EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

SIMON REIFARTH

Licentiate thesis
KTH CICERO TRITA MMK 2010:01
Department of Machine Design ISSN 1400-1179
Royal Institute of Technology ISRN/KTH/MMK/R-10/01-SE
SE-100 44 Stockholm
TRITA MMK 2010:01
ISSN 1400-1179
ISRN/KTH/MMK/R-10/01-SE
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines
Simon Reifarth
Licentiate thesis
Academic thesis, which with the approval of Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan, will be presented
for public review in fulfilment of the requirements for a Licentiate of Engineering in Machine
Design. The public review is held at Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan, Brinellvgen in 83, room
B242, 26th of March at 10:00.
Abstract
It is today undoubted that humans have to reduce their impact
on the environment. Internal combustion engines, being the
major power source in the transportation sector as well as in
individual transport, play an important role in the man-made
emissions. While the mobility in the world is growing, it is
important to reduce the emissions that result from
transportation.
The diesel engine provides a high efficiency and hence it can
help to reduce CO2 emissions, which are believed to be the
main cause of global warming. Diesel exhaust also contains
toxic gases, mainly nitrogen oxides (NOX) and soot particles.
These emissions are therefore limited by the authorities in
most countries.
A way to reduce the nitrogen oxide emissions of a diesel
engine is the use of exhaust gas recirculation, EGR. Here, a
part of the exhaust gases is rerouted into the combustion
chamber. This leads to a lower peak combustion temperature
which in turn reduces the formation of NOX.
In modern turbocharged engines it can be problematic to
provide the amount of EGR that is needed to reach the
emission limits. Other concerns can be the transient response
of both the EGR-system and the engine.
This work provides a simulative comparison of different EGR-
systems, such as long-route EGR, short-route EGR, hybrid
EGR, a system with a reed valve and a system with an EGR-
pump. Both the steady-state performance and transient
performance are compared. In steady-state the focus is the
fuel efficiency. In transient conditions both the reaction on
changed EGR-demands and the torque response are analyzed.

iii
Preface
This work treats different ways of achieving EGR flow in both
steady-state and transient conditions.
It consists of a general introduction, giving an overview of the
field of EGR and diesel combustion and presenting the
methods used in this work. Two papers are appended that
treat different EGR-systems in more detail.

Paper 1
Transient EGR in a long-route and short-route EGR-system
ICES2009-76107
Presented at the ASME Internal Combustion Engine Division
2009 Spring Technical Conference
Simon Reifarth and Hans-Erik ngstrm

Paper 2
Transient EGR in a High-Speed DI Diesel Engine for a set of
different EGR-routings
SAE Technical Paper 2010-01-1271
Simon Reifarth and Hans-Erik ngstrm
Accepted for presentation at the 2010 SAE World Congress,
Detroit

The measurement and simulation work has been performed by

the author under the supervision of Hans-Erik ngstrm.

iv
Abbreviations
BMEP Break Mean Effective Pressure

CA Crank Angle

CAC Charge Air Cooler

CO Carbon Monoxide

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

DOC Diesel Oxidation Catalyst

DPF Diesel Particulate Filter

EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation

HC Hydrocarbons

LR Long-Route

MNEDC Modified New European Driving Cycle

NOX Nitrogen Oxides

PM Particulate Matter

SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction

SLV Schnellschaltendes Luft Ventil

(Fast switching air valve)

SR Short-Route

VGT Variable Geometry Turbine

v
Table of Contents
Abstract....................................................................................iii
Preface ....................................................................................iv
Abbreviations ........................................................................... v
Table of Contents....................................................................vii
1 Introduction ....................................................................... 1
1.1 Motivation .................................................................. 1
1.2 Emission Legislation.................................................. 1
1.3 Emission Formation in Diesel Combustion ................ 3
1.4 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems ............................... 8
1.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) ........................... 11
1.6 Different EGR-Systems ........................................... 13
2 Experimental Setup ........................................................ 22
2.1 Engine ..................................................................... 22
2.2 Engine Test Cell ...................................................... 23
2.3 Simulation Model ..................................................... 27
3 Discussion ...................................................................... 36
3.1 Summary of Papers ................................................. 36
3.2 Ongoing Work.......................................................... 39
4 Conclusions .................................................................... 43
5 Outlook ........................................................................... 44
6 Acknowledgements......................................................... 45
7 References ..................................................................... 46

vii
1 Introduction

1.1 Motivation
An important task in the development of internal combustion
engines is the reduction of emissions. As the individual mobility
in the world is increasing and the transportation sector is
growing [1], it is important to limit the impact of traffic on both
the environment and the health of the population. The main
combustion products that are contained in engine exhaust
gases are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOX), particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbons (HC) and
carbon monoxide (CO). All of these, except for the water vapor,
are considered environmentally harmful. This is also reflected
in the fact that governments all over the world enact limits for
the emission of these gases. Therefore, engine developers
work on diminishing these emissions.
A way to reduce the formation of NOX in diesel engines is the
use of EGR, recirculated exhaust gas. Part of the exhaust gas
is rerouted into the combustion chamber, where it helps to
attenuate the formation of NOX by reducing the local reaction
temperature.
The amount of EGR that can be used is limited by different
factors. One of them is the need for delivering enough fresh air
for the combustion to take place; another is the decrease of
engine efficiency that can be caused by high amounts of EGR.
Furthermore, on turbocharged engines, in load points with
good turbocharger efficiency, the intake pressure is higher than
the exhaust pressure. This makes it difficult to get any EGR, as
there is no pressure difference to drive it.
To overcome these problems, different EGR-routings can be
used. The scope of this work is to compare some of these with
experimental and simulative methods. Main focuses are the
effects on fuel consumption and transient behavior.

1.2 Emission Legislation

The concern for the environment is reflected in emission
regulations that are established in most countries in the
industrialized part of the world. New production cars have to

1
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

pass certain emission limits in order to get approved for sale.

The test differs for different regions and also for different types
of vehicles. Figure 1 shows the speed profile of the modified
new European driving cycle (MNEDC), which is the test
procedure for passenger cars in Europe [2]. During the test,
the car is run on a chassis dynamometer, following the speed
profile, while the tailpipe emissions are measured. For diesel
engines the critical emissions are typically those of NOX and
PM. The limits for these emissions have been decreasing a lot
in recent years, as can be seen in Figure 2.
Vehicle Speed [km/h]

Time [s]
Figure 1: Speed profile of the MNEDC

Figure 2: Development of Soot and NOX emission limits

2
 Introduction

There are different ways to achieve compliance with the

emission regulations. One is to avoid the formation of
emissions already during combustion; another one is to clean
the exhaust gases with aftertreatment systems before letting
them out into the environment.

