to purchase. The pelaris can be divided into two

groups that are done in the Islamic ways or otherwise.

The un-Islamic Pelaris is believed to be done by people who are not Islamically educated i.e. the

people who are Jhil (the people who have not been reached by the faith of Islam). A religious

expert (MS-02) says we know some of them are using Pelaris that are prepared by the

Siamese monks (indicating the Pelaris being un-Islamic). They are not educated. It can be used

to do other bad things, too, causing damage to other people that diverts people from your

shop those sorts of things. But we must remember that people can use all sort of satanic ways

and they might get what they want as a result. This is not from the Qurn, one will be closer to

being Jahil.

Such practices, however, are less used nowadays. A respondent (TR-30) says rarely now. Tok

Guru (referring to the current Chief Minister of Kelantan) teaches us to pray only to Allh you

get both, spiritual rewards and profit, both are good. Besides, doing bussiness is a form of Jihd,

so we must ensure that it becomes one. This view was also shared by a female respondent who

has been a medicine woman (TM-02) for a couple of years. She said Sure, there are, no

doubt. You know, people have different teachers and gurus the Jahil will follow the Jahils ways.

Most of the times they go to the monks. If youre struct by one, it will be difficult to be healed

from it, only after several consultations will you see some improvement

269
The lady (TM-02) also shared what she knew about the Pelaris. Traditionally, people keep old

(ancient) coins wrapped in a piece of yellow cloth. Some might also keep a piece of cloth which

they believe is from the black curtain of the Ka<bah (Arabic for a cube the building at the

centre of the Harm Mosque in Mecca). All are used as Pelaris. Possibly because not all of these

items are easily available, traders also use other things as Pelaris. The use of animal skin, for

example, might serve the same purpose. Some dried skins are used to make a part of the huge

drum placed at mosques, the ones used to indicate prayer times and other community events

e.g. congregation, deaths etc, the drum is called the Geduk Masjid (Malay, literally the drum of

the mosque). A respondent (TR-16) said; ... the drum at the mosque, the cow hide was torn,

people took some bits and wrapped them in yellow cloth and used them as Pelaris.

Some of the Pelaris that are taken to be accepted in Islm include prayers, Dhikr, certain chapters

or verses from the Qurn, water that have been recited upon by <Ulam etc. A woman trader

(TR-24) stated that she started ber bussiness by asking blessings from Tok Guru. She followed

what Tok Guru recited from the Holy Qurn and blew onto a bottle of plain water. She sprinkles

the water in her shop. The water was not only for Pelaris but for other purposes such as to be

taken by her children before school examinations. I dont do weird things, I only believe in

God. Sometimes I would take some water to the Tok Gurus mosque and follow what Tok Guru

recites from the Qurn you know, it all depends on what your intentions are. Most people do

this for their children who are taking examinations. Apart from this she would also perform

Sembahyang jat.

270
Some of the Pelaris are very simple and can be done by anybody. The simplest ones are the

recitation of the alawat (from Arabic (plural), literally praise) and the Bismillh. A respondent

(OT-07) who is also the President of the Malay Traders Association said Reciting Bismillh is

a Pelaris. If we recite Bismillh and we clean food with clean water as what Islam teaches us, it will

become a Barakah. You get reward from Allh as well as preparing good food for people. In

addition the alawat and Bismillh might be recited repeatedly. A woman (TR-02) said

usually Ayt Seribu Dinr are used seven Bismillh seven alawat Some other would

simply give alms to poor people and the deed would also become a Pelaris. A respondent (TR-

43) admits; we give out alms, God willing, you get rewards and your life prospers, a women

trader added.

Instead of these, there are people who seek Siamese monks for help. A respondent (TR-25)

explains; Our people use many kinds of Pelaris, some follow the Islamic ways, some do not.

Those who do not usually go to the Siamese monks for help. Educated people do not do so.

They would, instead, go and see the <Ulam and medicine men that follow Islamic principles

Apart from some famous Surah or verses from the Holy Qurn as had been discussed earlier,

there are many others. A man (OT-07), for example, said that the selected verses to start

271
business are from Surah al-Jumu<ah and Surah al-Nasr.791 Verses 9 and 10 of Surah al-Jumu<ah

are recited (normally from memory) followed by the 1st and 2nd verses of Surah al-Nasr. At the

end of the second verse specifically when come to the word Afwj one has to stop from

reciting any yah and need to open the shop straight away. Another respondent (TR-29) also

agreed and he recited a particular verse from Surah Ysin.792 He recites verse 83 of the Surah and

stop at the word Malaktu. He said he would not continue from that word but would recite it

repeatedly. He practises this in the morning when he startes his business everyday. Asked how he

came across this verse he said it was taken from his Mak Angkat (foster mother) who was also a

trader.

The belief in a divine power by the Muslim traders in this study can also be seen from the fact

that many traders hang verses of the Qurn on the walls of their shop. They also memorised

certain verses and recite them at particular times. The popular chapters and verses of the Quran

that were found used by the traders are given below;

a. Surah al-Ftiah793

b. Surah al-Ikhls794, al-Falaq795 and al-Ns796. Popularly known among the Malay as Tiga Qul

(Three Qul chapter as they begin with an Arabic word Qul, i.e. Say! (O Muhammad).

c. Surah of Al-alq797 Verses 2-3, a chapter popularly known among the Malays as yt

Seribu Dinr (The verse of one thousand Dinr).

791
Surah al-Jumu<ah and al-Nasr are the 62nd and 110th Chapter of the Holy Qurn respectively.
792
Surah Ysin is the 36th Chapter of the Holy Qurn
793
1: 1-7
794
112: 1-4
795
113: 1-5
796
114: 1-6

272
d. Surah Ysin798

e. Surah al-Wqi<ah799

f. Surah al-ajj800

An Ustz (MS-02) also agreed that certain verses in the Qurn can be taken as Pelaris in business

Sure, there are indications for Pelaris in the Qurn. For example, we use the verse that refers

to the act of Prophet Abraham when he was building the Ka<abah in the chapter of the Surah al-

ajj. He refers to verse 27 of this surah: And proclaim the Pilgrimage among men: they will

come to thee on foot and (mounted) on every kind of camel, lean on account of journeys

through deep and distant mountain highways. He says: Allh commands people to come to

the place en masse.801 This verse has no direct link to business, rather the signal or the indication

in the verse that is emulated into bussiness is actually on the word Yatna (Arabic- means they

will come). In the context of the verse and the act of performing the ajj, people come to

Mecca using all sorts of transportation or on foot and they come en masse from all parts of the

world. This is the indication that is used as the Pelaris. When taken into the context of a bussiness,

the premises used and managed by a businessperson, would grow to become a great destination

for constumers and they will attend and patronize the shop, giving prosperity to the owner of he

bussiness. He also said that this is a verse on the ajj, but we take the indication of the word

Yatna that will attract people to come and we repeat this word together with the following

797
65: 2-3
798
36: 1-83
799
56: 1-96
800
22: 26-28
801
22:27

273
verse,802 Yash-hadu-man fi<alahum , they will come and they will see with their eyes what

benefits await them , which we take as a hope and prayer that customers would come and

they would marvel at the goods that are on display and decide to buy them, which in turn are

things that they want and need.

A trader was found to be particularly confident that verses 27 and 28 in the chapter of The

ajj, have had positive effects on his bussiness. A respondent (TR-12) said the Bismillh, the

three Qul are the usuals, then recite verse 27 from Surah Al-ajj, the story of Prophet

Abraham there were no people in Mecca then Tok Guru said soyou can see from my

business that will be over by 9 am.

An expert later explained that for anybody whose bussiness flourished during the time when he

used Qurnic resources as Pelaris did not experience such flourishment in business because the

verses were used as Pelaris, rather more on the fact that the Qurn is Barakah. He (MS-01) said :

I think more because these verses are full of Barakah, it is the Qurn. In the verses of the

Qurn are embedded a lot of benefits like Surah Ysin, yt al-Kursi.

The Religious authorities for the Muslim community in Kelantan gave their own views on the

matter of Pelaris. In an interview with a man (RE-01) so called Tok Bilal Nikah Kahwin (One who

manages the marriage affairs in the system) found that he did not deny the fact that many

people believe and use Pelaris. The examples are Surah Al-Wqi<ah and Surah Al-Isr. There are

802
22:28

274
others Dhuha and Isr prayers are believed to open the gates for Rizq. He further said, the Jahil

people would consider looking into un-Islamic ways of Pelaris especially the Siamese medicine

men. A mid-forties man by his side also agreed that there are people who use Sihir for Pelaris. An

expert (MS-02) who has been referred to clarified this issue saying, Surah Al-Waqi<ah is for

good fortune, so if one is a businessman, he must recite this often.

Field observations also showed that it was perfectly normal for traders to nicely frame verses from

Qurn that have been carved or written in various Arabic/Persian calligraphy, and hung on the

walls of business premises or in their homes. Interestingly, Surah Al-Waqi<ah and verses from

Surah Al-ajj were not usually treated in this way, rather, are memorised and recited during

special prayers or to be recited at any time. The practice of hanging the calligraphic forms of the

Surah, however, is not essential and has never been suggested in Islm. A trader (TR-33) believes

that it is not necessary to hang them on the walls for whatever intentions one has: that will be

amounted to Tahyul. The important thing is to recite them for the sole reason that they are parts

of the Qurn. She said that she always begins her working days by reciting Surah al-Ftihah

and yat-al-Kursi. Her views were shared by another respondent (TR-11) who said no,

thats no good (hanging those verses on the walls). Nonsense! You dont make Qurn to become

charms, remember that. The charms are not right, too. Just recite. Godwilling, thank God. If He

does not, we have rewards (for reciting them).

