RMLE Online Volume 33, No.

Micki M. Caskey, Ph.D., Editor

Portland State University
Portland, Oregon

2009 Volume 33 Number 4 ISSN 1940-4476

Adolescents Psychological Well-Being and Perceived Parental Involvement:

Implications for Parental Involvement in Middle Schools

Kayla Cripps
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Carbondale, IL

Brett Zyromski
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Carbondale, IL

Abstract
Adolescence is a critical period of development. perceptions of parental involvement, (b) the parenting
Previous research suggests parent involvement in style related to higher levels of psychological well-
school directly impacts student success. However, being, and (c) the impact of assorted parenting styles
different types of parental involvement and the on adolescent psychological well-being. It concludes
efforts of middle school personnel to educate parents with implications for middle school systems, middle
about these effective practices have received scant school counselors, families, parents, and community
attention in the literature. The level and type of members.
parental involvement, as perceived by adolescents,
is correlated with adolescent psychological well- Introduction
being. Perceived parental involvement positively
Adolescence is a critical period of development.
or negatively affects adolescents' sense of
Adolescents are continuously changing mentally,
psychological well-being, especially self-esteem,
physically, and psychologically (Santrock, 2004).
self-evaluation, and peer relationships. Parenting
They are learning more about the real world and
style greatly influences childrens development as
trying to strive for both independence from parents
well. The authoritative/democratic parenting style
and inclusion in social groups (Santrock & Yussen,
influences middle school children, leading to positive
1984). Adolescents want to be perceived as adults
developmental outcomes, positive adolescent self-
with capable decision-making skills, but also want to
evaluations, higher levels of adolescent self-esteem
remain members of a large peer group. Additionally,
and adjustment, while also positively influencing
these young people desire support and structure
levels of intrinsic motivation for learning. This article
from their parents, though they project an indifferent
reviews research related to (a) adolescents
demeanor and challenge the supportive measures of

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their parents. Whether parents are involved in and of their lives, such as relationships, support, and work
support their adolescents school life can directly affect (Amato, 1994; Flouri & Buchanan, 2003; Knoester,
their personal and social development as well as their 2003; Roberts & Bengtson, 1993; Wilkinson, 2004).
academic success (Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Harris & For adolescents, psychological distress can result in
Goodall, 2008; Jeynes, 2007). the possession of many negative personal thoughts
and emotions. Diong and associates (2005) suggested
Previous research has shown parent involvement in that psychological distress is associated with anger
school directly impacts student success (Harris & and stress. Furthermore, psychological distress was
Goodall, 2008; Jeynes, 2007; Sirvani, 2007; Whitmore also positively correlated with physical illnesses (such
& Norton-Meier, 2008). However, types of involvement as the cold and flu) and other problematic symptoms.
and efforts to educate parents about the most effective People experiencing distress ignored or avoided
types of involvement during the middle school years stressful situations and also avoided possible sources
have received scant attention in the literature. This of support when these stressful situations occurred
article focuses on adolescents and their psychological (Diong et al.; Diong & Bishop, 1999; Houston &
well-being. Specifically, two research questions were Vavak, 1991). Therefore, psychological distress not
used as guides for the study. First, do adolescents who only affects an individuals psychological health, but
have a higher level of perceived parental involvement also his or her physical health and behavior patterns.
have a higher level of psychological well-being?
Second, which parenting style is related to higher Young adults with low psychological well-being may
levels of psychological well-being? The purpose of the encounter lower levels of happiness, satisfaction,
article is to discuss possible applications of the answers and self-esteem, while experiencing high levels of
to these questions to increase parental involvement distress (Amato, 1994). Similarly, adolescents who
in middle schools by developing home and school possess low psychological well-being or psychological
relationships. Answers to these questions are also used distress may also exhibit characteristics of low levels
to frame productive middle school parent programming of happiness and self-efficacy, along with high levels of
and education efforts. depression (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003). Furthermore,
these adolescents may view social problems as being
The Adolescent-Parent Relationship and more serious than other youth (Wilkinson, 2004). In
Psychological Well-Being summary, adolescents with low psychological well-
being tend to form less than desirable self-evaluations,
The relationship between perceived parental which significantly affect their happiness and
involvement and adolescent psychological well- satisfaction.
being is based on two realities. The first reality,
the home environment, is the initial social arena in Although extensive research has been conducted
which adolescents have remained more consistently related to the effects of parental involvement and
under the influence and supervision of their parents. adolescents well-being, further exploration is
Later, these individuals begin to seek an alternate necessary to discover the correlation between
reality, separating from parents and seeking inclusion adolescents psychological well-being and perceived
with peers during adolescence (Bossard & Boll, parental involvement and parenting styles. This article
1966; Santrock & Yussen, 1984). Adolescents begin will determine how perceived parental involvement
building their own self-concept through observing the and parenting styles affect adolescent psychological
reactions directed toward them by vital individuals well-being. Furthermore, the article will emphasize
in their lives (Gibson & Jefferson, 2006). Personal how schools can use this knowledge to benefit
experiences that evolve from the parent-adolescent adolescent students by using the American School
relationship are the initial source that sets in motion Counseling Associations (ASCA) National Model for
the cycle of how adolescents will self-evaluate School Counseling Programs (2005).
and interact with others. In other words, the type
of relationship they experience with their parents Attachment and the Adolescent-Parent
is thought to foreshadow their attitudes toward Relationship
themselves and the quality of relationships they will
have with their peers (Gecas, 1971; Wilkinson, 2004). Adolescence is viewed as the most traumatic or
challenging period of time within the parent-child
Psychological well-being refers to how individuals relationship (Santrock & Yussen, 1984). Adolescence
self-evaluate and their ability to fulfill certain aspects is the stage of life when people experience continuous

