Nuremberg To Now

International Criminal Law
Nuremberg to Now
Steven Kay QC
Aftermath of World War II
International criminal justice came into being with the

creation of the Nuremburg and Tokyo Tribunals, after
the victory in war of the Allied Powers over the
German Third Reich in May 1945.
At the London Conference in 1945, the Allied
Powers of the United Kingdom, United States,
France and Soviet Union resolved to punish the
leading Nazi war criminals.
The Nuremburg Charter
On 8 August 1945, the Charter of the

International Military Tribunal (The
Nuremburg Charter) was issued
for the just and prompt trial of the Major
war criminals of the European Axis.
War crimes and the newly created

crimes against peace and crimes against humanity
were cited as the jurisdiction of the Tribunal.
Drafting of the Charter
Drafted by a mixture of the prosecution and the judiciary that took part
in the Major War Crimes trial, including:
Robert Jackson (the US Prosecutor);
Robert Falco (the French reserve Judge); and
Iona Nikitchenko (the Russian Judge).
This collaboration would be challenged today as breaching a right to be
tried by an independent and impartial court.
The additional signatories were:
Professor Aaron Trainin (USSR); and
Lord Jowitt, the Lord Chancellor of England and Wales.
The Trial of the
Major War Criminals
The historic trial of the defeated leadership of the
German Third Reich commenced on 20 November
1945 at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg and was
named The Trial of the Major War Criminals.
International Military
Tribunal
It took place before an International Military Tribunal
(IMT), constituted of Judges appointed by the
governments of the USA, UK, USSR and France.
It was the only joint trial presided over by an

international judiciary.
IMT: Cross Examination
of Defendant
Hermann Goering
The Tokyo Charter
On 19 January 1946 the International Military

Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) was issued with
jurisdiction over the same crimes.
Defendant Shigenori Tg,
former Japanese foreign
minister, on trial at the
Toyko Tribunal
Criminal Responsibility:
Nuremburg & Tokyo
Both Tribunals established the novel principle of
criminal responsibility regardless of official position
and thereby overturned the previously held legal norms
of sovereign immunity.
The defence of acting pursuant to orders of a

superior was also no longer available to free an
accused from criminal responsibility.
Next Stage:
The ad hoc tribunals
Formed to deal with specific situations of international
peace and security
ICTY
ICTR
SCSL
ECCC
The International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY)
The ICTY is a United Nations court dealing with war crimes that took
place during the conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s.
Established in 1993, its mandate is to bring to justice those responsible for

serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the
former Yugoslavia since 1991 and thus contribute to the restoration and
maintenance of peace in the region.
Key cases include:
Tadi; Gotovina; Muci; Karadi; etc.

ICTY: Increased Jurisdiction
The ICTY added to the legacy of the Nuremburg and

Tokyo Charters by prosecuting crimes arising in the
conflict under the headings of:
Grave Breaches of the Geneva Conventions;
Violations of the Laws or Customs of War;
Genocide; and
Crimes Against Humanity.

ICTY:
The Prosecutor v. Duko Tadi
The Tadi case has been described as one of the cases which contributed the
most to the jurisprudence of the ICTY (e.g. in relation to the development of
Joint Criminal Enterprise).
ICTY:
The Prosecutor v. Slobodan Miloevi
President of Serbia from 26 December 1990 and President of the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) from 15 July 1997 until 6 October 2000.
Charged with genocide by the ICTY.

International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda (ICTR)
The Security Council created the ICTR by Resolution 955 of 8 November
1994.
Its mandate is to try persons responsible for genocide and other serious
violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of
Rwanda between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994, in order to
contribute to the process of national reconciliation in Rwanda and to the
maintenance of peace in the region.
Key cases include:
Akayesu; Bagosora; Nahimana; etc.

ICTR:
The Prosecutor v. Alfred Musema
First trial to allege command responsibility for
genocide against a civilian.
SpecialCourtfor Sierra Leone
(SCSL)
The SpecialCourtfor Sierra Leone was set up jointly by the Government
of Sierra Leone and the United Nations.
It is mandated to try those who bear the greatest responsibility for serious
violations of international humanitarian law and Sierra Leonean law
committed in the territory of Sierra Leone since 30 November 1996.
Key cases include:
Charles Taylor; Brima et al; Sesay et al; etc.

Extraordinary Chambers in the
Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)
In 1997, the Cambodian government requested the United Nations to

assist in establishing a trial to prosecute the senior leaders of the Khmer
Rouge.
This ECCC was created by the government and the UN but operates
independently of them. It is a Cambodian court with international
participation that applies international standards.
Key cases include:
Case 001 (Duch); Case 002 (Nuon Chea et al); etc.