275
The strong Islamic religious knowledge that the traders gained either formally or otherwise has a

great impact on their belief system. This was based basically on their clear understanding of the

Islamic culture as noted by one of the traders interviewed (TR-34);

Sure, we kind of believe in these things, too (Pelaris etc.), we do it by using verses of the

Qurn. We get advice from our <Ulam and Islamic teachers. Otherwise, all can be Shirk. But

she went on saying we do this not because we want to become so rich. If I wanted to be rich, I

should have been a rich person a long time ago I have been trading for over 30 years. We do

good deeds, more than other people (who are not trading) and seek security for ourselves and

our properties. Just recite whatever our teachers taught us. Besides, all prayers and these verses

are mentioned in the Qurn and adth. You know, those sort of things

The notion that Pelaris is well known and often used by traders, not all of them are using it in the

Pasar Siti Khadjah. The majority of them believe that Pelaris is just an effort on the part of the

traders. Fearing that too deep a belief in Pelaris might bring one into Shirk (polytheism), many

choose not to believe it.

In terms of the names Pelaris and Petua, it became apparent that both were not readily distinct in

terms of definition. A respondent says (TR-32); they are interchangeable, you know, like Ive

just explained. Apart from using Petua from his foster mother, he also has his own Petua. He

related that he took them from his relative who traded in Kuala Krai (another town outside Kota

276
Bharu) He taught me to recite the Bismillairrahmnirrahm seven times in one breath during

the time I open my shop, either during the first day of bussiness or everyday.

5.7.6 Pendinding (protection)

Pendinding is a Malay for protection.803 The root word Dinding means wall and when given

syntax, it means the walls that protect everything that falls within them. Again, it is believed some

verses from the Qurn, when recited or memorised will give protection from any bad things that

might happen. Respondent (MS-02) said Actually any verses in the Qurn can be used for

anything, depending on our intentions. Some might use them for doing damage to other

people, some use them as Pelaris. In Surah al-Rm (The Romans), there are verses that people

use to break other peoples marriage, some people use some verses in robbery. Allh said

whoever has good intentions will get rewards and otherwise they will be committing sins. I know

somebody who had been a robber, and then he repented He said to me he used verses from

the Qurn

Further investigation in this study found that respondents also believed in certain practices can

be done and become Pendinding (Protections) from evil deed of humans or other invisible

beings. One trader believes that continuous recital of certain verses of the holy Qurn and Dhikr

(the remembrance of God) as well as Du< will be beneficial in protecting his property, family

803
Something such as a charm or amulet that is believed to serve as protection.

277
and himself. He (RE-02) argued, ...<Aml804 is important in life. Our people used to live in

wooden houses during the time there were no sophisticated devices to stop bad intentions of

people, to break their house, but they were all safe. Why? That was because they were

continually in remembrance of Allh, all the time... In my case I always keep my ablution at all

time. I make sure I do Dhua prayer before I go to work ...

In this study the popular verses or chapters of the Qurn that have been widely accepted as

Pendinding are;

1. Surah al-Ikhls805, al-Falq806, al-Ns807 and al-Kfirn. They are believed to have tremendous
powers and needed to keep reciting them day and night.

2. manarrasl 808

3. Laqad Jakum 809

4. Ayat al-Kursi 810

5. Ayat seribu dinar 811

804
Literally work, activity. The other way to express the way Allah is remembered through prayer, Dhikr and reciting
the holy Qurn.
805
112:1-4
806
113: 1-5
807
114: 1-6
808
2: 285-86
809
9: 128-29
810
2: 255
811
65:2-3

278
Another type of Pendinding found in this study is Wafak.812 A Wafak contains Arabic numerals or

letters arranged into many patterns taking mostly the forms of geometrical arrangements. It

comes in different sizes and shapes but the common ones are found to be in squares and

rectangles. Still there is another type that is called the <Azimat (amulet). In general amulet is

believed to embody supernatural strength that can protect the owner or the bearer. It differs

from Wafak in that the power in <Azimat is believed to be coming from the charms chanted onto

them, although Wafak seemed to be more popular. Both types of Pendinding were observed in

this study.

Respondent (MS-02) explained; Wafak takes the Barakah from all of the letters and numerals

(164 of them) because all of them are in the Qurn. Those who do not understand will tell you

that these are nonsense. In the olden days, Wafak was even used to cure people from illness and

tie them around their waists, called Wafak perut (literally, wafak for the stomach)

Apparently, there are many types of Wafak. A respondent (RE-03) explained that two of them

are Wafak Bismillh and Wafak Alf B T. He believes The Arabic letters that form the Wafak are

of special status These are the letters that form the scripture, as we now read in the Qurn.

No doubt, they are special and have borderless benefits for us. But, we must always remember

that the wafak itself has no power; all protection comes from Allh. This is why the Bomoh cannot

812
Wafak (plural Aufak) means magic square. R.J. Wilkinson) .(1955 )A Malay-English dictionary (romanised), London:
Macmillan, part 1, p 2

279
give you protection, only his efforts. Allh allows it. So, my son, when we say that Wafak gives

protection, thats wrong, and we will be committing Shirk

As a Muslm himself, the respondent strongly believes that only Allh bestows protection to his

family and everything that he owns. This is done by doing Dhikr, performing olt Taajjud. In

this way Allh will give His protection, Perform the Taajjud and Dhikr to ask protection from

Allh. This protects our selves, our property, our homes and our families. This way we will be

saved from the bad intentions of the, bad spirits and witches.

Practitioners interviewed in this study explained that these practices are not contradictory to the

teachings of Islm. A respondent (MS-02) said Such practices can be traced to the times of

Al-Imm Al-Ghazli and is stated in his book Shamsul Ma<rif.813 We follow him, if we are

wrong, he is to be blamed (he was implying) The same practitioner admitted that some

people accused them of going against Islm. His defence obviously swirled around the amount

of knowledge compared between him and those who are accusing him i.e. many do not actually

understand what he is doing; Those are people who are less informed. True, some of them

are university graduates but this is surely not their field of expertise. A book entitled Tj al-

Mulk was banned by the the Ministry of Home Affairs of Malaysia. Practitioners have been

813
The claim of this respondent however is questionable. From the reseachers investigation it was found the original
book was in Arabic and written by Ahmed ibn 'Ali al-Buni. It comes in two volumes. It is one of the most widely read
medieval treatises on talismans, magic square and prayers of protection against magic. It also includes a number of
sciences including <Ilm al-ikmah (knowledge of Wisdom), <Ilm al-Simiyah (study of Divine Names) and Ruaniyat
(spirituality). See his (1928) Shams al-Ma<arif al-Kubra (the Great Sun of Gnosis), Cairo: Muhammad <Ali Subay wa-
'Awlduh

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observed to have referred to this book quite frequently. When asked about this book, he said;

Tj al- Mulk is the translation from Al-Ghazlis Shams al- Ma<rif al-Kubr. Because those

people did not understand this case, they say no. I am sure they will not be able to explain the

history of that book (therefore they wrongly banned that book)

Further investigation revealed that the practice of Pendinding which is said to be Islamic is taken

from specific books. Respondent (RE-03) for example named certain books such as Dar al-

Nafs, Dar al-Najm and al-Mujarrabt which have been well known in Malaysia.

5.7.7 The Belief in Invisible Beings

Animism can also be observed amongst traders who sell medicinal herbs. When collecting herbs

in the forest, one must ask permission from the Guardian/Overseer of the plants. The Guardian

is invisible, a spirit of some sort. Likewise, if water is required for remedial purposes, permission

must be asked from the Guardian of the water. Many of these traders believe that Prophet Ilys is

the Guardian Spirit of all plants whilst Prophet Khidr is the Guardian of all waters. Asking

permission, therefore, becomes an important part of the whole part of their practice up to the

point that the herbs, medicine and medical practices are offered to their customers. Some of the

reasons are related as follows as a respondent (RE-03) responds;

When somebody falls sick and we go and get the plants without asking permission
from Allh and the Guardian, thats a no. Suppose the plants grow on somebodys
land, or in our neighbours garden, we just cannot take without permission. We must
get permission. For these medicinal plants and roots, we must ask from Allh and we

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 must greet with Salm to the Guardian of those roots. Prophet Khidr guards the
water. Prophet Ilys guards all plants. We ask blessings (Barakah) from Allh along
with the miracles that He bestowed on all those prophets, <Ulam, Shuhad (those
who died in the course of defending Islm), Tbi<n and we use these to become our
strength.

An alternative medicine practitioner was interviewed and also agreed that Prophet Ilys and

Khidr are two prominent messengers of Allh from whom permission should be asked before

using trees or water for remedial purposes. A respondent (MS-02) says; Well, about asking

permission from the Guardian, yes? Prophet Khidr is the Guardian for all plants. We recite al-

Ftihah for Prophet Muammad (pbuh), to Prophet Khidr and Prophet Ilys. When we are

collecting the herbs, we must be in valid ablution and we tell them (the prophets) that we are

making effort to cure people, those who are in need for treatment. Thats the way we do it. All

plants have souls, too

Some of the Malays also believe that gems and plants have Khdam (Servant) of their own. This

has no contradiction to Islamic teaching. He (MS-02) said that everything has a master, so as

ourselves. However, Muslims are prohibited to believe that stones or woods can cure illness. He

(TR-23) said that will be Shirk. There must be reasons for things to take place. Stones and

woods are only the reasons, but there must be Allhs will. If Allh forbids, no matter what you

use, thats never going to happen.

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A respondent said that he believed each letter from of the Qurn has its Khdam (servant).The

servant will provide assistance to the reader and Allhs blessing. Words relating to the Qurn

and Gods or Prophet Muammads name are also significant to distinguish Muslim and non-

Muslims shops especially for shops in food courts. This is because Muslim in Kelantan in

particular and Malaysia in general are very particular about the food standard i.e., all or non-

all. He (OT-07) said although they do not appear as religious type of people, they might

become very particular once food and eating are concerned

5.7.8 Western Culture

In this study it was observed that the Western culture also influenced the traders life.