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changementally, physically, and psychologically evaluation reference points such as self-satisfaction

(Santrock, 2004). Parent involvement remains critical and happiness. Further, Amato and Ochiltrees
to the adolescent-parent relationship, because the level study investigated structural family resources (i.e.,
of involvement signals to youth their importance to family income, parent's occupational status, parent's
the parents (Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986). Furthermore, education, and other resources embedded in the
when parents give forth effort to increase their family environment) and family process resources
knowledge of adolescents behaviors, interests, and (i.e., parent's aspirations and expectations; the
activities, it emphasizes parental caring and supports amount of help, interest, and attention given; and
the adolescent-parent relationship (Stattin & Kerr, other ongoing and dynamic resources) to determine
2000). Actions, however, are not the only aspect of their assistance with reading ability, self-esteem,
the adolescent-parent relationship that demonstrate everyday skills, and social competence of participants
parental affection. The emotional context in which ranging from children to adolescents. This study
parents act also greatly influences parents' impact on of 195 primary school-aged participants and 207
their adolescents (Steinberg, 2001). Adolescents level secondary school-aged participants noted that reading
of confidence in relationships and level of security ability, everyday skills, and social competence were
are greatly affected by any instability present in all related to both structural and process resources
parent-child relationships. This insecurity can be due in staggering degrees, while self-esteem was more
to parent emotional unavailability or other behaviors closely related to process resources. In addition,
expressed through parenting styles or negative life family structure resources were found to be more
events. significant to the secondary school-aged participants.
Specific to adolescents, self-esteem was found to have
On the other hand, parents are not the only important positive correlation with adolescents talking with
influence during adolescence. Adolescents expand their their fathers, perceiving their fathers to be interested
social realm by intensifying the significance of the in their lives, and frequency of family activities.
relationships they possess with their peers (Santrock & On the other hand, negative correlation in regard to
Yussen, 1984). Sullivan (1953), who was noted as being occurrences of yelling and screaming among family
the most influential theorist to discuss the importance members was also noted.
of adolescent friendships, argued that emotional
well-being is built upon stable attachments, contented In addition, Gecas and Schwalbes (1986) study
friendships, acceptance among peers, affection, and explored the correlation between parents perceptions
intimate closeness (as cited in Santrock, 2004, p. 414). of their parental involvement and adolescents
Indeed, as individuals develop, there is an increase in perceptions of their parents involvement. Effects
the significance of peer approval in relation to self-worth of these viewpoints in regard to adolescents
(Harter, 1999). However, throughout adolescence the identification of self-worth, self-efficacy, and self-
relationship between parental approval and self-worth esteem were also investigated. This follow-up study
remains constant. noted no similarities between how the parents viewed
their involvement and how the adolescents viewed
Research Conducted on Effects of Parental their parents involvement. Likewise, the adolescents
Involvement identifications of self-worth, self-efficacy, and
Throughout the last 40 years, many studies have self-esteem were more closely associated with their
been conducted to explore parental involvement and thoughts pertaining to their parents involvement
the effect it has on psychological well-being (Amato, rather than to their parents assumptions of the degree
1994; Amato & Ochiltree, 1986; Buri, Kirchner, & of their parental involvement. Gecas and Schwalbe
Walsh, 1987; Dekovic & Meeus, 1997; Dmitrieva, recognized that the data obtained during this study
Chen, Greenberger, & Gil-Rivas, 2004; Doyle & allowed for speculation and not causality due to the
Markiewicz, 2005; Farrell & Barnes, 1993; Gecas, survey format used.
1971; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Gibson & Jefferson,
2006; Roberts & Bengtson, 1993; Steinberg, 2001; A later study conducted by Buri and colleagues (1987)
Wilkinson, 2004). Gecas study of 620 16- to 17- explored how parental nurturance may affect young
year-olds suggested that parental support was, in adults levels of self-esteem far greater than parental
fact, affiliated with adolescent self-evaluation, with self-esteem, marital satisfaction between parents,
an increase of perceived parental support improving and family size. This study included 81 participants
the adolescents self-evaluations; the study also noted attending a northern Midwest college, specifically
the possible need for exploration into other self- described as being white, Catholic, middle class,