International Criminal
Court (ICC)
Introduction to the ICC
The ICC is a permanent, independent, international court
Established to investigate, prosecute and try persons accused

of the most serious crimes of international concern
Seat of the Court is in The Hague, the Netherlands

Rome Statute

Treaty based court
Established by the Rome Statute
Entered into force on 1 July 2002
121 States Parties (effective as of 1 July 2012)

Notably absent - the United States
ICC Mandate
To try individuals rather than States
To hold such persons accountable for most serious

crimes of international concern, including:
Genocide;
Crimes against humanity;
War crimes; and
Aggression.
ICC Jurisdiction

The ICC does not have universal jurisdiction.
It may only exercise jurisdiction if:
The accused is a national of a State Party or a State otherwise

accepting the jurisdiction of the Court;
The crime took place on the territory of a State Party or a State
otherwise accepting the jurisdiction of the Court; or
The United Nations Security Council has referred the situation to the
Prosecutor, irrespective of the nationality of the accused or the
location of the crime.
Jurisdiction is further limited to events taking place since 1 July 2002.

ICC:
Current Situations / Cases
Situations:
Sudan (for the situation in Darfur)
Democratic Republic of Congo
Uganda
Central African Republic
Kenya
Libya
Cte dIvoire
Mali
ICC:
The Prosecutor v. Uhuru Kenyatta
The Kenyan President is the first incumbent Head of State to be tried internationally.
He faces charges of crimes against humanity at the ICC.
ICC: Situations Under
Preliminary Investigation
Afghanistan
Colombia
Comoros
Republic of Korea
Georgia
Guinea
Honduras
Nigeria
Iraq (preliminary investigation re-opened on 13 May 2014)
Ukraine (preliminary investigation opened on 25 April 2014)

ICC Trigger Mechanisms
State referral;
Security Council referral; and
Prosecutors Initiative (Proprio Motu)

The Prosecutor may initiate investigations proprio motu on
the basis of information on crimes within the jurisdiction
of the Court.
Principle of
Complementarity
The ICC is a court of last resort.
It does not replace national criminal justice systems; rather,

it complements them.
States retain primary responsibility for trying the

perpetrators of the most serious of crimes.
The ICC can investigate and, where warranted, prosecute

and try individuals only if the State concerned does not,
cannot or is unwilling genuinely to do so.
ICC Funding
The Court receives contributions from States Parties as well as

voluntary contributions from:
Governments;
International organisations;
Individuals;
Corporations; and
Other entities.
Challenges of
Implementation
The ICC does not have its own police force.
It relies on State cooperation, which is essential to the arrest

and surrender of suspects.
According to the Rome Statute, States Parties shall

cooperate fully with the Court in its investigation and
prosecution of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court.
Criticisms of the ICC
Focus on Africa
Allegations of politically motivated prosecutions (and

US influence)
Reluctance to prosecute sexual crimes

ICC Topical Issues
Syria: Russia and Chinas veto of the draft UN Resolution

calling for the crisis to be referred to the ICC.
UK: Now under preliminary investigation by the ICC

Prosecution, it having receivednew information alleging the
responsibility of officials of the United Kingdom for war
crimes involving systematic detainee abuse in Iraq from
2003 until 2008.
Nigeria: Recent kidnap of girls by Boko Haram. The

Situation in Nigeria is already under preliminary
investigation by the ICC for crimes against humanity
allegedly committed by Boko Haram.
Thank you!

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International Criminal Law

International criminal justice came into being with the

On 8 August 1945, the Charter of the

War crimes and the newly created

It was the only joint trial presided over by an

On 19 January 1946 the International Military

The defence of acting pursuant to orders of a

Established in 1993, its mandate is to bring to justice those responsible for

Key cases include:

Tadi; Gotovina; Muci; Karadi; etc.

The ICTY added to the legacy of the Nuremburg and

Violations of the Laws or Customs of War;

Crimes Against Humanity.

President of Serbia from 26 December 1990 and President of the Federal

Charged with genocide by the ICTY.

violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of

Rwanda between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994, in order to

contribute to the process of national reconciliation in Rwanda and to the

maintenance of peace in the region.

Key cases include:

Akayesu; Bagosora; Nahimana; etc.

Key cases include:

Charles Taylor; Brima et al; Sesay et al; etc.

In 1997, the Cambodian government requested the United Nations to

Key cases include:

Case 001 (Duch); Case 002 (Nuon Chea et al); etc.

The ICC is a permanent, independent, international court

Established to investigate, prosecute and try persons accused

Seat of the Court is in The Hague, the Netherlands

Established by the Rome Statute

Entered into force on 1 July 2002

121 States Parties (effective as of 1 July 2012)

To try individuals rather than States

To hold such persons accountable for most serious

Crimes against humanity;

War crimes; and

It may only exercise jurisdiction if:

The accused is a national of a State Party or a State otherwise

Jurisdiction is further limited to events taking place since 1 July 2002.

Iraq (preliminary investigation re-opened on 13 May 2014)

Ukraine (preliminary investigation opened on 25 April 2014)

Security Council referral; and

Prosecutors Initiative (Proprio Motu)

It does not replace national criminal justice systems; rather,

States retain primary responsibility for trying the

The ICC can investigate and, where warranted, prosecute

The Court receives contributions from States Parties as well as

The ICC does not have its own police force.

It relies on State cooperation, which is essential to the arrest

According to the Rome Statute, States Parties shall

Allegations of politically motivated prosecutions (and

Reluctance to prosecute sexual crimes

Syria: Russia and Chinas veto of the draft UN Resolution

UK: Now under preliminary investigation by the ICC

Nigeria: Recent kidnap of girls by Boko Haram. The

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