1.3 Emission Formation in Diesel Combustion

During Diesel combustion, several toxic and non-toxic gases
are formed. The non-toxic parts are water and carbon dioxide.
While water is completely unproblematic, the emission of CO2
has negative impacts on the environment. CO2 is believed to
be the main cause of global warming and therefore, its
emission has to be reduced. The formation of CO2 is directly
proportional to the fuel consumption of an engine, if fossil fuel
is burned. This means, that for a reduction of CO2, the fuel
consumption has to be reduced.
The two most problematic emissions in diesel engines are
nitrogen oxides and soot particles. HC and CO emissions are
quite low and can be removed fairly easy from the exhaust with
the help of an oxidation catalyst.
How the different toxic emissions are formed is described
below.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)

Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2, are referred to as NOX. They
are harmful for the lungs when local concentrations get too
high. They also contribute to acid rain and form smog in
combination with hydrocarbons [2].
NOX formation takes place in combustion zones with high
oxygen concentration and high combustion temperatures. The
most important mechanism for NOX formation in internal
combustion engines are thermal NOX and prompt NOX. A
theoretical approach to the thermal NO formation is the
extended Zeldovich mechanism. It consists of three chemical
reactions that form NO [3]:

3
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

O + N2 NO + N
N + O 2 NO + O
N + OH NO + H
The triple-bond in the N2 molecules makes a high energy
necessary to activate these reactions. Therefore, they are only
fast enough to form significant amounts of NOX if the
temperatures are above 2200 K [4].
The equilibrium of these reactions is not reached in
combustion engines, because the needed temperature level is
only maintained a very short while. Instead, the reactions
freeze as soon as the local temperature falls below 2200 K.
This explains the steep decrease of the NOX formation rate
during the expansion stroke in Figure 3. If the temperatures
stay below a certain level during the whole combustion process,
the formation of NOX can be avoided almost completely, Figure
4.

Figure 3: Simulation of NOX formation in a diesel engine [5]

The prompt NOX, or Fenimore NOX, occurs in a process where
CH-radicals deliver the activation energy to split the N2 bonds.
As Figure 3 shows, they are of minor importance in diesel
combustion.

4
 Introduction

Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter, often referred to as soot, is the other
problematic emission from diesel engines. They are suspected
to be carcinogenic [2]. In addition to that, they have been
shown to increase respiratory symptoms and increase mortality
in cardiovascular and respiratory diseases [6].
Figure 4 shows the combustion path of conventional diesel
combustion in a Phi-T-map. It can be seen that soot is formed
in parts of the spray where the oxygen concentration is low.
Later in the combustion, when the local temperature and
oxygen concentration get higher, most of the formed soot is
oxidized.

Figure 4: Emission formation in conventional diesel combustion [7]

Soot formation is not entirely understood. A widely accepted
explanation divides it into several steps, as Figure 5 illustrates.
It starts with the formation of molecular precursors of soot,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). These PAHs build up
from benzene under addition of C2, C3 or other small units to
PAH radicals.
During the next steps, the nucleation of particles, the PAHs
collide with each other and stick together to build clusters and
evolve into solid particles.
The mass of these particles is then increased via the addition
of gas phase species such as PAH and acetylene. Coagulation

5
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

occurs via particle-particle collisions which decreases the

particle number while the particle size grows. The coagulation
takes place shortly after the formation of particles while the
agglomeration occurs in later stages of soot formation. Here,
three-dimensional structures can form of particles that stick
together. [8, 9]
As mentioned before, the soot is then partly oxidized in to CO
and CO2 when there is sufficient oxygen around and the
temperatures are high enough.

Figure 5: Soot formation steps [8]

6
 Introduction

Hydrocarbons (HC)
HC formation is usually not problematic in diesel engines. It
occurs when combustion is not completed which can happen
when there is a lack of oxygen or close to cool walls. Another
phenomenon that leads to HC formation is caused by the
injector sac volume. In this volume, a small fuel portion is left at
the end of injection. It is evaporated by the combustion heat
and enters the combustion chamber with a low pressure. This
leads to a slow mixing with air and thus some fuel can escape
the combustion [3].
As diesel combustion usually is run with excess air, the fuel is
burned almost completely. Modern combustion systems with
high EGR-rates tend to have HC-emission problems. An
oxidation catalyst can be used to eliminate occurring HC and
CO emissions.
HC is suspected to be highly carcinogenic and is one of the
causes of smog.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

The formation of CO is an intermediate step in the combustion
of hydrocarbons. The next step, the complete oxidation to CO2,
is mainly done with the help of OH-radicals. For this process,
temperatures above 1200 K and sufficient available oxygen are
needed. The oxidation of CO can locally stop due to
unmixedness and thus lack of oxygen or due to low
temperatures close to cylinder walls [10].
If inhaled, CO binds to the hemoglobin in the blood which
otherwise transports oxygen. This makes it impossible for the
hemoglobin to transport oxygen which in turn leads to internal
suffocation. If air with a volumetric concentration of 0.3 % is
inhaled this can cause death after ca. 30 min exposure [2].
This can be a problem in closed rooms like garages. Even in
lower concentrations CO can lead to cell death as it is a toxic
gas [11], which can be problematic in areas with a very high
traffic density.

7
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

1.4 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems

One possibility to reduce tailpipe emissions of a vehicle is the
use of aftertreatment system in the exhaust path. The most
common ones are described here.

Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)

An oxidation catalyst oxidizes the unburned or only partly
burned species in the exhaust gas, namely HC and CO, by
using the oxygen from excess air. It consists of a catalytic
material, mostly platinum, which is fixed on a porous substrate.
The substrate forms a large number of channels through which
the exhaust gas passes, in order to form a large reaction
surface. Other functions of the DOC can be the conversion of
NO into NO2 to help other aftertreatment devices, or the use as
a catalytic burner. This would increase the exhaust gas
temperature e.g. for particulate filter regeneration [2].
The oxidation catalyst is standard in production cars. Modern
combustion systems with a low amount of excess air, as well
as harder emission regulations make it an indispensable part
[12].

Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)

In a diesel particulate filter the soot particles in the exhaust gas
are filtered out. The filter is built up similarly to the oxidation
catalyst, with a ceramic substrate building small channels. But
here, every other channel is plugged on the intake or outlet
side respectively. This means that the exhaust gas has to pass
through the porous substrate, as Figure 6 illustrates. Most of
the soot particles do not pass through the material but
accumulate in it.