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ethnically diverse, and children of married parents, self-esteem and lower levels of offspring distress.
with an average age of 19.2 years. Findings suggested Interestingly, in cases of divorce, the correlation
the relationship between parental nurturance and the between closeness to father and life satisfaction
adolescents self-esteem was significantly related. was significantly weaker. Amato ended his study
The results from this study may not be externalized to noting that a lack of studies related to the father-child
other populations due to the specific characteristics of relationship reveals a need for more research in the
the group studied. area of lifelong paternal contributions to the well-
being of children.
In 1993, Farrell and Barnes study explored the effects
of cohesion and adaptability in relation to the optimal Dekovic and Meeuss (1997) study explored
functioning of both whole families and independent adolescent-parent and adolescent-peer relationships.
family members. A sample of 699 families located This study of 508 families, composed of adolescents
in a large northeastern city was analyzed, with aged 12 to 18, found the level of self-concept
the most powerful results from this study being a possessed by adolescents, along with the degree
consistent linear relationship among the variables of of parental support they received, was related to
cohesion and functionality of the family members. the ability of the adolescent to obtain healthy peer
More specifically, a cohesive family possesses greater relationships. Further, adolescents who were found
individual member functionality, appropriate parent- to have a more fulfilling relationship with parents
child communication, significant marital agreement, had healthier relationships with peers. Parents who
and applicable adolescent children behavioral built fulfilling relationships with their adolescents
outcomes. However, the study represented only the were more knowledgeable about their adolescents
population of a large northeastern metropolitan area, activities and veered away from the use of love
leaving out all other populations. withdrawal as a method of discipline. Yet, Dekovic
and Meeus use of the cross-sectional methodology
That year, Roberts and Bengtson (1993) also resulted in an inability to determine causality.
conducted a longitudinal study to determine how
quality of the parent-child relationship affects the Steinberg (2001) conducted a literature review to
young adults psychologically. Completing the study answer two questions: Is adolescence a time of
were 293 parent-child pairs, with the child being parent-child conflict, and How do variations in
a 14-year-old adolescent. The results noted that the parent-child relationship affect the developing
parent-child affection did affect the levels of filial adolescent? The findings noted that day-to-day
self-esteem during periods of late adolescence and conflicts over what psychologists considered normal
early adulthood. On the other hand, the researchers issues were not relevant to adolescents but did cause
also reported that individuals in possession of adult worry for parents. Furthermore, parents actions were
roles such as jobs, marriage partners and children, found to be important even when children reached
were less affected by their personal parent-child adolescence, with the authoritative parenting style
relationship in regard to their levels of self-esteem being related to the developmental outcomes of self-
and psychological well-being. The study supported reliance, achievement motivation, pro-social behavior,
that affection established early in the parent-child self-control, cheerfulness, and social confidence.
relationship remained a psychological benefit even Steinberg noted that this information is not beneficial
after the children reached adulthood. Roberts and unless parents are educated about the findings.
Bengtson, however, were unable to incorporate
direct measures of identity salience in their study; Flouri and Buchanan (2003) determined that parental
thus, only indefinite inferences can be made (p. 274). involvement notably affected adolescents levels of
psychological well-being based on their study of
In his longitudinal study, Amato (1994) argued that 2,722 British adolescents whose ages ranged from 14
the degree of attachment possessed independently to 18. More specifically, they noted the psychological
in both father-child and mother-child relationships well-being concept of happiness was positively related
were positively related to the grown childrens to self-efficacy and age while being negatively related
psychological well-being. This national study of 471 to feelings of depression. However, limitations were
young adult participants discovered that closeness noted in the areas of single-item proxies, clustering,
to mothers and fathers correlated positively with and the cross-sectional nature of the study (Flouri
offspring happiness and life satisfaction while also & Buchanan). Dmitrieva and associates' (2004)
significantly contributing to increased offspring study of 201 United States adolescents, 502 Chinese