Disobedience against the traditional beliefs and practices was clearly expressed by some

respondents. One respondent said that younger people who are slaughtering, processing and

selling livestock do not adhere themselves to the Adb and other traditional beliefs and practices

anymore, not following the Petua, for example. To some extent, many actually disregard the

Adb of slaughtering animals. A headless chicken, for instant, is a result of less careful

slaughtering and it will be difficult to sell. The Malay would say that it is tak cukup sekor

(Malay less than a chicken). He (TR-45) also related that even the non Muslims are reluctant

to buy such chicken. Also, slaughtering while smoking is viewed negatively and totally not

tolerable by the Malay Muslim community. These are some of the reasons why traders of poultry

product choose to slaughter their chicken themselves.

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The influence of western influence is a concern to many traders. The clothing styles are the

most visible value that can be observed daily. The changing trends of clothing especially among

the younger generations are seen to have been influenced by western culture. A trader (TR-46)

said; Look at the girls, the way they dress-we did not see this before, only the Siamese kids

would use those styles -look, look at them yourself, this is getting worse. This concern did go

a long way. A respondent said that she did not allow her daughter to go to England fearing that

she would be influenced by the western culture. Her daughter achieved good results and was

eligible to enrol into accountancy study in England. She (TR-24) said; Im afraid she would

take off her head cover (because of) befriending the whites

5.7.9 Negative Practices

The trace of the negative practices were found in this study. The number or traders will rise 30%

in the month of Ramahn. The negative aspect of it is when the holy month of Ramahn is

been labelled as the month to make money. The surge in the number of traders clearly

indicate that the time of good trading has come. A trader (TR-29) explained this is the

month of good fortune, we make more money from what we make in other months doesnt

matter about the number or traders or competition. It is basically the month to make money,

really During Ramahn (the fasting month in Muslim calendar) the number of traders in

this market place will rise to 80% from its general capacity of 50%. However ready foods such as

rice, curries and the likes can only be sold after <Asr prayer during this month. Some traders,

however, sell fresh food during lunch hours to Muslims and by doing so, they break the law.

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Nevertheless, the demand for food during lunch hour still exist. For example, there are certain

group of people who are allowed to break their fast, and some others are allowed not to fast.

Such groups include children, elders who are too weak and unfit to fast, people who are sick or

under medications, pregnant and lactating women, Muallaf i.e. people who have just embraced

and several other groups who have been mentioned specifically in the Quran and adith.

However, because selling food to Muslim during the month of Ramaan is against the norm,

premises that provide such services are usually eyed negatively sometimes said to have been

making profit in unlawful ways i.e. arm. On the other hand, the practice of selling food to

able Muslim during the month of Ramaan might well exist, for which the seller and the buyer

are both breaking the Shari<ah laws. The researcher is of the opinion that there must be a

balance in the enforcement of the laws with the needs of some quarters who have the right for

services, especially for city-dwelling folks who might not have time or facilities to provide food

for themselves.

Many of the traders in this study showed that they rely on regular customers. However,

sometimes other traders would try to make effort to win sales through price-cuts and break the

chain of the regular customers. Some traders admitted that this practice takes place although the

effect might be negligible. A trader (TR-29) explained, some people make price cuts when

we are not in bussiness, and steal our regulars. But these do not usually work, especially if they

made ridiculous cuts when youre in bussiness you can cut so much, more than that, you dont

have bussiness. So these people are risk takers, and serve them right! It didnt take long before

285
our regulars came back to us. I have quarrelled over such things, but give it back to Allh, it

might be their Rizq

There was a certain lack of knowledge on the technical financial operations especially when

considering high risk investments involving the internet. At one point, these schemes were

pronounced as arm by the Fatw Council. Before that took place, internet investment schemes

were well known and welcomed by some traders. A trader insisted that he was interested to join

in because he was promised a much higher profit from any other schemes; that he would receive

RM420.00 a week in return for his RM120.00 investment. Although he was fully aware that the

investment scheme was doubtful from the Islamic perspective, he was still interested to join

because the invested amount was too small compared to the return he would get just in a weeks

time. He further said that he would not mind if he lost the RM120.00 because it was rather a

small amount of money.

5.8 Businesspersons Daily Practice

5.8.1 Doing business as a form of worship

Respondents in the study stressed the importance to believe in God and to do good deeds. A

good servant of Allh will carry these responsibilities through prayers, attend the Jam<ah prayers,

alms giving and recite the Qurn. A respondent (TR-14) admitted that ; trading people must

be close to Allh, if one does not trade so much, he must do some reflections Some traders

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were found to be very committed in maintaining congregational prayers in all the five times daily

prayers. This was usually done at the nearby mosque. When working out of their trading

permisses, as much as possible they would ensure to join congregational prayers in mosque

elsewhere. For some, this meant that they have to change their nature of bussiness e.g. by

becoming a supplier rather than a retailer. By doing so, they have more time to ensure

congregational prayers will be attended consistently. One (TR-32) said:

... I have done this for the last 15 years, all five (daily prayers), without fail. That was why I

changed from retailing to supplying. Well, I did not stop trading completely; I would ask my

neighbour to trade on my behalf when I attend prayers

When asked as to why he takes congregational prayers seriously, he further said:

There is the feelings where I become very relaxed and blessed...actually the best thing in our

lives is when we are blessed in all sorts of work we do.

Another businessman was also committed to performing congregational prayers. Every time the

call for prayer was heard he asked his daughter who has her own premise nearby to help him

while he was away in the mosque. He believed (from his own experience) that he has been

getting profit in his business, all because he had maintained discipline in attending

congregational prayers. He (RE-02) said,

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 Rizq comes to us through prayers. I remember one time when I did not make any sale but

just after a prayer someone approached me and asked if he can get a gemstone from me...you

see how easy something comes to me because of the prayer? I never fail to do it since.

Other than keeping their five times daily prayer some other respondents were found to keep

practising local religious rituals especially the recitation of the Ysin, Talil and alt al Hjah.

These rituals are for asking blessings from Allh. The market cooperative body offers the

religious service for Ysin recital and alt al Hjah to its members. These are arranged amongst

the market community members to ask Allhs blessings and to chase out bad spirits and the

practice of Sihir. A cooperative council member said; we offer service to recite Surah Yasn for

those who have just started business here. At the same time we also come (to recite Surah Yasn)

if we were invited ... When asked the purpose of Surah Yasn recital he said To ask Allhs

blessing but for some people this is the way of chasing out black spirits and to get rid of

witchcraft

Sembahyang Hajt is usually done in a place where business will be established. Other than doing

it before any business commences, it is also organised to be done every year. It is here they recite

Surah Yasn and perform alt al Hjah communally. Usually plain water in bottles are provided

during alt al-Hajt and Yasn recital programme. This water is called Air Yasn (Yasn water).

Air Yasn will be sprinkled in the shop to avoid magic or to ask blessings. A trader (TR-43) said,

We do this when starting a bussiness, almost all of us do this around here. We always do this,

288
olat al-Hajt, and also the one held yearly. For those who did not attend, we will also sprinkle

into their shops. You know, this is the Islamic way of making a Pelaris. When asked where women

would always pray one respondent replied Usually they pray here in their shop. It is good any

way to ask Allhs blessings.

A respondent (MS-02) believes certain places are believed to be unsuitable for building. Spirits

are to be in such places and they create havoc. If it was a shop building visitors will not be

attracted to come. The owners, too will not feel comfortable. Nevertheless this place could be

purified using certain chapters or phrases from the Qurn. The water in which the Qurn was

read on it will be sprinkled inside the premise and its vicinity.

In this study traders were also asked about their responsibilities as Muslims while carrying out

business activities. Among the significant practices are their effort to ensure that the <Aqd takes

place, ensure accurate measurement and weight and to maintain cleanliness. In the case of <Aqd

there are traders (TR-43 and TR-33) who chose to say " I sell this cloth for a piece of shirt or a

pair of Baju Kurung" instead of using the measurement such as "I sell two metres of cloth." This is

important because the traders who were interviewed said they get the supplies from the

wholesalers. Usually they were not sure the exact amount of goods they received. The only thing

they know confidently would be the intention the cloth will be turned into e.g. a piece of shirt or

a pair of Baju Melayu or whatever it is likely to be. Respondents (TR-33) said I put serious

consideration on the <Aqd. It makes me feel free from the sense of guilt. What I do is to refer to

what is the cloth is used for. I will do the Ijb by saying I sell to you this cloth which is fit for a pair

289
of Baju Kurung...I will not say it in meters or yards because most of the cloth I sell here were cut

elsewhere...

Business is part of performing a duty as Muslims. An elderly (RE-02) was observed advising two

teenagers on the importance of respecting elders especially parents. He also advised them on the

importance of knowledge and work as Muslims. He recited a few yt from the Holy Qurn and

adth. When the researcher approached him and told him about the research, this man was

very happy to share his views. He said he was happy to advise people on Islm and good deeds in

every opportunity. He said; ...there is nothing impossible in life including to carry out our duty

as Allhs servants; we are here on earth to worship Allh (He recited an yah from the Holy

Qurn) 814 This world can only be safe in the hands of good people ...815 That is why I always

advise people to follow Islm You can find many Ustz in Surau and mosques but what about

these people in the streets? Who would advise them?. I am happy doing my duty as a Muslim, I

can go home now because I have made RM1000.00 from the sale of gemstone I did this

morning...