8
 Introduction

Figure 6: Diesel particulate filter [2]

This leads to a growing load of soot in the filter which
increases the pressure drop over the filter. After some time, the
filter has to be regenerated to restore the original pressure
drop. To regenerate the filter, the stored soot mass, which
mainly consist of carbon, is burned off. As the temperatures
that are needed for this are seldom reached in normal driving
conditions, the regeneration has to be activated in another way.
There are two ways of regenerating, passive and active
regeneration. For passive regeneration some fuel additive or a
catalytic coating on the DPF [13] is used to reduce the
temperature at which the soot can be burned to around 450 C.
Active regeneration means that the exhaust gas temperature is
increased so that the soot burns naturally, at around 600 C.
This can be achieved by late injection of fuel into the
combustion chamber, which then is burned in the oxidation
catalyst [2]. Another approach is to inject diesel fuel, or
vaporized diesel fuel in the exhaust piping closely upstream of
the DOC. This leads to an oxidation of the extra fuel in the
catalyst and thus to gas temperatures above the DPF
regeneration temperature [14, 15].

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

Selective catalytic reduction stands for a NOX reduction
technology. A catalyst converts the NOX emissions with the
help of a selective reducing agent. Ammonia, NH3, is the most
common one for this purpose. As ammonia is toxic, it is formed
from an ammonia carrier inside the exhaust system. Urea is
widely spread because of its solubility in water. An urea/water

9
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

solution is metered into the exhaust system and converted into

NH3 and CO2. NH3 is then used for the reduction of the NOX. In
modern systems, both these steps are performed in one
catalyst [2]. Urea/water solution is marketed under different
names, e.g. AdBlue or Diesel Exhaust Fluid. Figure 7 shows
the build-up of such a system.

Figure 7: SCR system schematic [16]

An advantage of such a system is the possibility to focus on
the engines fuel consumption in the calibration, as the
aftertreatment takes care of the emissions. Disadvantages are
the extra hardware and the extra operating fluid that have to be
built, transported and refilled. According to Cloudt et al. [17]
the SCR-system can show to be the more fuel efficient solution
for Euro 6 applications than the use of EGR.

NOX Storage Catalyst (NSC)

A NOX Storage Catalyst is run cyclic. During 30 to 300 seconds
it accumulates NO2 from the exhaust gas in the form of nitrates.
For regeneration, rich or stoichiometric conditions are set in the
exhaust gas. The nitrates are abruptly dissolved by the
reducing agents of the rich exhaust, and the NO2 is converted
into N2 and the oxygen is used to oxidize the exhaust
components. The regeneration phase is 2 to 10 seconds long.
As the NSC is very sensitive to sulfur, which poisons the
catalyst, a desulfating process has to be run regularly. During

10
 Introduction

this, the exhaust gas is set to rich conditions and the catalyst is
heated to more than 650 C for at least 5 minutes [2].

1.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Instead of using aftertreatment systems to comply with exhaust
emission legislation, it is also possible to avoid the formation of
emissions during the combustion. The raw emissions are
reduced and thus no aftertreatment is needed.
It is common practice nowadays, to use EGR to reduce the
formation of NOX emissions. A portion of the exhaust gases is
recirculated into the combustion chambers. This can be
achieved either internally with the proper valve timing, or
externally with some kind of piping, Figure 8 shows this
schematically.

Air Exhaust

Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Figure 8: EGR - Exhaust Gas Recirculation
The exhaust gas acts as an inert gas in the combustion
chamber, it does not participate in the combustion reaction.
This leads to a reduction of the combustion temperature by
different effects.
The fuel molecules need more time to find a oxygen molecule
to react with, as there are inert molecules around. This slows
down the combustion speed and thus reduces the peak
combustion temperature, as the same amount of energy is
released over a longer period of time.

11
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

The energy is also used to heat up a larger gas portion than it

would without EGR. As the air is diluted with exhaust gas, the
mass of a gas portion containing the needed amount of oxygen
gets bigger.
Another effect is the change in heat capacity. Exhaust gas has
a higher specific heat capacity than air, due to the CO2-
molecules higher degree of freedom. So for the same amount
of combustion energy a gas mass containing EGR will get a
lower temperature than pure air.
The lower combustion temperature directly reduces the NOX
formation, as the NOX formation rate is highly temperature
dependent, Figure 9.

Figure 9: Temperature dependency of NOX formation [18]

The X-axis shows the mass-percentage of oxygen. This is a
way to express the amount of EGR that is recirculated. More
EGR leads to a lower oxygen concentration. Another way to
express the amount of EGR is the EGR-rate, which is defined
as follows:
& exhaust, intake
m
EGR [%] =
& exhaust, intake + m
m & air, intake

12
 Introduction

Several difficulties have to be taken into account when EGR is

used. When the exhaust gas is taken out of the exhaust
system upstream of the turbocharger, the energy of this gas is
lost for the turbocharger. This decreases the useable exhaust
energy for compressing the intake air and thus the amount of
air that gets into the cylinder. This amount of air is directly
coupled to the amount of EGR that the engine can run,
because the limiting factor is the air/fuel ratio in the cylinder.
Another problematic area is the control of emissions during
transients. As it is desirable to get a maximum acceleration,
the EGR is usually shut off when the load is increased, to
provide the maximum amount of available air. This strategy
leads to NOX peaks in the transient parts of the MNEDC as can
be seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10: NOX formation during the MNEDC [19]

1.6 Different EGR-Systems

The EGR-path can be build up in different kinds of ways. This
section gives an overview over the recently discussed ones.

Short-Route System (SR)

The short-route system is the standard system in todays
production engines, both for passenger car engines and for
heavy duty applications. In the short-route (SR) system, a pipe
leads some of the exhaust gases from the exhaust manifold

13
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

into the intake manifold where it is mixed with the fresh air. The
pipe usually contains one or more coolers for the EGR and a
valve to regulate the amount of EGR. The valve can be placed
on either the hot or the cold side of the cooler. A placement on
the hot side gives advantages in transient response [20], while
a placement on the cold side makes the choice of valve easier,
as it will be placed in a colder environment.

Figure 11: SR-system, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF, 4: EGR-valve

For cold conditions or cold-start there can be bypasses around
the EGR-coolers.
A certain pressure difference over the EGR loop is needed to
drive the EGR from the exhaust side to the intake side. At load
points with good turbocharger efficiency, this pressure
difference does not always exist naturally. To increase it, VGT
turbochargers can be used as well as throttles in the exhaust
or intake piping.
As the exhaust can contain high amounts of soot, fouling of the
EGR cooler can be an issue [21]. Also the EGR valve has to
be able to handle the fouling effects.
The advantages of the short-route system are its simplicity and
its fast response on EGR demands. Drawbacks are the
throttling that often is needed and the risk of soot deposition in
the whole intake system. Another problem can be the
turbochargers ability to deliver sufficient charging pressure, as
only part of the exhaust gas passes the turbine while another
part is used as EGR.