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adolescents, 497 Korean adolescents, and 495 Czech aged participants and their parents involved in a
Republic adolescents showed that perceived parental GEAR UP program (Gaining Early Awareness of
involvement and parent-adolescent conflict influenced Readiness for Undergraduate programs) supported
negative life events. Further, poorer quality of parent- the hypothesis that as perceived parental involvement
adolescent relationships was found to influence increases so does the adolescents self-concept.
levels of adolescent depressed mood. Consequently, In addition, the increased use of growth-fostering
the family-related life events and adolescent relationships also improved adolescents self-concept.
problem behaviors were influenced by lower levels Gibson and Jefferson noted that sample size, self-
of perceived parental involvement, higher levels of reporting, number of measured items, and the
parent-adolescent conflict, and perceived parental specificity of the population were possible limitations.
restrictions of adolescent misconduct. In conclusion,
the coherent theme that parents behaviors do affect To review, previous research supports the hypothesis
how adolescents evaluate themselves and how they that high levels of perceived parental involvement do
deal with life events was clearly illustrated. The positively affect adolescents sense of psychological
cross-sectional nature of the study, dependence on well-being, especially in the areas of self-esteem and
adolescent self-reports, and use of restricted samples, self-evaluation (Amato, 1994; Amato & Ochiltree,
were weaknesses of the study (Dmitrieva et al.). 1986; Buri et al., 1987; Flouri & Buchanan, 2003;
Gecas, 1971; Gibson & Jefferson, 2006; Roberts &
Wilkinson (2004) analyzed and conducted three Bengtson, 1993). Furthermore, studies by Dekovic
studies consisting of high school-aged participants and Meeus (1997) and Wilkinson (2004) support the
to identify the correlation between adolescents argument a relationship exists between perceived
psychological health and parental attachment, peer parental involvement, levels of self-esteem at
attachment, and self-esteem. The first study included adolescence, and peer relationships. Dmitrieva and
1,998 Norwegian participants, with the second study associates (2004) proposed that even the frequency
including 358 Australian participants, and the third of negative familial life events affected perceived
study including 345 Australian participants. The parental involvement and parent-adolescent conflict.
result indicated self-esteem was a determinate of Finally, Gecas and Schwalbe (1986) found that
how influential peer and parental attachment were although parents and adolescents do not agree in their
in regards to adolescent psychological health. The views of parental involvement, adolescents use their
adolescents level of self-esteem determined how perceptions of parental involvement to judge personal
impactful peer and parental relationships were in levels of self-worth, self-efficacy, and self-esteem.
determining their psychological health. Furthermore,
the results showed that parent-adolescent relationships Parenting Styles
influenced the peer relationships that formed later.
However, these studies were also cross-sectional in Parenting styles are defined as the behaviors,
nature, and Wilkinson noted that longitudinal data attitudes, and values parents use to determine how
would be a useful addition to the research. they interact with their children (Mussen, 1983).
The three parenting styles presented here are the
Doyle and Markiewiczs (2005) study of 175 authoritarian/autocratic, the authoritative/democratic,
adolescents suggested that parenting does affect and the permissive/laissez-faire. These parenting
adolescents ability to adjust. Greater levels of styles were first introduced during a study conducted
psychological control were found to increase by Baumrind (1966). Each style demonstrates a
adolescents ability to internalize problems. Further, particular relationship that occurs between the parents
parental warmth was found to foretell an increase in and children at a specific point in time. Relationships
adolescents self-esteem while also foreshadowing initiated during childhood affect how adolescents
a decrease in adolescents ability to externalize view their parents availability and form relationships
problems. Doyle and Markiewicz noted that the sample with others. (Baumrind 2005; Chan & Chan, 2005;
size and number of measured items used were limited, Santrock, 1990). The diversity of parenting styles
and the use of self-reporting also weakened the study. is further explained by the characteristics of each
style. Therefore, this section of the article includes
Gibson and Jefferson (2006) investigated whether extensive definitions of each parenting style and the
the self-concept of adolescents was affected by research related to each to analyze which parenting
their relationships with family, peers, mentors, and style may be the most effective for positively
community groups. This study of 78 middle school- impacting adolescent psychological well-being.

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Authoritarian/Autocratic Parenting Style who exercise the authoritative/democratic parenting

Chan and Chan (2005), Mussen (1983), Santrock style are notably often cheerful, self-controlled,
(1990, 2004) described the authoritarian parenting self-reliant, achievement-oriented, maintain friendly
style as confining and punishing. Parents demand relations with peers, cooperate with adults, and cope
adolescents comply with their rules while also well with stress (Santrock, 2004, p. 277).
demanding adolescents meet their standards for
work and effort in whatever they do. Parents using Permissive/Laissez-Faire Parenting Style
this parenting style enforce strict boundaries and Parents who use the permissive parenting style
restraints on the adolescent and submit to only a establish miniscule amounts of control and are
minute amount of compromise. Parents who use unavailable to aid their children throughout
this technique are the bosses and intend to have decision-making processes (Chan & Chan, 2005).
complete control over their adolescents behaviors Santrock (1990) divided the permissive/laissez-
and activities (Mussen; Santrock 1990, 2004). This faire parenting style into two separate techniques;
parent-adolescent relationship is described as one the permissive indifferent parenting style and the
of giving and taking of commands with little other permissive indulgent parenting style. Parents who
communication present. Adolescent behaviors use the permissive indifferent parenting style do
associated with this parenting style are anxiety and not participate in their adolescents lives (Santrock,
social comparison, failure to initiate activity, and 2004). They are thought to be heedless and impassive.
ineffective social interaction (Santrock, 1990, p. 214). Adolescent behaviors associated with this parenting
Further, these children are notably unhappy, fearful, style are non-existence of self-control, social
anxious about comparing themselves with others, fail incompetence, inability to handle independence,
to initiate activity, and have weak communication possession of low self-esteem, immaturity, and
skills (Santrock, 2004, p. 277). possible alienation from the family (Mussen, 1983;
Santrock, 2004). The behavioral patterns of truancy
Authoritative/Democratic Parenting Style and delinquency are also evident (Santrock, 2004).
Steinberg (2001) described the authoritative/
democratic parenting style in this way: Parents On the other hand, parents who use the permissive
are warm and involved, but firm and consistent indulgent parenting style require nothing; they
in establishing and enforcing guidelines, limits, completely accept and submit to their adolescents
and developmentally appropriate expectations (Santrock, 1990, 2004). Santrock explained that
(p. 7). Santrock (1990, 2004) further described parents who use this parenting style are very involved
authoritative/democratic parenting as a style that in their adolescents lives but also encourage freedom
advocates independence while still maintaining in behaviors and actions. Consequently, adolescents
boundaries and structure over actions. This support develop behaviors such as a disregard for rules and
of independence or autonomy allows for a sense of the expectation that anything and everything is
self-efficacy, agency, and individuation that enable allowed (Santrock, 1990). Further, this parenting style
persons to be self-determining (Baumrind, 2005, p. leads to a lack of respect and an inability to control
67). Parents using this technique allow compromise personal behaviors; these children or adolescents may
and are noted as being the most flexible in their be domineering, egocentric, non-compliant, and
regulation of behaviors. Regulation of behaviors is have difficulties in peer relation (Santrock, 2004,
completed through explanation rather than enforcing p. 277).
stern punishment (Baumrind; Chan & Chan,
Research Conducted on Parenting Styles
2005). The authoritative/democratic parent also
Research related to the different parenting styles often
uses communication styles that create a nurturing
focuses on the authoritative pattern, with Baumrind
environment for their adolescents, while parents
being noted as one of the leading researchers on
exhibit pleasure and support to them (Mussen,
the topic (Baumrind, 1996, 2005; Mussen, 1983;
1983; Santrock). These parents openly show deep
Santrock, 1990; Santrock, 2004). Steinbergs (2001)
caring for their children and determination to know
description of the authoritative/democratic parenting
their whereabouts and the events occurring in their
style was also mentioned often throughout the
lives. This parenting style also supports parental
research. In addition, Steinberg noted the actions
participation and emphasizes setting behavioral
of parents were considered significant both during
boundaries while allowing psychological exploration
adolescence and after adolescence. More specifically,
(Baumrind; Mussen; Santrock). Children of parents
he indicated the authoritative parenting style was