5.8.2 Looking for Barakah

Besides having a strong understanding of the Islamic culture, the traders at Pasar Siti Khadijah

realise the importance of practising it in their daily duties. They also believe in the consequences

814
21:105 Before this We wrote in the Psalms, after the Message (given to Moses): My
servants the righteous, shall inherit the earth."
815
51:57

290
they would face by neglecting it. They admitted that they feel blessed by adhering to Islamic

beliefs. A man in his 40s (TR-23) commented:

I can feel the Barakah in my life by adhering to Islamic teachings. You can see that I am not

running a big business (he was referring to his small business dealing with traditional remedies

and herbs). But al-amdulillh (Praise Allh) I own a car, I stay in my own house that I built

from proceeds of my sales and my children all go to school. It is difficult to say but I believe the

Barakah is there

The other man in his 60s (TR-46) commented; I went to Mecca for ajj a couple of years

ago (He went there through an agent which charge higher than the Tabung ji), now I am

going again with my wifeI went there several more times for <Umrh. If we believe in Allh,

InsyAllh He blesses us and rewards us an easy life

The practices of Islamic culture i.e. in the adherence of the people to the five pillars of Islm, specifically

the daily prayers, were always present and clearly visible. They relate their activities in doing

business with <Aml in which they are responsible before God. They also suggested that they carry

out legitimate practices in business to get Barakah from their good deeds. This was indicated by a

woman in her 40s (TR-43); you can see some traders perform the daily prayer in their tiny

and compact place of trade. They believe this is a way to get Barakah. This is also one way to chase

out bad spirits...

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Another respondent (RE-02) said that the most important thing in bussiness is Barakah. He is a

small trader but was successfully in bringing up his 10 children, owns a car and, most

importantly, have a reasonably good house. He was looking forward to performing ajj . He

believes that all of those rewards were from Allhs blessing; ...I have twelve children, one of

them is a medical doctor and two are afidz while the youngest one is a lawyer...I believe all these

are because of Barakah... Furthermore he believes that looking for Barakah distinguishes the

Muslims concept of work from that of the non Muslims. That is why we are asked to recite

Bismillirramnirram when we want to do somethinglets say to drink, without reciting it we

still can quench our thirst but why are we still asked to do so? That is because Muslims look for

Barakah in every aspect of life...

One respondent admits that Barakah comes to his life in many different ways. Firstly his business

started very small. After four years he believes his business is now valued at nearly RM500,000.

Secondly, from the small business that he runs, he now owns a house and being is by customers.

He (TR-35) stated; Brother, this is not what I think, this is actually happening to me! I have

my own house I made a sale for somebody, then he returned and gave me a car, all paid for!

You think that is funny?

Being Ikhls (sincere) to customers was also believed as a way to gain Barakah as a respondent

(TR-24) admited; If we are sincere, Rizq comes easily She said that Barakah does not only

292
mean a success in bussiness, but this also includes having a nice family. She said that her children

never create problems, they listen to me...

Islm advises its followers to be meticulous in measurements. A trader said that he takes

measurements seriously. Every time he weighs fish, he makes sure that it always exceeds the

amount asked, just to be sure that the customer gets whatever he asked for. He (TR-29) said

I add some gift (adaqah) each time I make a sale I have always done this: people know I

give more than what the customers pay He said he was seeking Barakah from Allh by

practising this. He said I can feel Barakah in my life. My heart is free, I dont worry about

anything in the world..

5.9 Conclusion

This chapter investigated the data collected from the subjects and discussed these from various

sources and perspectives. The crucial focus of this study was to gather all the information gained

in the interviews, observations and documents about the businesspersons culture in trade. In

order to establish reliability and validity of the case under study, the data were collected from

several sources. The businesspersons interpretations were the main focus. The way they

interpreted their experiences, understandings, feelings and beliefs about their trading culture

formed the main element of the study. Their everyday practices in trade were then observed.

The documents collected in these two stages were then discussed in conjunction with a Shari<ah

perspective.

293
To assist in clarifying the complex matters which confused many businesspeople, three Muslim

scholars were included among the subjects as experts. As the investigation continued, more

information was collected from other sources directly involved with the businesspeople. This

widened the scope and enriched the discussion of the case study and facilitated the development

of the core issues for the study. Major themes identified and focussed on in the discussion

include different cultural influences, the Malay Muslim society and their everyday practice in

trade. Other themes covered were the subjects motives for being involved in trade, their

religious etiquette, their religious obligations as Muslims, their positive attitudes and negative

conduct in trade. The discussion of the case study was required to provide information to answer

the research questions that were developed in the first chapter. It also assisted in the formation

of the concluding remarks in the final chapter that generates a theory concerning the

influence of culture on Muslim businesspeople.

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 Chapter 6

Research Themes, Enquiry Statements and Propositions

6.0 Introduction

The factors that influence the culture of Malay businesspeople were described in the previous

chapter. Here, the author will discuss the factors in detail. The chapter is divided into two

sections. The first part examines the main themes of the study. Part two addresses the two

research questions and four propositions that were developed during the data collection and

analysis. As a result, the discussion given in these sections will answer the research questions that

were developed in the earlier stage of this research in relation to the objectives of this study.

6.1 Part One: The construction of the tree index system816

This section focuses on how NVivo manages the data to construct the tree index system.

Through the process of data analysis, all the documents collected were transcribed and analysed

using NVivo. These data were typed and stored into an NVivo portal document.

816
A system developed in understanding the context of events from a raw verbatim transcripts and filed notes. These
early materials might not provide direct conclusions because they are ...the undigested complexity of reality... See:
M.Q. Patton(2002)Qualitative Evaluation and Research Method, 3rd Edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, p 463. The
process to code and index the content of texts is a classification process in order to make sense of them and to bring
order to the complicated contents in texts. Tagging texts with codes or indices helps a researcher retrieve and
highlight important points later.

295
Attempts were made to investigate the documents and categorize them according to their similar

themes. At this stage, the initial tree index system was constructed and all relevant documents

were indexed at their nodes. As more data were transcribed and categorised, ideas were

developed and this led to the modification of the initial tree index system. Memos were

continuously stored to assist thinking about the relationships between new developing themes.

At the same time, memos noted in the field work were referred to. This was important to ensure

the data were analysed consistently inline with the data gathered in the field. Retrieving and

comparing the coded texts allowed the researcher to be more systematic in developing concepts.

The coded text units were given names depending on their themes. As the data analysis

continued, other similar themes were placed together under their specific groups. Categories

emerging through the initial coding process of this study are listed in figure 6.1 as follows;

Figure 6.1: Initial Categories (Open Coding)

1. Different Cultural Influences

Islm

Hindu

Malay (traditional)

Post-colonial

Animism

2. Malay-Muslim Background
a. male
b. female
c. Life experience with different cultures
d. Types of Business

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3. Everyday Practices in Business

a. Reasons for involvement in business

Family pride
Love of doing business
Desire to be a successful businesspeople
National pride
Religious reasons

b. Religious obligation.

Daily prayers
Fasting
Free gender mixing
The concept of Al-Bay<

c. Business etiquette

Mixed events (Different genders)

Daily attire
Interaction with customers
Fair price
Weight and Scale

d. Positive attitudes

Confident
Raise socio-economic status
Doing Jihd
Customs and traditions

e. Negative behaviours

Betting
Gambling
Failures to pay debts
Loan shark money lending
Un-Islamic loans

297
As more documents were coded and categorised, the tree index system expanded. NVivo refers

to hierarchical structure as that makes up the tree. The single top category is known as a root.

All the categories that are linked immediately below the root are called child nodes of the root.

When the child node is extended to another level below, the nodes of the new level refer to the

previous level as parent nodes. The children of the children nodes are known as siblings

nodes. For this study, the first level node of the root of the tree was identified as Muslim

businesspeople. It was then broken down into its child nodes: Influence of different cultures in

trades, Malay-Muslim society and traders everyday practices in business. The structure of the

tree index system with the node address is shown below:

Figure 6.2: Tree Index System

Muslm Businesspeople

Different cultural influences Malay-Muslim society Everyday practice in trade

Fisher notes that the top of the tree shows a more general category.817 As the structure moves in

a top-down direction, it soon led to more specific areas of investigation. Richards and Richards

claimed that the structure of the tree system helps the reader to see the sub sections under a

more major section.818 The data and ideas are organised in hierarchical structure so that the

conceptual structure can be built up and explored. References are stored as memos at the nodes

817
See his (1997)Qualitative Computing: Using Software for Qualitative Data Analysis,.Brookfield, USA.), p112

298
which can be retrieved when needed. For this study, the sub-tree for the different cultural

influences with its node address was identified as shown in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Sub-tree for different cultural influences

Malay Traditional Society

Islamic culture Hindu-Buddhism

Animism
Post-colonial culture

The sub-tree for Malay-Muslim society branch into traders background, and then to gender

and so on as seen in the figure 6.4.

818
L. Richards and T.J. Richard, (1991) The Nudist Qualitative data Analysis System ,' Qualitative Sociology 4, (14); pp
310-313

299
 Figure 6.4: Sub-tree for Malay-Muslim society

Malay-Muslim Society

Traders background

Gender
Female

Male

Life experience with

Different culture

Types of business Types of Business

Finally, the sub-tree for the traders everyday practices in business branches into their more

specific themes. The documents on prayer as discussed earlier were indexed at a node called

prayer under its parent node called religious obligations to form the sibling node as shown in

figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: Sub-tree for everyday practices of traders in business

Religious obligations Etiquette

Reason for getting
involved
Negative
Positive attitudes behaviours

Prayer

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At this stage, NVivo was able to provide the initial visual display of the coding tree based on the

hierarchical organisation. Kelle argues that in constructing the tree system, the researchers

thinking should progress from a general to a more specific area of investigation.819

The strength of NVivo is that it enables the researcher to create, delete, shift and recognise the

whole data in the tree index. NVivo also helps to develop new themes, build relationship by

cross-referencing, clarify the new emerging ideas, testing them against other themes and finally

developing a theory. NVivo also continuously manages, explores and searches the text of

document and generates reports including statistical summaries. The reports are used in this

study to address the research statements and propositions put forward earlier.