Long-Route System (LR)

In the long-route system, the EGR is taken out of the exhaust
system downstream of the turbocharger and driven into the

14
 Introduction

intake upstream of the compressor, Figure 12. This leads to a

higher power input into the turbocharger, as the whole exhaust
stream passes the turbine. On the other hand, it leads to a
higher mass flow in the compressor, as both EGR and fresh air
have to be compressed.

Figure 12: LR-system, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF, 4: EGR-valve, 5:

Exhaust throttle
In the long-route system, also the compressor and the charge
air cooler have to withstand the passing exhaust gases.
Especially the compressor is a sensitive part. Any droplet that
could build due to condensation could possibly damage the
compressor wheel. Therefore, attention has to be paid to the
cooling effect of the EGR-cooler, to avoid condensation. The
problem of clogging in the LR-system can be avoided by
placing the EGR-loop downstream of the particulate filter. This
way, the recirculated exhaust gas is almost free from soot
particles and the clogging risk for the intercooler is limited.
Still there is a risk for the compressor wheel as the exhaust
can accelerate corrosion on it [22].
Downstream of the particulate filter, as well as upstream of the
compressor, the gas pressure is close to ambient pressure.
This means, that there is no natural pressure drop that could
drive the flow of EGR. It has to be created either by throttling
the exhaust or by throttling the intake air. Simulations have
shown that a throttling of the exhaust is to prefer with respect
to fuel economy [20].
A negative aspect of the LR-system is the long piping that is
filled with EGR. Almost the entire intake piping, including
compressor and intercooler, is filled with a mix of fresh air and
EGR. This results in a poor reaction to changing EGR

15
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

demands, as the volume has to be emptied before the gas with

a new EGR-rate arrives in the combustion chambers. Another
drawback is the risk of fouling of the intercooler, as the exhaust
gas is not perfectly soot free after the DPF.
An advantage is the increase in mass that passes both the
turbine and the compressor. Especially in low load points of the
engine, where EGR-rates are high and the overall gas flow is
small, the operating point of the turbocharger is moved into
areas with higher efficiency. This helps to improve the engines
fuel economy, compared to a SR-system. Another point that
helps to reduce the fuel consumption is the higher cooling
capacity in the LR-system. As the EGR is cooled by the EGR-
cooler and by the intercooler, the intake temperatures for the
LR-system will be lower and thus the heat losses in the engine
can be reduced [23].

Hybrid EGR System

The hybrid EGR system combines the long-route and the
short-route system, as Figure 13 illustrates. This way, it is
possible to use the EGR-path that fits the actual driving
situation best. Even a combination of both ways can lead to the
best engine efficiency in certain load points [24, 25].

Figure 13: Hybrid system, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF, 4: EGR-

Valve, 5: Exhaust throttle

Reed Valve in EGR System

A Reed valve, or one-way valve, is a valve that only allows flow
in one direction. It closes when there is a pressure ratio that
would otherwise lead to reverse flow. As the exhaust gas flow
is highly pulsating, the idea is that there could be flow in the

16
 Introduction

top of each pulse, even with an average pressure that is too

low to drive the flow. Figure 14 shows how the idea works in
principle.

Figure 14: Exhaust pulses that could be used with a Reed-valve [26]
The peak pressure of the exhaust pulses lies over the boost
pressure and would allow EGR flow. Between the peaks, the
EGR pressure is to low and there is a risk for backflow. This
risk can be eliminated by using a Reed-valve. Figure 15 shows
what such a valve could look like.

Figure 15: Example of a Reed-valve [26]

17
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

Venturi in EGR System

The venturi system works after the same principle as an
ejector pump. At the EGR-mixing point, the intake pipe is
contracted. This leads to a locally reduced static pressure. At
the point with the lowest pressure, the EGR is introduced. This
makes it possibly to locally increase the pressure drop that
drives the EGR flow. Downstream of the mixing point, the
diameter is increased to regain the static pressure.

Figure 16: Venturi system, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF, 4: EGR-

valve, 5: Venturi
A system that is marketed with this technology is the Varivent
system by Haldex, Figure 17. Here, a moveable body in the
center of the venturi pipe allows a regulation of the pumping
effect. A higher pumping effect with more EGR-flow leads to an
increased pressure in the intake piping.

Figure 17: Varivent system [27, 28]

Fast Rotating Valves

A method to increase the pressure drop that drives the EGR is
to throttle the intake air. But this decreases the intake pressure
and thus affects the overall efficiency of the engine by

18
 Introduction

increasing the pumping work. In the same time the delivered

amount of air is reduced which also reduces the amount of
tolerable EGR.

Figure 18: Fast rotating valve system, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF,

4: EGR-valve, 5: Fast rotating valve
To come around this problem, a system has been promoted by
Mahle that shall reduce the intake pressure temporarily for
better EGR-performance, while the average pressure drop is
kept low. This system consists of a fast rotating throttle in the
intake system, Figure 18. The intake air pressure is reduced
just in time for the exhaust pulses to press some EGR into the
intake, as Figure 19 illustrates. SLV stands for the German
schnellschaltendes Ladeluftventil meaning fast switching
charge air valve.

Figure 19: Fast rotating intake valve, detail [27]

Pump
A pump can be used in the EGR-system, to drive the flow. This
enables to deliver the desired amount of EGR in any driving

19
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

situation and no throttling is needed. A drawback is the fact

that the pump needs energy to be driven. This can be provided
either mechanically from the crankshaft or electrically from the
generator. In both cases it increases the fuel consumption and
the most efficient way has to be chosen. Electric drive has the
advantage that the speed regulation is independent from the
engine speed.

Figure 20: Pump EGR-system, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF, 4: EGR-

valve, 5: Pump

Turbocompound
A different kind of throttling the exhaust gas is the use of a
turbocompound turbine [29]. Here, an extra turbine is mounted
after the turbochargers turbine. This results in a higher exhaust
gas backpressure which enables higher EGR-flow. The
increased pumping work is not entirely lost in this case, as the
power turbine recovers some of the work and transmits it to the
crank shaft via a transmission, see Figure 21.

20
 Introduction

Figure 21: Exhaust system of Daimler HDEP engine [29]

21
2 Experimental Setup
For the work that was done in this study, both engine tests in
the test cell and a simulation of the engine in a computational
environment were used.