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related to the positive developmental outcomes of levels of adolescent self-esteem, and adjustment, along
self-reliance, achievement motivation, pro-social with higher levels of intrinsic motivation for learning
behavior, self-control, cheerfulness, and social (Baumrind, 1966, 2005; Buri et al., 1987; Doyle &
confidence (p. 13). However, Steinberg did note that Markiewicz, 2005; Gecas, 1971; Ginsburg & Bronstein,
obtaining this information is not enough. Parents 1993; Steinberg, 2001). It is important to note that the
need to be educated about findings related to normal manner in which these parenting styles are expressed in
adolescent development and competent parenting various cultures has not been reviewed here and should
during adolescence along with familial changes that be a focus of future research.
are occurring during this time period.
Limitations
Further, Gecas (1971) found that parental behaviors of
support were positively related to adolescents' self- The majority of the studies reviewed and presented
evaluations. Buri and colleagues (1987) discovered that used self-reported data procedures (Dmitrieva et al.,
parental nurturance associated with the authoritative 2004; Doyle & Markiewicz, 2005). Self-reporting is
parenting style is related significantly to adolescents' an issue due to the unavoidable connection between
self-esteem. Furthermore, Doyle and Markiewicz parents and adolescents; the possibility exists that
(2005) noted that parenting does affect adolescents this relationship causes alteration of answers, making
ability to adjust, with parental warmth being an aspect them unreliable. Second, the number of measurement
of the authoritative parenting style and an indicator of sources used to determine relationships in the studies
adolescent self-esteem. Each study found statistically conducted by Doyle and Markiewicz and Gibson
significant results, but also had limitations; Gecas and Jefferson (2006), were noted as insufficient; the
noted a need for exploration of additional self- more measurements used to determine a relationship,
evaluation reference points such as self-satisfaction and the more accurate the results will be (Gibson &
happiness. Buri and colleagues noted results were not Jefferson). The third weakness was the inability of
representative of a mass population due to the specific previous research to determine causality of an event
characteristics of the group studied. Additionally, or relationship due to the cross-sectional nature of
Doyle and Markiewicz noted their sample size and the some studies (Dekovic & Meeus, 1997; Dmitrieva
number of measured items used were limitations, with et al., 2004; Flouri & Buchanan, 2003; Gecas &
adolescent self-reporting also a weakness of the study. Schwalbe, 1986; Wilkinson, 2004). This limitation
refers to the inability to determine whether a concept
Additional authoritative parenting research or relationship caused another concept or relationship
(Baumrind, 1966) noted that higher levels of parental to occur. For instance, does a negative adolescent-
warmth and behavioral control were directly correlated parent relationship cause an adolescent to possess
with levels of adjustment for children of varied psychological distress or does the adolescents
ages. Moreover, a study conducted by Baumrind psychological distress cause a negative adolescent-
in 1991 found that youth raised in an authoritative parent relationship to occur?
parenting style environment were more competent
and capable of adjusting (Baumrind, 2005). Finally, Fourth, sample sizes of studies such as those conducted
a study conducted by Ginsburg and Bronstein (1993) by Buri and colleagues (1987), Doyle and Markiewicz
discovered the authoritative parenting style was (2005), and Farrell and Barnes (1993) were noted as
correlated to childrens levels of intrinsic motivation being minute and, therefore, not sizeable enough to
for learning. However, no causal inferences can be create statistically significant results. Finally, studies
made with Ginsburg and Bronsteins study due to the such as those conducted by Dmitrieva and associates
correlational nature of the study. (2004), Gecas (1971), Gibson and Jefferson (2006),
and Roberts and Bengtson (1993) noted limited
To review, the authoritarian/autocratic, the authoritative/ samples that were not representative of all adolescents,
democratic, and the permissive/laissez-faire parenting resulting in overrepresentation of white, middle-class
styles were discussed in great detail with the positive families (Steinberg, 2001). Especially within studies of
impact of the authoritative/democratic parenting style parenting styles, a focus on replicating studies across
being evident. The authoritative/democratic parenting various diverse cultures would be beneficial. However,
style was noted for being influential during and after one of the strengths of the research addressing parental
adolescence. Furthermore, this parenting style was involvement is that studies were implemented in
also found to be related to positive developmental various environments in the United States, Norway,
outcomes, positive adolescent self-evaluations, higher Korea, the Czech Republic, and Britain.