It can be summarised that the tree index system enables the researcher to investigate and

retrieve all information needed, supporting the discussion of the case study in Chapter five. The

findings of the case study are highlighted in the answers of the two research enquiry statements

and four propositions. The research enquiries and the prepositions in this study were important

and acted as a frame to the objectives and research questions. This is discussed in the following

section.

6.2 Part Two: Research inquiry statement and propositions.

819
See his, (1995) Computer Aided Qualitative Data Analysis: Theory, Methods and Practice, London: Sage, p82

301
Other than research inquiry statements, the objectives and the research questions the author has

had four propositions in mind that are going to be discussed in this chapter. To begin with the

author will discuss the two enquiry statements and followed with the four propositions;

6.2.1 To what extent the culture influences the Malay Muslim.

The study revealed that there are a number of cultural influences on the Malay Muslim in the

market place being studied. They are Islamic, Malay Traditional culture (Animism), Hindu-

Buddhism and Post-Colonial culture. Beside these main cultures they were also influenced by

Siamese influences the fact that the Thai border is very close to the area under study.

Table 6.1: Different levels of Cultural Influences

Islamic Culture This is the dominant culture of the traders. Reflected in their
practice while at work and outside work. The adherence to daily
prayer is one evidence that can be trusted.
Malay-Traditional Culture It is still practised but in lesser degree. Most of the influences are
Animism and the <dat more in the beliefs than in practice.

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 Very significant in the belief such as the belief in Semangat (spirit)
. Many continue to maintain the animistic belief but only few
put them into practice. Similarly the practice of the <dat is
strong and can be evident in the way young generations respect
the belief of the older generation

Hinduism-Buddhism Weak but can still be traced such as the importance of certain
colours of cloth for specific reasons.
Post-colonial culture Has had a strong influence in business such as in business
competition and neglecting religious obligation while at work

6.2.2 The cultural beliefs and practices of the Malay Businesspeople in the market place of Pasar
Siti Khadjah

The focus of this research inquiry statement was on beliefs and practices of the businesspeople in

relation to each cultural influence. In the first research enquiry statement it was mentioned that

four cultural influences were identified as being influential on businesspeople under study.

These beliefs and practices were explored during the interviews, observations and documents

over the period of three years in accumulation. Islamic culture has the most influential structure

on the beliefs and practices of the businesspeople. Their beliefs and practices are illustrated in

the table below;

Table 6.2: Beliefs and Practices of Islamic Culture

1. Businesspeople and belief All the businesspeople involved strongly believe

in the khirah (Hereafter) in the Hereafter. They maintain their integrity
and accountability on all aspects of works

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 including business matters.

2. The belief in Barakah They relate their activities in doing business with
<Amal in which they are responsible before God.
They also suggested that they follow the good
bussiness ethics to get Barakah from their good
works. Barakah does not only mean a success in
bussiness, but this also includes having a nice
family. Barakah is gained from many ways such as
being honest in business. Worshipping Allh
through prayers, Du<, adaqah are also things
where Barakah comes through.
3. Prayers The daily prayers, particularly the uhr and <Asr
prayers were performed openly, either in the trading
premises (shops), the little prayer rooms within the market
system, Surau or in the mosque (Masjid al-Baraah). The Friday
prayers were performed by men in the other mosque
which is 10 minutes walk.
4. Zakh (Alms giving) and adaqah The corporation (Ko-Siti) collects Zakh and
adaqah and distribute them to the needy such as to the
orphans
5. Measurements and weights Ensure accurate measurement and weights and to
maintain cleanliness.
6. <qd Effort to ensure that the <qd takes place in transactions

7.Reciting Bismillhirramnirram Reciting Bismillhirramnirram to do something because

Muslims look for Barakah in every aspect of life. Barakah
distinguishes the Muslims concept of work from that of
the non Muslims

8. Businesspeople and belief in Businesspeople with a strong belief in the monotheism

monotheism (Allh ) admitted that Allh is The Supreme power and holds
justice. They believe that they cannot conceal any thing
from His knowledge because He knows every single thing.
They believed that Rizq is Allhs blessing and humans are
required to work. They also believe that certain things in

beliefs and practices will be considered as committing Shirk

(associating partners with Him).

304
9. Communication Traders and buyers were observed exchanging Salm
before or after the transaction took place.
10. Muslim attire Conformed with the Shari<ah or at least reasonably
acceptable from the Malay-Muslim point of view.

Even though Malaysia has been an independent country for more than forty years, aspects of the

Colonial culture are still practised in the Malay society but in a lesser degree. The western culture

being practised is illustrated in the following table.

Table 6.3: Beliefs and practices of Post-Colonial Culture

Disobedience against traditional Younger people who are slaughtering, processing

beliefs and practices and selling livestocks do not adhere themselves to
the Adb and other traditional beliefs and practices
anymore, not following the Petua.
Avoiding Adb A number of them break the chain of the regular
customers of other traders. In such cases, Adb
which is an essential quality of a Muslim was put
behind in order in favour of money in higher
profit. The Malay Adt also teach people to be
polite and give respect to family members and
friends.

Religious obligations Neglecting prayers and fasting. It indicates the

presence of the influence of secularism where
religious practice is not part of worldly practice,
or has a lower priority.
Clothing styles The changing trends of clothing especially among
the younger generations is seen to have been
influenced by western culture

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While these influences are relatively modern, this study also brought examples of some animistic

beliefs dating back hundreds of decades. In this study a number of influences and practices

originating from animistic culture were identified. Although this culture dated back a long time

ago even before the advent of Islm in the Malay Archipelago, the practice can still be traced in

the Malay business society today. They come in the forms as follows;

Table 6.4: Animistic Beliefs and Practices.

Animistic Beliefs and Practices Some businesspeople involved claimed that they
only hear stories while others denied practising
animism. Some believed that some goods have
souls. Most traders of traditional Malay weapons
and gem stones admitted the importance of
Semangat in their goods. Similar belief was also
detected among the traders of herbal remedies
i.e., the presence of Semangat.
The existence of magic in their business
environment also indicated that animism is still an
influential element in the Malay daily life.

Although animistic practices can still be traced among the Malay traders, they have to be

differentiated from the Malay traditional culture. While animistic practice concerns the unseen

power in living and dead things, the Malay traditional culture, on the other hand, is more on the

practical aspects of the needs of the community. It promotes society building such as to unite the

community and develops a sense of respect to elders and all human beings at large. The beliefs

and practices of the Malay traditional culture are summarised below;

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 Table 6.5: Beliefs and Practices of Malay Traditional Culture

1. <Adt (Traditional norms) The values of <Adt in the Malay community

were observed in the way they feel responsible
to the family as well the society. One clear
example was the case where a trader reported
that his wife sacrificed to the family by giving up
her job as a trader and sold off her shop.
In non verbal communication pointing to
anything with ones foot is not acceptable and is
considered as offensive.

2. Budi (Ideal behaviour) The Malay people in this study very much
adhered to the values of Budi. This can be seen
in their strong respect and courtesy to the
elderly. With this respect the elderly are given
higher status in their community and acted as
problem solvers for them.

3. Extended Family Many Malays are very concerned about the

welfare of their family especially their parents.
The eldest child takes more responsibility
compared to younger ones.
4. Strong community spirit This value comes with the fact that people in a
community are related to each other. Because
of this they are concerned for each other. Those who
are not adhering to normal norms which are
practised especially on religious matters will only
considered as non-practising.

It demonstrates that the Malay traditional culture is still popular in everyday practices among the

Malay. Although still popular it comes into mixture with Hindu-Buddhist belief. This belief is

illustrated below.

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 Table 6.6: Belief and Practice of Hindu-Buddhist Culture

Hindu-Buddhist Culture The use of magic spells which were mixed

with some Animistic influence.
Certain colour of cloth was used to wrap
certain goods such as gems and iron products.

Apart from Hindu-Buddhist culture the fact that Kelantan and Thailand are neighbouring areas

is traded off with the emergence of Siamese culture in the Malay community. They are illustrated

below;

Table 6.7: The Practice of Siamese Culture

Siamese Culture Consulting Siamese Bomoh in certain business

matters particularly in promoting the business or
to suffocate other businesses. Siamese Bomoh
became the highlight in this case because the
Siamese community seems the only major non-
Muslim culture and faith in and around the Pasar
Siti Khadjah.

Table 6.8: Difficulties faced by Muslim women businesspersons

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Clothing style The well accepted cloth are traditional styles such as Baju Kurung and
Kebaya.
Communication with They try not to come too close to men especially when he shops alone.
male customers
Married women They have been given greater responsibility at home especially
women with young children. Guided by the Shar<ah, they
always put husbands and children as priority. Children will stay
with their grandparents or relatives when the parents are not around.
Choice of wives Most of them are married to men with the same interest.

Community perception The Malay community is developed from a small community and as
such, the group remain cohesive, even after a long process of
modernisation. Community members understand that
businesspersons especially women cannot dominate in every special
occasion such as marriage gathering because they have
their own responsibility. For example they have to look after the
children while their husbands are out working. It is also usual that they tag
along with their husbands. To maintain close relationships with the
community they will make times during which they visit and reach out
to other friends and relatives who they have parted over the last year.
Such occasions are during the two <Eid and wedding receptions.

6.3 Propositions of research

The propositions help to support the investigation and important tools in providing a design

framework of this research. The discussion of the above different cultural influences were

further analysed and explained within the contexts of the four propositions below.

6.3.1 They have a mixture of interpretations on certain culture

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The businesspersons understudy were found to have a mixture of interpretations for things

religious and have strong links to the Shar<ah and those that are purely cultural- and perhaps

also ethnic-based. The interplay between faith and culture obviously a mixture of different

cultures remain fresh and readily observable in Pasar Siti Khadjah. The interplay is shown in

the following examples

Iron spirit Red, yellow and black colour cloth were used to
wrap extra-ordinary merchandise such as old
metal products and gem stones. Metal products,
especially traditional Malay metal weaponry such
as Kris are believed to be more powerful if the
iron spirits were well treated. Such belief, however,
has no Shar<ah basis and unanimated objects
other than man has no soul. However, seeing it
from a completely different angle, such respects,
although driven by a false notion of these metals
being powerful, help in making handling of
these sharp items to a minimum, thus avoiding
possible injuries.