2.1 Engine
The engine used is a 1.9 liter direct injection diesel engine with
a VGT-turbocharger and cooled short-route EGR. More details
can be obtained from table 1. Figure 22 shows the engine in
the test cell.
Table 1: Engine details
Engine type DI turbocharged diesel, Euro 4

Displacement 1.91 liter

No. of cylinders 4

Power 110 kW / 150 hp

Torque 320 Nm @ 2000-2750 rpm

Injection system Common Rail w. 1600 bar max. pressure

Turbocharger Single-stage with VGT

22
 Experimental Setup

Figure 22: Test engine in test cell

For the run in the test-cell, the original air/air intercooler is
replaced by an air/water intercooler. The flow of the cooling
water is regulated in order to result in the same intake
temperature as measured on the original configuration. The
change of the intercooler also leads to a change in the piping.
Another modification on the test cell engine is that the exhaust
system is shortened and a throttle provides the pressure drop
that originally was caused by the aftertreatment systems.

2.2 Engine Test Cell

Measurement system
The engine is equipped with measurement systems to observe
pressure and temperature of the gases on various points of the
system. Additionally, the speed of the turbocharger, the
position of the VGT, air/fuel ratio and engine emissions are
measured. Cylinder 1 is equipped with a pressure sensor to
obtain heat-release data. The intake system has emission-
probe inlets, to allow measurements of EGR-distribution
between cylinders. Figure 23 shows the locations of the

23
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

different sensors for pressure (p), temperature (T),

turbocharger speed (n) as well as the lambda-sond (LA) and
the emission outtakes (EM).

Figure 23: Sensors placed on the engine

Data Acquisition System

Two different systems are used to control both the engine and
the test-cell with the measurement equipment, as well as to
record measurement data.
To control the test-cell environment and the measurement
equipment, a locally developed software, cell4, is used. It
allows data acquisition with high time resolution, 0.2 CA
timestep, for a maximum of 10 channels and data acquisition
with low time resolution for slower measurements like

24
 Experimental Setup

temperatures or emission concentrations. In the same time,

cell4 is used to give commands to the engine and the engine
dynamometer, such as torque demand and engine speed.
For communication with the engine, an open engine control
unit is used which is connected to a computer with the
commercial INCA software. This software allows access to the
engine calibration data. Thus, parameters such as VGT-
position or EGR-valve position can be controlled. In the same
time, the signals from or to the ECU can be recorded.

Engine Dynamometer
The engine dynamometer allows to control the torque at which
the engine is driven. The dynamometer used here is a
Schenck W260. It is designed for steady state driving
conditions, but with a modern control unit it is now possible to
run load transient with an acceptably stable engine speed.

Fast CO2 Measurement

To gain information about the EGR-distribution between the
cylinders, as well as the transient reaction of the EGR-rate, a
fast CO2 measurement was installed in the test cell. The
system has four measurement channels with a gas
transportation distance of 1 m each. This short distance
shortens the transport time of the gas. The analyzer itself has a
response time of 30ms [30], which gives a measurement
frequency of 33 Hz or 1.1 measurements per engine revolution
at 1800 rpm engine speed.
The four gas measurement probes were installed in the intake
pipe in such a way, that they follow the direction of the intake
ports. The insertion length of the probes can be changed to
vary the distance of the gas test point to the intake valve.
Figure 24 shows the probes in the intake plenum.

25
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

Figure 24: Probe placement in the intake plenum

The transient reaction of the system can be seen in Figure 25.
Only three cylinders are shown, as one measurement probe
had to be placed in the exhaust system for the calculation of
EGR-rate. Earlier test in steady state had shown that cylinder 3
and 4 had the least difference between them. Therefore, the
probe of cylinder 4 was moved to the exhaust side. On the
used engine, cylinder 4 is the cylinder closest to the EGR
mixing point. The transport time of the gases was taken into
account by synchronizing the CO2 reactions on both intake and
exhaust side.

26
 Experimental Setup

Figure 25: Transient EGR-rate in a load transient

2.3 Simulation Model

To simulate different EGR systems, the engine was modeled in
a one-dimensional simulation environment, the commercial
software GT-Power.
In GT-Power, engine models can be built up from library parts
like pipes and bends, where the dimensions of the parts are
adapted to match the real engine.
For the presented work, a base model was supplied by the
engine manufacturer. The model then had to be adapted to the
test-cell engine.
Once the geometrical model is set up, the model has to be
calibrated thermodynamically. This means that heat transfer
coefficients, flow coefficients and efficiencies of mechanical
parts are tuned in, so that the model behaves like the real
engine.

Model Calibration
In the first step, the model was calibrated in steady state. For
this calibration, a set of load points along the full load curve
was chosen. In the next step, the model was tested on nine
points in lower load areas. These nine points were chosen to

27
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

cover the area that is important for the modified new European
driving cycle, MNEDC.
The calibration process started with the full load points. Here it
was found that a small change in the compressor efficiency
multiplier helped to match the pressure ratio that occurred on
the engine and the turbocharger speed.
Another issue was the pressure loss over the intercooler as
well as the intercoolers damping behavior on pressure waves.
The intercooler had to be dismounted for measurements of the
internal volumes and cooling channels. The cooling efficiency
is provided by an efficiency map that represents the original
cooler.
When testing the calibration on the low-load points, it was
found that the turbocharger behavior was simulated with
insufficient accuracy. This is caused by the large extrapolation
that has to be done in the turbocharger maps. At these load
points, the turbocharger only runs at speeds around 30000 rpm,
while the lowest mapped speed lies at 70000 rpm. The large
extrapolation results in an overestimation of the turbine
efficiency. Therefore, the turbine efficiency multiplier has to be
reduced to reproduce the engines behavior. As the nine load
points tested result in different turbine speed regions, they all
get individual efficiency multipliers for the turbine. Figure 26
shows the found efficiency multipliers as a function of turbine
speed.

28
 Experimental Setup

1.1
Turbine Efficiency Multiplier
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000
Turbocharger Speed [rpm]

Figure 26: Turbine efficiency multiplier as a function of turbocharger

speed

2
p_plenum measured
1.9 p_plenum simulated
Inlet and Exhaust Pressure [bar]

1.8 p1T measured

p1T simulated
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Load Point Number

Figure 27: Mean inlet and exhaust pressure, measurements vs.

simulation

29
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

140000
measured
simulated
120000
Turbocharger Speed [rpm]

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Load Point Number

Figure 28: Turbocharger speed, measurements vs. simulation

Figure 29: Intake pressure pulsation, measurements vs. simulation

The transient calibration of the model showed to be

problematic. The behavior of the model regarding turbocharger
speed-up, intake and exhaust pressure build-up and thus the

30
 Experimental Setup

build-up of torque are all closely coupled to each other.