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Finally, a dearth of studies exists connecting parenting communication styles, parenting styles, and student
styles directly with increases in academic achievement. perceptions of parental involvement to improving
It is important to continue research into parent impacts family involvement at school and promote the creation
on social, emotional, and educational development of strong home and school bonds? Recent research
of students. Connecting these areas with academic has shown that parental involvement in schools can
achievement would enable education stakeholders positively impact achievement in mathematics (Sirvani,
to create targeted and informed interventions with 2007), and literacy (Whitmore & Norton-Meier,
families to impact achievement. 2008) and that parental involvement in middle school
can positively impact future high school graduation
Implications for Middle Schools (Englund, Egeland, & Collins, 2008). Combining the
academic consequences with the personal and social
Obviously, adolescents relationship with their influences detailed above illustrates the importance
parents impacts multiple areas of their development. of perceived parental involvement in adolescent
How can middle schools apply insights into positive development (see Table 1).

Table 1
Role and Impact of Selected Education Stakeholders

Education Stakeholder Role Possible Impact

Administrators a) Create school-based parent nights, a) Highlight healthy parent-adolescent

such as educational service nights and relationships.
community events. b) Educate parents about the relationship
b) Model appropriate communication skills between perceived parental involvement,
in student assistance teams; Individual levels of self-esteem at adolescence,
Education Programs; and other school- and peer relationships.
based interactions with teachers, parents, c) Parental involvement in schools can
and students. positively impact achievement in
c) Create other various opportunities at mathematics and literacy. Parental
traditional and non-traditional times for involvement in middle school can
parents to become involved in school positively impact future high school
activities. graduation.
Teachers a) Model appropriate communication skills, a) Highlight healthy parent-adolescent
illustrate important information, and relationships.
support adolescents growth through b) Parental involvement in schools can
curriculum guidance meetings with positively impact achievement in
parents and students. mathematics, in literacy. Parental
b) Require parents to sign paperwork at involvement in middle school can
school to create interactions between positively impact future high school
parents, teachers, and students. graduation.
School Counselors a) Create and provide professional a) Assist students in identifying changing
development that would allow family roles, and enhance adolescents
administration, faculty and staff, use of effective communication.
parents and community members to b) Assist students in setting and achieving
gain the knowledge and skills necessary academic goals; balancing school
to support adolescents to fulfill their and life experiences; and receiving
emotional, physical, and psychological support from faculty, staff, family and
needs and reach academic goals. peers when dealing with negative life
b) Create parent discussion groups. situations.
c) Lead parent education nights. c) Educate parents about the relationship
1) Send parenting information home. between perceived parental involvement,
2) Provide educational opportunities at levels of self-esteem at adolescence, and
a variety of times for parents working peer relationships.
non-traditional work hours to attend.
Note: Table illustrates the possible impact administrators, teachers, and school counselors can have by creating participatory opportunities and
educational opportunities for parents in middle schools.