Pantang larang (Malay Taboo) A few Malay traders believed in selling things
measured in unusual amount of measurements.
It is believed if this was permitted the rest of
customers were going to do the same. It is a taboo
to give credits to the first customers of the day

Gogh .Means Pembuka (the opener) Most traders believed the importance of getting
generally used in the Kelantan Malay Business the first customer of the day as soon as possible to
community avoid bad luck on their business on that day.
<Azimat (Amulet) A small number of traders believed in old coins, a
cut of buffalo skinhide (Belulang) and a small
piece of cloth from the Kiswah (the cloth used to

310
 cover the Ka<abah). Either of the items is kept in a
business premise believing that it will bring money
into the premise
Petua (Malay tips) Business start with certain verses of the Qurn
and they were recited in special way.

6.3.2 They have reasons on the different culture they practise.

Further investigation particularly through the interview sessions found that the opposite culture

they adhered to was arguably acceptable depending on the reason they gave to back-up their

arguments. The reasons they gave are illustrated below;

Part of Usaha Rather than come up with religious-based

reasons, some traders chose to opt for this reason,
which sometimes are unacceptable as far as the
Shar<ah teaching is concerned.
The belief/practice is valid as shown in Among the books are; Parti Rahsia and Taj
a specific Malay Kitb al-Mulk820
Under the advice of an Ustz Specific case was on the issue of the specific
verses from the Qurn for Peraih reasons. Similarly
on the issue of using Wafak for various reasons
including in business.
Under the advice of a Bomoh The use of Air Tawar (holy water) for family,
home and business premise. Certain Bomohs
are also capable of preparing Wafak to be used
as Peraih (lures) and Pendinding (Protector).
6.3.3 The influence of environment

820
H. Ishak ( 1883) Taj al-Mulk, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: Percetakan al-Muarif Sdn.Bhd; This book is among the
oldest texts for Malay medicine and became the reference for later Malay writers in this field. It was written in Jawi
script (an Arabic alphabet adapted for writing the Malay language) with 134 pages containing Petua (Malay tips) on
various subject matters such as astrology, ways of preparing <Azimat, defeating enemies, building a house, opening up
new lands, interpretation of dreams and so on. It was translated into Malay by Tuan Haji Wan Hassan ibn Sheikh Tuan
Ishak Fatani in 1249H (1886CE) in Mecca during the Achehnese Muslim empire; N.M. Ismail(1946) (Kitab Parti
Rahsia,Kota Bharu, Kelantan: Percetakan al-Ahliyyah Sdn.Bhd. This book also discusses many aspects on the Malay
Petua. It was also written in Jawi script.

311
The environment plays an important role in shaping the culture of the businesspeople under

study. It helped Islm to become the dominant culture of the traders. The dominant factors of

the environment which appeared significant for the Islamic culture to take place are illustrated

below;

The role of Tok Guru. Bottles of water were brought in front of Tok
Guru for Barakah from his Du<.
Fridays speech by the Chief Minister His speech touch on many aspects such as on
politics, economics, social issues, faith and the
Shara<h. They are all based on selected verses of
the Qurn recited on that Friday morning.
The role of mosques nearby It is a place to collect adaqah from the traders.

Parents occasionally ask the Imm to pray and to

recite Surah Ysn with them for their childrens
success in examination.
The mosque organise Majlis Kesyukuran
(Gathering) when it is needed.

The Khutbah on Friday prayers tackle many issues

including the role of Zakh, adaqah, business ethics and
so on.
Questions with regard to doubtful matters
including trade matters are asked for clarification
from Ustz teaching in the mosque

Prayer facilities Facilities such as places for ablution and washing

rooms help people to perform prayers
conveniently.
The role of The principal By-Laws (Trades, Covering the body (Tutup <Aurat), respecting the
Businesses and Industries) zn,

312
Implementation squad from the Kota Bharu It plays roles as in the implementation of isbah in
Municipal council a marketplace.821

The role of the Secretarial Office of Posters, fliers and other communication to
Kota Bharu Bandaraya Islam (Islamic city) improve peoples awareness of the business
environment

6.3.4 Their behaviour in the business environment is dominantly influenced by the teaching of
Islm.

Islamic teachings were not only applied to the business activities such as selling and buying. In

this study it appeared that the Islamic values were also applied to other fields such as on the

welfare and on the community needs other than the ordinary religious obligations. These are

illustrated below;

Communication Greetings were always with Salm and hand shakes

unless with the opposite gender. The words of al-
amdulillh, Insh Allh were frequently heard in
the communication. Interestingly some traders
were observed reciting Bismillirra-mnirram
each time they begin a new activity for each
transaction e.g. measuring and cutting clothes.
Attire In general their attire conformed with the
Shari<ah. Most of the tradeswomen wore cloth
821
The Hisbah is a religious institution under the authority of the state. The purpose of this is to safeguard society from
deviance, protect the faith, and ensure the welfare of the people in both religious and worldly matters according to
the Law of Allah. The concept of Hisbah lies in the Quranic conjunction enjoining the good and forbidding the
evils (3:104). It should not be limited to economic and commercial matters alone. See, Rosly, S. A. Al-Hisbah as a
Foundation of Sharia'ah Auditing, http://www.scribd.com/doc/4956906/AlHisbah. (21.01.2001)

313
 which was typically accepted in this region such
as Baju Kurung and Kebaya. They were also wear
ing scarf to cover their head.
<Aqd, (Ijab and Qabul)822 Most of the traders were observed to do the <Aqd
with the customers. They said that verbally
although the mere fact that the wares were openly
displayed suggest they are being offered for sale. In
normal practice the seller will first state his/her
willingness to sell a good with a specific price.
However it is interesting to see that buyers were
stating their willingness to buy before the sellers
pronounced their willingness to sell.
Weight and measure The traders that were interviewed
understand the importance of ensuring the
precise weight and measures; these are clearly
indicated by the Holy Qurn.
The belief in Barakah The traders believe Barakah in every day life
and that Barakah can be gained through
prayers, adaqah, and being just in doing business.
Financial assistance Most of the traders start their business from small
capitals they gained from family members and
friends. To avoid Rib most of them joint the
Kutu circle especially to buy stocks
and for personal/family needs.
Al-Qarh al-asan is an Islamic lending scheme
which aims to help the market community
members by giving them soft loans.
Ba<y al-Murbaah- helps the community to
get their stock over an extended scheduled time.

822
<Aqd (a verbal treaty) is a symbol of willingness between the party that involve.Ijab and Qabul that signify each
transaction is done with full agreement and awareness of both parties.

314
Other religious needs <Umrah fund is opened for those who plan to go to
Mecca for performing <Umrah.

The welfare fund gives health benefits to

trading members such as hospital allowance.
Certain amount of money will also be given
to the children of the members if they were
doing well in their education.

The corporation body collects Zakh and

adaqah and distributes them to the needy.

6.4 The Culture of the Malay-Muslim Businessperson

The main focus of this section is to conclude the chapter with steps being taken in

understanding the culture of the Malay people in business. The conclusion is generated from

the data collected throughout the study and will act as a summary to the phenomenon being

studied.

315
6.4.1 The Process

Systematic data collection and the way it has been analysed were important as have been

discussed earlier in the third chapter. The three coding modes namely; open, axial and

selective823 were applied during the analysis process before findings of this research were

reached. All aspects of the phenomenon being studied were represented by the respondents

who were selected using the purposive sampling approach. The researcher ensured that all data

collected were sufficient to represent variations of the phenomenon.824 To achieve a conclusion

about the culture of businesspersons being studied six steps were developed and this is illustrated

in Figure 6.1;

823
This process is suggested by Strauss and Corbin. See: A. Strauss And J. Corbin (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research:
Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, London: Sage Publication,p23
824
B.L. Berg (1989) Qualitative Research Methods for Social Sciences. London: Allyn and Bacon
(1989), p110

316
 Figure 6.6 The Process to the In sign of the Malay Culture in Business.

Stage 1: Different Influences of Culture

Understanding the Malay-Muslim Society

Stage 2:

Stage 3: Understanding the businessperson as an individual

Stage 4: Everyday Practice in Business

Stage 5
Shari<ah Values

Able to cope Unable to cope

Stage 6:

Formation of the Malay-Muslim Culture in Business

Devoted Muslim Strong Weak reason Socially

businesspersons reason identifiers active
identifiers participants

317
6.4.1.1 Stage One: Different Influences of Culture

It began with the setting of the background of the community by first acknowledging the long

process of inter-influence of many faiths and cultures that shaped the current community the

Malay Archipelago in general, and in Malaysia and Kelantan in particular. Finally, the resultant

example of this long process was observed to make up the backbone of this study, and this took

place in Pasar Siti Khadijah in the Malaysian state of Kelantan.

In the initial stages of the study five main cultural influences were identified. These are Animism,

Hinduism-Buddhism, Islm, Traditional Malay culture and customs and Colonial remnants, all

of which have resulted in producing significant impacts on the culture of the Malay community.

However, the levels of influence differed according to the background influences and the

amount of the any little influence still remained in the society under study.

Nevertheless, because of the sheer number of the previous influencing cultures, segregating

them proportionately was justifiably impossible to do. As a way out, dominance could be

observed to some certain degrees of proportion.

318
As the study concludes, it was found that the dominant culture is Islm and marked significantly

in the performing of five times daily prayers. Basically the practice is the hallmark of being a

Muslm and the majority of the people insist that they pray because they were Muslm.