Anyway, they did not all match the measured curves. The
biggest problem seemed to be insufficient knowledge of the
turbocharger behavior. Several efforts were made to get closer
to the measured data.
The turbocharger speed-up is closely related to the
turbocharger-rotors mass moment of inertia. Therefore, the
turbocharger was dismounted and measured with a method
presented by Westin [31]. The measured valued showed to be
the same as was given by the engine manufacturer.
A database with combustion shapes from measurements was
built so that the model always could use realistic heat-release
rates during the transients. This is described in more detail in
the section heat-release rate.
The multiplier for turbine efficiency that was adjusted in steady-
state for changing turbocharger speed was also adjusted in the
transients, as shown in [32]. This way, the model came closer
to the real engine. The transient calibration was not pursued
further, as this was beyond the scope of this work.
In the focus of this work are the differences between different
EGR-systems. As the same base model is used for all models,
conclusions can be drawn even with some differences between
the base model and the real engine. Figure 30 through Figure
32 show some examples for the transient calibration. The main
attention was paid to the load response, as this is the most
important part for the transients.

31
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

Figure 30: Transient IMEP at 2000 rpm

Figure 31: Transient intake pressure at 2000 rpm

32
 Experimental Setup

Figure 32: Transient turbocharger speed at 2000 rpm

Buildup of the different EGR-Systems in GT-Power

Once the model is sufficiently calibrated, it can be modified to
perform the study of different EGR-systems. First of all, the
exhaust system of the model was changed to represent the
one in a car, and no longer the one of the test cell. This
included the addition of a particulate filter and a muffler.
The different EGR-systems that are analyzed are all based on
one calibrated model. All modifications are done in a way that
reflects realistic modifications. The piping for the long-route
system is a copy of the short-route systems piping.
For the transient simulation, a controller is needed that
increases the fuel flow. All other reactions like turbocharger
speed changes and pressure changes are a direct reaction to
the changed fuel mass.
The limiting factor for the rate of torque increase is the amount
of available oxygen for the combustion. To be sure to use
realistic limits, the original smoke map of the test engine is also
applied in the model. GT-Powers injection regulator uses the
measurement of air mass flow to calculate the actual air/fuel
ratio, but it only measures the total gas mass. This does not
take the effect of EGR into account, which reduces the oxygen
concentration in the gas mass. It is possible to measure the
flow just behind the air filter, where only fresh air passes. But

33
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

this leads to an error in transients with a long-route EGR

system. Here, a large volume is still filled with mixed air and
EGR and it takes some time until the fresh air that is measured
after the air filter really arrives in the intake plenum. This time
can not be neglected, because this would neglect one of the
biggest drawbacks of the long-route system.
Therefore, a routine was built in the model that takes care of
this problem.

Heat-Release Rate
A problematic issue in 1-dimensional simulations is the
simulation of diesel combustion. To come around this, it is
common practice to use measured combustion profiles from
real engines as an input to GT-Power. This is straightforward if
running in steady-state, if measurement data of the simulated
engine is available. During transients it can be more
complicated to find the right burn rate for a certain cycle. For
the transient simulation used in this work, a database of heat-
release rates was built up.
In the publications attached, load transients at three different
engine speeds are treated. To find matching combustion rates
for all cycles in the transients, the transients were run several
times with different settings for VGT-position and EGR-valve
position. This resulted in a large number of heat-release rates
for each transient, which had to be handled.
A matlab routine was developed that sorted the heat-release
rates into a map with respect to the cycle-individual intake
pressure and the EGR-rate. Figure 33 shows an example of a
group of heat-release rates of one transient. Figure 34 shows a
group out of this transient after the sorting with respect to
EGR-rate and intake pressure.

34
 Experimental Setup

140

120

Heat-release-rate [J/degCA]
100

80

60

40

20

0
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Crank Angle [deg]

Figure 33: All HRR collected over one transient

60
pintake-interval: 1.30-1.52 bar
50 EGR-interval: 0.180-0.275
Heat-release-rate [J/degCA]

40

30

20

10

0
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Crank Angle [deg]

Figure 34: One group of HRR, for a certain range of intake pressure
and EGR-rate
To be able to use a map in the simulation, one typical heat-
release rate from this group was chosen and put into the map
used for the simulation.
In the simulation of a transient, the heat-release rate is then
chosen individually for every cycle.

35
3 Discussion

3.1 Summary of Papers

Paper 1 - Transient EGR in a Long-Route and Short-

Route EGR-System
This paper compares the behavior of a SR and a LR EGR-
system in both steady-state and transient conditions.
To begin with, both systems are analyzed on their own. In the
short-route system, the placement of the EGR-valve is
changed from the cold side of the EGR-cooler to the hot side
for better transient response. In the long-route system, where
throttling is needed to have a differential pressure that drives
the EGR-flow, the location of the throttle is varied between
intake and exhaust pipe. The intake throttle shows to lead to
better engine efficiency due to better turbocharger
performance. To simulate the LR-system, the EGR-piping and
cooler are simply moved to the low-pressure side of the
turbocharger. As this leads to an increased volume flow
through the EGR-cooler, a size change of it is considered. But
the standard size from the SR-system shows to be sufficient
even for the LR-system.
In steady-state, the two systems are compared at a number of
load points and it is shown that the LR-system has potential to
decrease the engines fuel consumption. This is mainly
because of the higher efficiency of the turbocharger. Figure 35
illustrates how the working points are shifted in the compressor
map towards higher efficiency, as the arrow indicates. Another
reason is the lower intake temperature due to a higher cooling
capacity in the long-route system, as the EGR passes both
EGR-cooler and intercooler.

36
 Discussion

Figure 35: Compressor Efficiency Map with Working Points for SR and
LR system
The transient section is divided in two parts, transients with
EGR and transients without EGR. The analyzed transients are
load transients from 30 Nm to 120 Nm engine load and at 1500,
2000 and 2500 rpm.
The systems are compared with respect to the transient
response they provide. In transient with closed EGR valve,
there is almost no difference in the load response of SR and
LR system, as Figure 36 shows.
8

6
BMEP [bar]

LR, EGR-vave closed

3 LR, EGR-valve open
SR, EGR-valve on hot side, closed
SR, EGR-valve on hot side, open
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time [s]

Figure 36: Comparison of transient BMEP with open vs. closed EGR-
valve at 2000 rpm
For the transients with open EGR-valve, it is analyzed which
system allows to run the transient with EGR and thus to
decrease the transient NOX emission peak. Here, the long-

37
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

route system shows a clear advantage as it allows running the

transient with EGR and without compromising the transient
response, while the EGR-rate is even higher than in the short-
route system. Figure 37 shows the EGR-rates of both systems
while the transient response is included in Figure 36 above.
50
LR
SR, EGR-valve on cold side
45
SR, EGR-valve on hot side

40
EGR-rate [%]

35

30

25

20

15

10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time [s]

Figure 37: Transient EGR-rate at 2000 rpm with open EGR-valve

Paper 2 - Transient EGR in a High-Speed DI Diesel

Engine for a set of different EGR-Routings
In this paper, several EGR-systems are compared. The SR
and the LR system are combined to build a hybrid EGR system.
In addition to that, a reed-valve is tested, placed between the
EGR-cooler and the mixing point. As a third system, a pump is
included in the EGR loop of a LR-system, to be able to avoid
throttling.
It is shown that the hybrid system allows optimizing each
driving point with regard to fuel consumption, by choosing the
right combination of SR and LR EGR. The reed system does
not provide any benefit on the analyzed engine. The pump can
help to reduce pumping losses, as long as the pump has a
sufficient efficiency.
In the transient analysis, a sweep between fully SR and fully
LR EGR is run for the hybrid system. The positive load
transients are transients from very low load up to full load,
while the negative transients do the inverse. The EGR is shut
off completely at the start of the positive transients. It is shown
that the transportation time of the air and EGR lead to an

38
 Discussion

advantage of the SR system in the beginning of the transient.