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It seems a logical first step would be efforts to educate model behaviors to demonstrate caring and support.
parents about the impact their involvement has on Understanding the impact of parenting styles,
both the academic and personal development of their perceptions of parent-child relationships, and divorce
adolescents. Schools should shift their focus from gives administration, faculty, staff, parents, and
asking for parental involvement to providing school- community members deeper insight into adolescents
based educational sessions that educate parents about perceptions of life events. Therefore, implementing
the personal, social, and educational benefits for parent nights and parent discussion groups enhances
students that occur as a result of parental involvement parental involvement and also emphasizes the value
and using the authoritative/democratic parenting style. adolescents place on their relationships with their
Some parents may simply need to be educated about parents. Community members can also be included
how their interest in their adolescents behaviors, through an adopt an adolescent program, increasing
interests, and activities emphasizes parental caring the opportunity to bond with a caring adult for
and impacts adolescents sense of psychological well- students at-risk due to family circumstances. After-
being, especially in the areas of self-esteem and self- school programs emphasizing parent involvement
evaluation (Amato, 1994; Amato & Ochiltree, 1986; should also be considered. Many of the programs and
Buri et al., 1987; Flouri & Buchanan, 2003; Gecas, ideas suggested above could be implemented by the
1971; Gibson & Jefferson, 2006; Roberts & Bengtson, middle school counselor.
1993; Stattin & Kerr, 2000). School counselors
can coordinate parent nights to implement such Implications for Middle School Counselors
educational experiences. The school administration
can also take steps to incorporate parents and families The American School Counseling Association
in the life of the school. Teachers can work to create (ASCA) National Model for school counseling
opportunities within their classroom for parent programs emphasizes the need for all education
volunteers. In addition, teachers can collaborate stakeholders to become active in student welfare;
with both school counselors and administrators students, parents, faculty and staff, administrators,
to support the parent education nights, the parent and community members are all considered
groups, and other educational experiences. In their important education stakeholders (ASCA, 2005).
meetings with parents, teachers can use language Collaboration between these individuals allows for
that models appropriate and healthy communication multifaceted resources and interventions that support
styles, especially when students are present and when every student in achieving academic success. Middle
interacting with students. school counselors coordinate and lead collaboration
and teamwork within the school and community
Administration can implement registration nights environments. Middle school counselors are valuable
and ensure teachers send paperwork home with resources to school stakeholders, as they provide
students after planning sessions to be returned with a developmentally appropriate services, comprehensive
parents signature, first steps toward creating home- interventions and programs, and create links between
school partnerships. Requiring parent involvement all individuals involved in students education
in the curriculum planning process would create an (ASCA), whether these individuals are in the school,
additional environment in which parents and students home, or community.
can communicate, problem solve, empathize, and plan
together. Parent-teacher-administration discussion Obviously, adolescents relationships with their
groups and inservices can be used to provide parents impacts multiple areas of their development.
education stakeholders with the information and tools Therefore, interventions from the four delivery
they need to assist adolescents with communication of systems in the ASCA model need to be included in a
their emotional, physical, and psychological needs as schools comprehensive school counseling program.
well as their academic goals. A comprehensive school counseling program attempts
to reach and support all students using multiple
Further, stakeholders can learn about the different resources while also focusing on the promotion of a
styles that are used to discipline adolescent students healthy parent-adolescent relationship (ASCA, 2005).
in their home environments, implications of these This article illustrated many areas in the school and
styles, and strategies to mediate the effects of the home life in which middle school counselors could
adolescent behaviors associated with each parenting intervene to positively impact parent-adolescent
style. Educational stakeholders can also learn and relationships and adolescent self-perceptions.

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Guidance curriculum can be used when working with psychological needs as well as their academic goals.
adolescents to help coordinate important resources Further, stakeholders can learn about the different
inside and outside the school and teach students styles that are used to discipline adolescent students
coping strategies for dealing with stress, conflict, in their home environments, implications of these
and peer pressure that may result from their parental styles, and strategies to mediate the effects of the
relationships. Students can learn about the effects adolescent behaviors associated with each parenting
their relationships with their parents may have on style. Education stakeholders can also learn and
them, both positive and negative. Further, students model behaviors to demonstrate caring and support.
can practice and learn communication skills to use in Understanding the impact of parenting styles and
different situations with their parents, thus increasing perceptions of parent-child relationships gives
the amount of communication and involvement administration, faculty, staff, parents, and community
parents demonstrate. Students can also learn how members deeper insight into adolescents perceptions
to better identify signs of parental involvement as of life events. Therefore, implementing parent nights
well as behaviors parents exhibit that are meant and parent discussion groups enhances parental
to be supportive. Guidance curriculum allows involvement and also emphasizes the value adolescents
entire classrooms of students to be taught valuable place on their relationships with their parents. Other
information and to practice and model new skills sensitive topics such as divorce can also be discussed
(ASCA, 2005). to increase knowledge and change home and school
practices. Community members can also be included
Individual student planning can be used when through an adopt an adolescent program increasing
students need assistance in setting and achieving the opportunity to bond with a caring adult for
academic goals and balancing school and life students at-risk due to family circumstances.
experiences. This type of one-on-one planning with
counselors provides students with the educational Middle school counselors can use information
support to meet academic goals (ASCA, 2005). from this article to create interventions in the
Middle school counselors can also invite parents to school, community, and home that meet numerous
participate in the planning process, which creates ASCA National Standards. These standards can
additional opportunities for communication and be met through interventions within the guidance
collaboration. Hopefully, these activities would create curriculum, individual student planning, responsive
common goals and language parents and students services, and system support delivery systems.
could use to strengthen their relationship. Standards related to supporting parent-student
relationships include:
Responsive services such as independent and group
counseling interventions can be used when students A:B1.4 Seek information and support from
need support from faculty, staff, family, and peers faculty, staff, family, and peers
to deal with situations such as divorce or changing A:C1.1 Demonstrate the ability to balance
family roles (ASCA, 2005). Individual counseling school, studies, extracurricular activities,
provides students with a role model and a confidante leisure time, and family life
that may not be present in their home lives. This PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward
research report emphasizes the need for guidance and self as a unique and worthy person
support by an adult figure. In this case, the school PS:A1.2 Identify values, attitudes and beliefs
counselor may be that individual who can work with PS:A1.11 Identify and discuss changing
the student to increase communication at home. personal and social roles
Group counseling also promotes the use of effective PS:A1.12 Identify and recognize changing
communication by allowing the adolescents to learn family roles
how to identify problems and determine causes and PS:A2.5 Recognize and respect differences
consequences of their actions in a groupmuch like in various family configurations
a family environment (ASCA). PS:A2.6 Use effective communication skills
PS:A2.7 Know that communication involves
Additionally, system support forums such as speaking, listening and nonverbal behavior
discussion groups and inservices can be used to PS:C1.10 Learn techniques for managing
provide education stakeholders with the information stress and conflict
and tools they need to assist adolescents with PS:C1.11 Learn coping skills for managing
communication of their emotional, physical, and life events