Animism and the Malay traditional beliefs are still practised although these have been

embedded so deep into the culture, even mixed into the Islamic culture. The weakest influence

is the Hinduism-Buddhism and was almost insignificant in this observation. Colonial culture was

not very significant but exists. However, much of the legacy of the Colonial times was the need

for documentation. Before the Colonial times, a large section of the Malay was illiterate.

Colonialism brought about literacy and created jobs that would require such skills. It remains

strong until today.

6.4.1.2 Stage Two: Understanding the Malay-Muslim Society

The main focus on this stage is about how the different cultural influences in the Malay have

affected their lives and how these in turn affected their existing values as Muslims. The

controversy related to the existing influence of Animism and Hinduism-Buddhism among the

Muslm businesspersons was due to the mixed-practices of these beliefs when Islm was first

introduced to the Malay Archipelago in the thirteenth century. Even though these practices have

been slowly eroded, many businesspersons find themselves difficult to get rid of the influences

totally. Those involved will give certain reasons for their belief or practise such as honouring the

319
tradition. It was found that several values in business practice inherited from the old generation

were contrary to Islamic practices.

One of the clear outcomes of this research is the strong influence of Islamic culture on the

Muslim businesspersons which was clearly expressed in their use in daily lives. The practice of

<Aqd, and the belief in Barakah are two significant examples of these influence. This research

also demonstrates that Muslim businesspersons still maintain their Malay traditional customs.

The acts of Budi (respect and courtesy) are confirmed to be strongly adhered to by the people

under study. For instance, although the women play important roles in the economy of the

community through trading, many of them put priority on the upbringing of their children,

only to continue trading once the children have grown up. These different cultural influences

had a direct influence on these Muslm businesspersons and the Stage Three below focus on

their responsibilities as individuals in society.

6.4.1.3 Stage Three: Understanding the Businessperson as an Individual

The personal views of the Malay businesspersons were obtained in the third stage of the study.

These were also analysed on their strength in the light of the Islamic guidelines and their

culture. The businesspersons under study were aware that Islm is the most important element

for them. It was found that all respondents believe in monotheism - Tawd (that there is only

one God). They regarded Tawd as the highest concept of the faith. In many interviews they

320
admitted that someone who ignores Tawd may lead to Shirk. The example they gave always

connected to their daily practice such as the belief that certain traditional herbs and gem stones

can cure health related problems. What they were saying is that although Islam suggests to find

medications for illnesses it is wrong to believe that the medications cure the illnesses. Only Allah

can cure but human beings are asked to do their best to find solution to every problem they face.

In terms of individual faith, this research found that individual faith is a salient factor that

determines and develops the businesspersons behaviour. Many of them believed that only by

submitting themselves to God will they have a strong belief about Allhs will in all of their walks

of life. This in return generates a sense of humbleness with the society and this leads to righteous

of behaviour. It was found that the businesspersons with strong faith will take religious issues

seriously. Before taking any action they will firstly consider whether their act is approved by Allh

or not. They believed that they have the support and the backing of Allh when they make up

their mind to secure Gods pleasure. In other words, their faith was strengthened through that

way. They strongly believe that these attitudes create peace and harmony of the mind. Basically

they believe that it is only with strong faith that the obedience to Allh can be achieved.

In terms of the businesspersons faith it can be classified into three different levels. The

researcher determined their level of faith based on the interview, and during the observation.

The main focus from these interview and observation was how close these people adhered to the

Shar<ah principles. The researcher is always aware that the validity of ones faith is within the

321
knowledge of Allh only and cannot be judged by any mortal. However, some forms of

measurement were made to provide a clear picture, mostly narrative, to present the respondents

attitude toward practising the Islamic faith. The levels of the faith identified by the researcher

were classified as strong, average and weak faith.

6.4.1.4 Stage Four: Everyday Practice in Business

In continuation of findings on the individual faith of the businesspersons as discussed in the

previous section, this study found that the different level of faith had a great influence on them

in their everyday practice as traders. Their practice had been observed, examined and discussed

in the field work and the case study. The main focus was on the businesspersons perceptions

concerning their business culture. The researcher conceptualised their everyday practices in

businesses and identified the development of their behaviour in this field.

6.4.1.5 Stage Five: The Shar<ah Values

The main concern in this study was to see if all Muslim businesspersons accept the Shari<ah as a

principal guidance to their actions and practices. As far as the Shari<ah is concerned it gives

alternatives to humankind whether to accept or reject its teachings. By following what is allowed

by the Shar<ah they will be rewarded for good deeds, or otherwise they will be considered as

committing sins and will be punished in the hereafter. From the research it was found that

322
businesspersons with strong faith adhered closely to the Shar<ah principles without any doubt

compared to businesspersons with average and weaker faith. The analysis on the businesspersons

of average faith revealed that they tended to face conflicts and difficulties in making decisions.

Those of weaker faith rarely referred to religious grounds when defending their stand on certain

arguments regarding their beliefs or practices at work. In many cases they were influenced by

other values but strongly believed it was nothing wrong with that. Their choices in making

decisions lead to the formation of their behaviour in business setting which will be discussed

next.

6.4.1.6 Stage Six: Formation of the Malay-Muslim Culture in Business

Finally, it was found that the deciding factor to shape the business culture for these

businesspersons depended on their own choices. The main issues which were analysed identified

that there are four categories of behaviour among the businesspersons with regard to their

every day business activities namely; Devoted Muslim businesspersons, Strong reason identifiers,

Weak reason identifiers and finally, Socially active participants.

Businesspersons in the category of Devoted Muslim businesspersons are able to perform their

religious duties as well as to spare time to deepen their understanding of Shar<ah matters. They

understand basic Islamic ethics with regard to business matters such as performing <Aqd in

transaction and apply it every day at work. They carefully selected old Malay Petua and Peraih by

asking confirmation from religious teachers and the Imms. They were observed to be wearing

323
the cloth that make them look as proper Muslims such as clean white Kopiah825 for a man and

proper head cover for a woman.826 The high standard of faith enabled them to understand

important issues in business with regard to business matters such as the issues of Rib, gambling

and so on.

The businesspersons in the Strong Reason Identifiers group were also identified as practising

Muslims. They were firm either to accept or reject something and provided strong reasons for

their decisions. The explanations they gave were supported with reasons from the Qurn and

adth.827 They also gave names of certain religious books that were written by Malay religious

scholars which are popular in the country. Some of them said they have confirmed the matters

with certain Ustz (religious teacher).

In contrast to the Strong Reason Identifiers, the Weak Reason Identifiers although argued with

specific reasons to belief and practise certain cultural issues, the reasons that were forwarded

were mainly on non-religious grounds. For example the belief in Semangat Besi was based on the

knowledge derived from someone who is an expert. Some traders reported that they knew

825
A kind of headwear for men. Some people call it Ketayap
826
Although the white Kopiah is usual for Muslim men, in the field work, the people who have been classified in this
category wore good quality ones and looked reasonably new whilst others would wear seasoned and worn-out Kopiah.
A small number of them even wore Kopiah with turban properly tied around them. Similarly, devoted women
businesspersons wore the Malay Baju Kurung which were neither tight nor transparent or showing body curves. For
their headcover it will cover their head with special customised cloth which covered their heads except their faces and
were lowered down to half of their bodies. The idea is to fulfil the requirement of Shari<ah with regard to womens
<Aurah. In the Holy Qurn Allh says; O Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, and the believing women, that they
should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): that is most convenient, that they should be
known (as such) and not molested. And Allh is Oft- Forgiving, Most Merciful. (33:59)
827
Normally they will not come up with a direct quotation. They will make a point and add, for example: even the
Qurn (or adith) mentions this and that

324
something about what they sell after getting advice from someone in their dream. Other reasons

that were given during the interview sessions were to preserve the Malay pride and to respect

advice from the elderly.

Socially Active Participants were traders who were active in social activities both at local and

national levels. Some of them participated in business exhibitions in various places to promote

their products. They were there on behalf of the corporative body or on their own initiative. A

male respondent reported that he used to participate in a regional Jam<ah Tablgh gathering in

Thailand in order to free himself from thinking too much of worldly life.

Interestingly, some people from the Socially Active Participants are also regarded as Devoted

Muslim businesspersons. This is because apart from being active in dealing with their business in

this market, taking part in social activities inside and outside the market or the state, they are also

generous to spare time in improving their religious knowledge. This is done via several ways such

as attending the Chief Ministers weekly Friday speech, attending daily short religious classes at

al-Baraah Mosque nearby and attending short courses by the Jabatan Kemajuan Islm Malaysia

(Department of Islamic Development, Malaysia) and the Persatuan Pengguna Islm Malaysia (The

Muslim Consumer Association of Malaysia).

325
6.5 Conclusion

The chapter focussed on the discussion of the case study and provides answers to research

enquiry statements and the research questions that were developed in the initial stages of the

study. The first research inquiry statement found five main cultural influences on the Muslim

businesspeople under study. Islamic culture formed the dominant culture followed by Animism

and Malay traditional culture. The latter were still practised and manifested but in lesser degrees

compared to the Hindu-Buddhist influences. Although the Post-colonial culture still exists, it

does not manifest itself strongly in the society, less still in the micro business community. Would

this be probably true only of Kelantan? With globalization and the dominant influence of

westernization, this looks unique.

To sum up this chapter six stages were presented to initially show how the culture of a Malay-
Muslim community was identified. It was a summary of the process undertaken by the researcher
both during work sessions in the field and during the data analysis. Stage five was crucially
important both in the process and the results of the process. For example, taking into account
that some of the culturally important practices in their daily trading chores involved practices
that either lacked Islamic bearings, the Shar<ah, or out-rightly against Islm, the traders were
(carefully) confronted with questions seeking their own stands on such issues. At some stage also,
traders and their practices were also analysed based on their ability to cope with directives of the
Shar<ah.

As a result, and based on the samples of different groups of people interviewed in this study, the
Malay-Muslim businesspeople in Pasar Siti Khadjah were categorised into four groups. The
grouping was done based on the interplay between Islamic teachings and culture.