Anyway the higher turbocharger speed in transients with more
LR-EGR in the beginning leads to an earlier buildup of full
torque.
The EGR valves and throttles are directly set to their final
values in the negative transient. This leads to an overshoot of
the EGR-rate in the LR-system in the same time as it takes
time for the EGR to arrive in the intake, Figure 38. This is due
to the high pressure that builds up in the exhaust system when
the exhaust throttle is closed. A pump instead of a throttle can
solve this problem. The delay in EGR delivery can only be
shortened by the use of the short-route path for the EGR.

Figure 38: EGR-rate for a SR/LR sweep in negative load transient

3.2 Ongoing Work

Presently work is done on two other EGR-systems, this time
for a heavy duty diesel engine with 12.7 liters of swept volume
and 360 hp. The systems are a venturi system and a system
with fast-rotating valves, as presented earlier.
The study of these two systems shall show their potential to
increase the EGR-rate in high-load driving situations. As they
help to increase the driving pressure for the EGR, the VGT can
be used at points with better efficiency or it might be replaced
by a turbine with fixed geometry.

39
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

The venturi system is simulated with the help of measurement

data from a flow testbench. As the 1D-environment does not
allow the physical representation of such a system, a way
around that has to be used. In this case it was chosen to cut
the EGR-loop just before the EGR-mixing point. Then two
boxes were put on each open end, as Figure 39 shows.
These boxes represent End Flow Inlet parts in GT-Power,
which allow to impose a volume flow with a chosen
temperature and a chosen gas composition. One of these is
used to suck out the desired amount of EGR while the other
one blows in the same amount into the EGR mixing point.

Figure 39: Venturi EGR model, 1: EGR-cooler, 2: CAC, 3: DPF, 4:

Throttle, 5: End Flow Inlet

The pressure drop that occurs for a certain combination of inlet

and outlet conditions is then found in a map and imposed to
the pipe right after the mixing point. Figure 40 shows
schematically how the information is transmitted between parts
to calculate the right flow rates and the pressure drop.

40
 Discussion

Air

m
1.4
& air p
p 1.2

EGR 0.8

Ploss [Bar]
p,T 0.6

pLoss 0.4

0.2

-0.2
0
2 1.5 1 0.5 0.05
0 -0.5
0.1

EGR- Ppump [Bar]

3
Vegr [m /s]

rate
m
& EGR
&
V EGR

Figure 40: Model of the venturi system, detail

The fast rotating valve is in the model represented by an orifice

connection with a changing discharge coefficient. The
discharge coefficient is defined as the open flow area divided
by the reference flow area:
Aeff
CD =
Aref
In a pipe with rectangular cross-section, as depicted in Figure
41, these areas can be calculated by the following:
ab(1 cos )
for 0 < < 90 : C D = = 1 cos
ab
With: a,b the sides of the throttle body
the throttle angle

This leads to a shape as shown in Figure 42.

41
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

Figure 41: The rotating valve

0.8

0.6
CD

0.4

0.2

0
0 100 200 300
Throttle Angle []

Figure 42: Discharge coefficient of the rotating valve

To get the best effect out of such a system, it is crucial to have
the right phasing of the valves rotation. The low pressure
pulses that are induced by the valve need to arrive at the
mixing point at the same time as the high pressure pulses in
the EGR pipe. The rotational speed is adapted to the engine
speed, as the pulses in the EGR-system come from exhaust
valve opening events. In a six-cylinder engine there are three
pulses per engine revolution. As the throttle is closed only two
times per revolution, it has to be driven with 1.5 times the
engine speed. An interesting point will be the analysis of the
optimum closing duration of the throttle.

42
4 Conclusions
This study gives an overview over different ways to achieve
EGR-flow in diesel engines. Advantages and drawbacks of
these ways are analyzed and compared with regard to fuel
consumption, achievable maximum EGR-rate and transient
response.
It is shown that the long-route EGR path leads to lower fuel
consumption. This extra potential can also be used to increase
the EGR-rate without increasing the fuel consumption. The
cooler does not have to be bigger than in the short-route
system. In the contrary, it is important not to cool the EGR too
much, as condensation droplets could destroy the compressor
wheel.
The long-route system has a slower response to changes in
the EGR demand than the short route system, because of its
larger volume that is filled with a mixture of fresh air and EGR.
However, the long-route system provides a faster response to
load increases, due to its better use of the turbocharger. In
addition to that it can tolerate a certain amount of EGR during
the transient, without losing transient performance.
To overcome the slow transient EGR response in the LR-
system, for example in negative load transients, it can be
combined with a SR-system. Together, they form a hybrid
system where each of the EGR-paths is used when it is best.
In steady-state they can be used together to optimize the use
of the turbocharger. In cold conditions the SR-path can be
used to make sure that no condensation occurs before the
compressor.
As another step in optimizing the EGR-system a pump can be
used in the long-route path to provide the needed pressure
drop to drive the EGR-flow. This can further improve the EGR-
potential and increase the overall efficiency of the engine, if the
pump has a good efficiency.

43
5 Outlook
Further research in this project will analyze the use of a Venturi
injector to increase the pressure drop to drive EGR. Another
system that will be analyzed uses rotating valves to induce
pressure pulses, which in return help to provide higher EGR-
rates.
A detailed analysis of EGR distribution in a heavy duty engine
is planned. Both steady-state and transient measurements will
be carried out. This will provide data to compare with CFD
simulations that will simultaneously be carried out at KTH
mechanics.
In cooperation with the CERC center in Gothenburg, the
gained knowledge of EGR-systems and simulation tools will be
used to design the gas management system for an engine. In a
CERC project, a low-emission diesel combustion concept is
developed that has high demands on both EGR-rate and
charge air pressure.