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Recommendations for Future Research and led by administrators, such as superintendents

and principals, it is vital that administrators
Weaknesses in past research emphasize the need understand and support mental health education and
to gather and analyze research that encompasses parent education, which can be delivered through
all periods of time (Jones & Kottler, 2006). Future parent nights, inservices, after-school programs,
research, using other methodologies beyond self- and other community-based activities. Research
reporting, would intensify results and create a addressing the role of administration should not limit
stronger methodological foundation from which leadership roles to organizational leadership but
to examine the adolescent-parent relationships rather emphasize the continuity of leadership through
effects on psychological well-being (Dmitrieva et every level of program development.
al., 2004; Doyle & Markiewicz, 2005). In addition,
some previous research used collaborative measures, Conclusion
weakening the implications of the research, since
causality could not be supported (Dekovic & Meeus, Perceived parental involvement positively or
1997; Dmitrieva et al., Flouri & Buchanan, 2003; negatively affects adolescents sense of psychological
Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Wilkinson, 2004). Small well-being, notably in regard to self-esteem and
sample size is also an area of weakness in the self-evaluation, peer relationships, and frequency
research; a larger sample size allows for generalities of negative familial life events (Amato, 1994;
to be determined (Buri et al., 1987; Doyle & Amato & Ochiltree, 1986; Buri et al., 1987; Dekovic
Markiewicz; Farrell & Barnes, 1993). Future research & Meeus, 1997; Dmitrieva et al, 2004; Flouri &
should attempt to address these methodological Buchanan, 2003; Gecas, 1971; Gibson & Jefferson,
weaknesses. 2006; Roberts & Bengtson, 1993; Wilkinson,
2004). Adolescents determine personal self-worth,
Future research could also examine the roles of self-efficacy, and self-esteem based on perceptions
parents and if or when one parent is more influential gained from parental involvement. As a result, it can
than the other. This information would expand be implied that perceived parental involvement is
counselors understanding of the effects of parent- essential to an adolescents psychological well-being
adolescent relationships, leading to more specific (Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986). Therefore, it is worth
interventions (Amato, 1994; Gecas & Schwalbe, noting the authoritative/democratic parenting style is
1986). Distinctions between families of different associated with greater psychological well-being. The
ethnicities and cultures are important areas to authoritative/democratic parenting style influences
explore in future research (Dekovic & Meeus, children during and after adolescence in the areas of
1997). Research examining parental effects in adolescent development, self-evaluation, self-esteem
multiple ethnic and cultural facets would enable and adjustment, as well as intrinsic motivation to
school counselors to add multiculturally-sensitive learn in a positive manner (Baumrind, 1966, 2005;
interventions to their current comprehensive Buri et al.; Doyle & Markiewicz, 2005; Gecas;
counseling program. In addition, evidence-based Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Steinberg, 2001).
research assists school counselors in creating
interventions that include administration, faculty, and Middle schools should focus on parent education
staff in intervention processes while educating them inservices to share the impact of parenting styles
about the effects parental relationships have in their and perceived parental involvement on student
students lives. Furthermore, systematic research personal, social, and academic achievement. Middle
confirming the relationship between increased self- school counselors can use the information from
esteem and improved school performance would this article to improve student welfare and support
further emphasize the need to focus on parental student achievement. Emphasizing the collaborative
involvement when working with adolescents in the approach to addressing these issues is vital for any
school environment (Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, program to succeed. School administration, faculty,
1989). and support personnel all need to work together to
create and implement parent education activities.
Finally, further research could examine the role of School counselors can serve in leadership roles, since
school administration in the implementation and they have been trained in collaboration skills. School
organization of parent education nights addressing counselors can also implement other programs to
the parenting styles and parental involvement issues. meet parent education needs and meet the national
Because school districts and schools are organized standards of the ASCA (2005).

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RMLE Online Volume 33, No. 4

School counselors can use individual planning, References

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