326
 Chapter 7

Conclusion

7.0 Introduction

This study was carried out on the Malay businesspeople in the capital city of the state of Kelantan to

examine how the Malay culture influences the way they carry out their daily trading. This was

certainly in contrast to other previous studies that usually examined how trading activities are

carried out in a society. The scope culture was, however, limited to some significant aspects of

beliefs and practices as are present within the Malay business community in Pasar Siti Khadjah in

Kelantan.

This study was done using a qualitative research approach. This approach was selected based on

the outlined objectives that were deemed achievable using this approach as well as its robust nature

that enable all research questions in this study to be precisely addressed. As a study that involved

several techniques, this study did not come without problems and limitations, all of which are

addressed in Chapter 4. Similarly, the ethical issues, which are fundamental in a qualitative

research approach were also noted and deliberated upon in the same chapter.

The researcher analysed the transcribed interviews using NVivo software. The researcher

electronically recorded all interviews, both in the forms of audio and video which were later

replayed repeatedly for proper transcription. Other information was also recorded manually in the

327
form of notes. In general, all data recording techniques, which could also be seen as traditional

methods, are very much relevant and one that cannot be taken for granted. The skills, once

acquired by the researcher in the field, proved to be very robust and well tested. Finally, the

contribution to the field of knowledge and the general value of the thesis has been discussed. The

research also proposes some areas in which it is believed are important to be considered for

further studies.

7.1 Research Recommendations and Implications

The study offers a noble opportunity for the development and implementation of policies,

particularly when the strengthening of Islm as the basis of the governance of the state of Kelantan

is concerned. Although the study was focussed on Malay businesspeople in Kelantan, the findings

are certainly valuable as an indicator for Malay businesspeople in general. These are summarised

as follows;

Firstly, the awareness about limitations and constraints amongst Malay businesspersons has

increased i.e. when the historical non-Islamic background was considered. The sense of awareness

will offer new ideas for new studies in the future.

Secondly, it revealed the existence of non-Islamic traditions among the Malay businesspersons.

Such practices are, however, being slowly eroded, quite passively without any implementation of

328
laws and regulations. Apparently, education within the Malay-Muslim people has been a key

driver.

Finally, obedience and adherence to the guidelines outlined in the Shar<ah is noted to be

significant among the Malay buinesspeople in Kelantan. However, there are some proportion of

the society who have not come to realise that the best practice in Islam is to follow the practice of

prophet Muammad (p.b.u.h). The Islamic values which have been instilled in Malaysia can help

Malaysian Muslims to realise the need to be role models for other business communities especially

in the Muslm world.

Based on this study, the researcher has developed several recommendations given as follows:

7.1.1 Recommendation for Muslim businesspeople

The study recommends that Muslims should always be guided by the law of the Sharah and be

consistently obedient in the process whenever they are involved in business. Muslm

businesspeople are also recommended to work toward strengthening their faith, an activity that

should never cease to take place in ones lifetime. Negative acts in business can be avoided through

stronger faith.

329
Since capital is one of the problems faced by many of the traders especially when they are going to

expand their business or increase the volume of tradable goods, it is recommended that they take

advantage of the existing game of Kutu, as commonly practised amongst them. The Siti Khadjah

Corporation, on the other hand, might offer some management elements or steps that might

naturally regulate this game for the benefit of the whole business community in the market.

It is also recommended that Muslim businesspeople should avoid practices and beliefs which are

contradictory to the Shar<ah such as the belief in animism and in Semangat (spirit). Forums,

classes and counselling sessions should always be made available to all traders for them to refer to

and learn from.

7.1.2 Recommendations for local authorities.

It is important for local authorities such as MPKB-BRI to be aware of the restrictions imposed by

the Shar<ah on business matters, particularly on the concept of al-Bay<. Since the market

community is predominantly Malay-Muslim , constant improvement on it will produce a Malay-

Muslim market model to the country and possible beyond.

The researcher thinks that the contribution of MAIK (Kelantan Islamic Religious Council) is

also important. For example, the issues concerning all foods from non-Muslm providers were

recently raised. Indeed, these are important issues to both traders and consumers. There is an

330
imperative need for MAIK to provide up to date information on such issues which should be

communicated instantly to MPKB-BRI using the existing information technology. This

information can be further circulated in the market or to other information channels through

which awareness of Muslims on such issues will be increased.

Finally, the Islamic council should act to enforce guidelines to avoid engagement of Muslims in

beliefs and practices that contradict the Shar<ah . Guidelines on basic Islamic teachings on certain

aspects in trades if provided, can help promote Islamic ethics in the community.

7.2 Contribution of Research to the Body of Knowledge

The results of this study will contribute to the body of knowledge in various ways:

1. Whilst most previous Islamic studies used the concept of <Aqdah or Shar<ah as their starting

points, this study embarked from a completely different outlook i.e. through the use of the

subject, in this case the Malay people and their culture as the preamble of the debates and

discussion of ideas. The Shar<ah and other points in Islamic teachings were observed

indirectly, and most importantly, on how Islm is practised on a day-to-day basis, not in its

spiritual entity, but in trade. The discussions of those topics were further widened in a field

work which was then presented and discussed with the help of a software for qualitative

331
 research called NVivo. Therefore this study contributes to a new approach in studying the

practice of Islm in a selected community.

2. The originality of this study is on the large amount of data gathered from the field

interviews, observations and on the analysis of data. The businesspeoples real life that was

recorded as it happened in the field presented a strong field validation. Various opinions

from experts on the issues understudy were also noted. Such opinions, all of which were

given in relation to the specific trading community, added to the embodiment of the true

sense of the situation.

3. As the researchers study has been financially supported by University Utara Malaysia

(Northern University of Malaysia) and The Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia, this

research will benefit the field of education in this country, particularly in higher learning

institutions. This research was a documentation of the influence of Malay culture in

business practice. The contents of this thesis that include a rigorous study on the literature,

the methods, discussions and findings can be used for the introduction of a new subject or

course in the study of business culture or organisational behaviour.

7.3 Further Research

The results of this study has actually prompted the researcher to think about the possibility of

introducing new exploratory research in the future.

332
It is suggested that a follow-up in-depth studies is to be conducted in different states of Malaysia.

This is important because the study has shown that even in the state where Islamic values are given

due attention and emphasis, other values that are either non Islamic or even contradictory to Islm

still remain. Future studies may also emphasize on the specific issue from the Shar<ah perspective

such as the place of <Aqd in Malay-Muslim business transactions. This would provide a more in-

depth picture of the Malays business culture with regard to the Islamic teaching and how this is

being interplayed with the <dat. It may also assist Islamic authorities to draw up detailed outlines

that will accommodate future Muslim businesspersons.

As the present study focuses on a small group of Muslim businesspersons, it is suggested that more

quantitative research be conducted involving a larger number of respondents and enabling the

researcher to make a stronger generalisation on a specific population. Future research should

include a comparative study on a number of states in Malaysia to examine whether they face

similar issues. Their different cultural backgrounds may lead to different results. Such studies

would provide a more comprehensive view of Muslim culture in trade in Malaysia. A comparative

study with the state of Negeri Sembilan, for example is likely to produce some interesting details.

Kelantan with its claimed Islamic Ethos and Negeri Sembilan known to be entrenched in Malay

customary law practices would offer an exciting research project.

333
Conducting research focussing on a different level of businesses may provide a better picture of

Muslims in trade. It may also provide an overview of the development and changes in the culture

of business over a number of years. Such a study would provide a good generalisation about

changes and allow for the examination of the extent to which the resurgence of Islam is affecting

the culture of these Muslim businesspersons. It is recommended that such a study be conducted

also on the culture of Muslim businesspersons at the international level. The study will concentrate

on the influence of competitive elements in the international businesses and how it is able to

balance the elements of competitiveness and other positive values in trade such as human

brotherhood and responsibility. With this in mind, the researcher would appreciate the

opportunity to extent similar theoretical framework to study the culture of business of Malay

people in Western Countries particularly in the United Kingdom.

With regards to the area where Malay populations are dominant, the researcher intends to extend

the study to the state of Indonesia. This state which is a significant part of the Malay Archipelago is

believed to experience slightly different beliefs and practices of culture from the neighbouring

country such as Malaysia with regards to business practice. This proposition is based on the

researchers observation on the Minangkabau ethnic group who is popularly known in Negeri

Sembilan as successful businesspeople.

334
7.4. Concluding Remarks

Throughout the research project and the writing of this thesis there has been an attempt to add

knowledge about future directions of micro business from the Islamic perspective. For a Muslm,

involvement in business activities is not only for material interest because this contradicts the

Islamic spirit in business.

The study concludes that it is a fact that different cultures existed and have left various levels of

influence on Malay people, which in turn influenced them in their culture of dealing in

businesses. It discussed some similar views from earlier researchers about the Malay such as the

writings from B.W. Andaya and L.Y. Andaya (1982) A History of Malaysia, F. Swettenham

(1900) Malay Sketches., K.M. Endicott (1970) An Analysis of Malay Magic, R.O. Winsteds (1956)

The Malays: A Cultural History, S.Q. Fatimi (1963) Islam Comes to Malaysia and William Roff

(1976), Kelantan: Religion, Society and Politics in a Malay State. The strength of this research however

lays on its focus on the study of a Malay community in the 21st century Malaysia. This study has

clearly suggested new findings on issues being discussed as described in Chapter six; Research

Themes, Enquiry Statements and Propositions.

The topic of cultural influences on Malay people is still open for discussion. Several issues,
although might be important to be explored, have not been discussed deeply in this research
because of the limitation in time and space. However the theoretical frame work which has been
propounded for this research could also be extended to other Malay-Muslim dominated states
such as Brunei, Indonesia, Southern Thailand and the Southern part of the Philippines.

335
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