44
6 Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Hans-Erik ngstrm and
my co-supervisor Nils Tillmark for the provided support and
interesting discussions we had.
Thanks go also to the people at Saab Powertrain and Scania
who provided support, information and the test-engine.
This work was supported by CICERO (Centre for Internal
Combustion Engine Research Opus), a competence centre at
KTH, sponsored by the Swedish Energy Agency, vehicle
industry in Sweden and KTH.
For the nice working atmosphere I would like to thank all
colleagues at the internal combustion engines division. Special
thanks go also to our lab technicians Eric, Tommy, Bengt and
Jack for helping me with all my engine and measurement
problems.
Last but not least I would like to thank my family and friends for
their continuous support. I thank Anna for her love and Ida for
the joy she gives us.

45
7 References
1 Verband der Automobilindustrie, VDA Jahresbericht 2009

2 Dietsche, K.-H., Klingebiel, M. (editors), Bosch

Automotive Handbook, 7th edition, 2007

3 Heywood, J.B., Internal Combustion Engine

Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988

4 Kahrstedt, J.; Blechstein, A.; Maiwald, O.; Kabitzke, J.:

Grundlegende Untersuchungen zu Low-NOX-
Brennverfahren fr PKW-Dieselmotoren unter Nutzung
zustzlicher Variabilitten, 6.Internationales Stuttgarter
Symposium, 2005.

5 Grtner, U.: Die Simulation der Stickoxid-Bildung in

Nutzfahrzeug-Dieselmotoren; Dissertation, Universitt
Darmstadt (TU), 2001

6 Jungnelius, S., Svartengren, M., Hlsoeffekter av

trafikavgaser, Rapport frn Yrkesmedicinska enheten,
2000

7 Charlton, S., Heavy Duty Diesel Emission Control

Symposium, presentation, 2007

8 Schubiger, R. A.: Untersuchungen zur Rubildung und -

oxidation in der dieselmotorischen Verbrennung -
Thermodynamische Kenngren, Verbrennungsanalyse
und Mehrfarbenendoskopie; Dissertation, ETH Zrich,
2001

9 Xi, J., Zhong, B.-J., Soot in Diesel Combustion Systems,

Review, Chem. Eng. Technol. 2006, 29, No. 6

10 Merker, G.; Schwarz, C.; Stiesch, G.; Otto, F.: Ver-

brennungsmotoren. Simulation der Verbrennung und
Schadstoffbildung. B.-G.-Teubner-Verlag, Wiesbaden,
2006

46
 References

11 Tofighi, R., Tillmark, N., Dar, E., Aberg, A.M., Larsson,

J.E., Ceccatelli, S., Hypoxia-independent apoptosis in
neural cells exposed to carbon monoxide in vitro, Brain
Res. 2006 Jul 7;1098(1):1-8. Epub 2006 Jun 13.PMID:
16777078

12 Neumann, D., Schrade, F., Basse, N., Schffner, J.,

Tschiggfrei, W., Krmer, L., Carbon Monoxide - The New
Emission Challenge for Diesel Passenger Cars, MTZ
worldwide Edition: 2009-08

13 Ferkel, H., Bachmann, M., Volpp, H.-R., Stwe, K.,

Hensgen, L., Precious-metal-free Nano Catalysts for
diesel Particulate Filters, MTZ worldwide, 2010-02

14 Fasolo, B. Hardy, J.-P., Leroy, K., Exhaust Fuel Injection

System for Efficient DPF Regenerations, ATZ
autotechnology Edition: 2009-05

15 Friedrich, C., Incln, T., Wilmes, B., Brichzin, V., Eller,

M., Diesel Vaporizer for Particulate Filter Regeneration,
MTZ worldwide Edition: 2009-05

16 http://www.truckscr.com/SCRNews.htm on 2010-01-22

17 Cloudt, R., Baert, R., Willems, F., Vergouwe, M., SCR-

only Concept for Heavy-duty Euro VI Applications, MTZ
worldwide Edition: 2009-09

18 DieselNet Technology Guide: Engine Design for Low

Emissions, www.dieselnet.com, Ecopoint Inc. Revision
2006.11

19 Patchett, J., Verbeek, R., Grimston, K., Rice, G.,

Calabrese, J., Van Genderen, M., Control System for
mobile NOx SCR, United States Patent Application
Publication, US 2004/0128982 A1, 2004

20 Reifarth, S., ngstrm, H.-E., Transient EGR in a long-

route and short-route EGR-system, ASME ICES2009-
76107

47
EGR-Systems for Diesel Engines

21 Zhang, R., Charles, F., Ewing, D., Chang, J.-S., Cotton,

J.S., Effect of Diesel Soot Deposition on the
Performance of EGR-coolers, SAE 2004-01-0122

22 Mnz, S., Rmuss, C., Schmidt, P., Brune, K.-H.,

Schiffer, H.-P., Diesel Engines with Low-Pressure
Exhaust-Gas Recirculation Challenges for the
Turbocharger, MTZ 02/2008

23 Millo, F., Ferraro, C.V., Gianoglio Bernardi, M., Barbero,

S., Pasero, P., Experimental and Computational Analysis
of Different EGR Systems for a Common Rail Passenger
Car Diesel Engine, SAE 2009-01-0672

24 Reifarth, S., ngstrm, H.-E., Transient EGR in a High-

Speed DI Diesel Engine for a set of different EGR-
routings, SAE Technical Paper 2010-01-1271

25 Keller, P.S., Joegl, V., Weber, O., Czarnowski, R.,

Enabling Components for Future Clean Diesel Engines,
SAE 2008-01-1530

26 A. Pfeifer, M. Smeets, H.O Herrmann, D. Tomazic, F.

Richert and A. Shlo_er. A new approach to boost
pressure and EGR rate control development for HD truck
engines with VGT. SAE paper 2002-01-0964

27 Weiss, J., Verbesserte Motorbetriebswerte durch

massgeschneiderte ATL-Kennfelder, 14.
Aufladetechnische Konferenz, Dresden, 2009

28 Berggren, G., Exhaust Gas Recirculation System for

Gasoline Engines, United States Patent Application
Publication, US 2008/0066725 A1, 2008

29 Heil; B., Schmid; W., Teigeler, M., Sladek, W., ing, H.,
Arndt, S., Melcher, S., The New Daimler Heavy
Commercial Vehicle Engine Series, MTZ worldwide
Edition: 2009-01

30 Instruction Manual, Horiba MEXA-1300FRI, Horiba Ltd.,

1991

48
 References

31 Westin, F., Simulation of turbocharged SI-engines with

focus on the turbine, Doctoral Thesis, KTH Machine
Design, 2005

32 Winkler, N., ngstrm, H.-E., Simulations and

Measurements of a Two-Staged Turbocharged Heavy-
Duty Diesel Engine Including EGR in Transient
Operation, SAE 2008-01-0539

49