NEWS FOCUS

Thanks to an astonishing series of fossil discoveries, researchers are at last glimpsing our earliest ape
ancestors, back beyond 4 million years ago. The finds are shifting attention from the savanna to the
woodsand changing ideas about what it means to be a hominid

In Search of the First Hominids

BECOMING HUMAN If portraits of our A. afarensis. All the older cient Millennium Man
This special Focus section early ancestors were fossilsa few jaw scraps in Kenya. The faces and
explores two crucial mo- displayed in a muse- and a single toothcould many features of these
um of human evolu- f it into the palm of a earliest hominids remain
ments in human evolu-
tion, the collection hand. All we had were shadowy, but their out-
tion, from the distant past
would include fig- ill-dated scraps. We had lines can be discerned, re-
to more recent prehistory.
ures of nearly a almost no clues about vealing apes the size of
We look at the emerging
dozen early humans what came before Aus- chimpanzees that walked
picture of the earliest

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who lived in Africa tralopithecus afarensis, upright through African
members of our lineage, from 1 million to 3 says paleoanthropologist
Image not forests.
the hominids, and also at million years ago. Tim White of the Univer- available for As paleoanthropolo-
the birth of our own Visitors would see sity of California, Berkeley. gists begin to peer back
species, Homo sapiens. online use.
robust ape-men from But now researchers beyond 4 million years
FIRST HOMINIDS the caves of South are adding a new wing to ago, they are also filling
D AT E S F R O M D N A
Africa; a long-limbed that gallery of ancestors. in the details of the char-
boy from Kenya who In the past few years, pale- acters that followed, re-
M O D E R N H U M A N S stood almost 6 feet ontologists have unearthed vealing stunning new
W H Y G E T S M A R T ? tall; and lightly built dozens of fossils of new fossils of hominids that
toolmakers from kinds of primates, includ- lived 3 million to 4 mil-
Olduvai, Tanzania. On a pedestal by herself ing at least three that may lion years ago, with de-
might be a statue of the matriarch called Lucy, be the earliest members of scriptive nicknames such
a female the size of a small chimpanzee the Hominidae, the family as Flat-Faced Man and
whose species, Australopithecus afarensis, that includes humans but Little Foot. During this
walked upright through the East African bush- no other apes. Just last time, were dealing with
land 3 million to about 3.6 million years ago. summer, a skull was dis- Into the limelight. New fossils offer a wetter, warmer Africa
For 2 decades, Lucy stood alone as the first covered in Chad that may glimpses of early hominids such as that it seems was spawn-

CREDIT: (TOP) JOHN GURCHE

known human ancestor. Her species was date to 6 million years ago, A. anamensis. ing hominids from the
thought by many to have given rise to all that and new details were pub- shores of Lake Chad to
came later, including our own lineage. But her lished on another ape-man who may have the caves of Sterkfontein [in South Africa],
own origins were a mystery. No matter where been walking upright in Ethiopia at about the exults Phillip Tobias of the University of the
paleontologists searched, they found few fos- same time. This came hot on the heels of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South
sils of protohumans more ancient than discovery in autumn 2000 of the equally an- Africa. Adds Meave Leakey of the National

Hominids Throu gh Time Kenyanthropus?

p

K.. platyop
platyops K. rudolfensis?
s
Molecular dating
g of last common
ancestor withh chimpanzees
h
Homo
Orrorin
r
H. habilis?
i
? ? ?
O. tugenens
tugenensis
ug
g Praeanthropus? H. erectus
?
Australopithecus
c H. sapieens
en
H. ergaster? H.. antecessor?
?
A. anamensis
anamensis
e A. afarensis ("Lucy")
y A. garhi
garhi ? ?

A. bahrelghazali? A. africanus H. neandertalensis

s
Ardipithecus
e H. heidelbergensis
i
A
A.. ramidus kadabba A. ramidu
us ramidus Paranthropus
an p
P. aethiopicus
P. robustus
(Chad skull) P. boisei
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Present
Millions of years ago

Who begat whom? Researchers have a new view of hominid diversity through time, but the picture is full of question marksindicating uncertainty
about dates, classification, and lines of descent.

1214 15 FEBRUARY 2002 VOL 295 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

 NEWS FOCUS
Museums of Kenya: If you look at the num- in 1973 at Hadar, Ethiopia, and since then her emerging, including the ancestor shared by
ber of major discoveries, its staggering. species has been characterized by 360 fossils humans and chimpanzees. That root ape fairly
Although scientists are still analyzing the from more than 100 individuals who lived quickly gave rise to A. afarensis, which in
oldest specimens and have yet to publish from 3 million to about 3.6 million years ago. turn was the ancestor for everything that
complete descriptions of these came later, including the Homo lineage.
top-secret fossilsprompting one Then in 1992, the Middle Awash Research
colleague to dub the study of the Team, co-led by White, made a discovery that
first hominids the Manhattan Pro- ended Lucys reign. About 75 kilometers
ject of paleoanthropologythe south of Lucys resting place, at Aramis in the
data thus far are already challeng- Afar depression of Ethiopia, the team found
ing old views. fossils of a chimp-sized ape dated to about 4.4
The first surprise is that more million years ago. This creature earned its
than one type of hominid may place on the human line metaphorically and
have been living between 6 million literally by the skin of its teeth, as paleo-
and 5 million years ago and that anthropologist Bernard Wood of George
these very early hominids show di- Washington University (GWU) in Washing-
ton, D.C., wrote when the fossil was an-
nounced in Nature; many pieces were dental.
What White and his colleagues saw in the

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on September 10, 2007

Toehold. Yohannes Haile-Selassie (left) mouth of this ape was a mosaic of chimplike
says an Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba features they considered primitive, such as
foot bone (above; top row, third from the shape of its baby molars, and more de-
right) shows it walked upright. rived humanlike features such as a diamond-
shaped canine rather than the honed V shape
With the mix of traits expected in a of chimps. The team named this species
human ancestor, A. afarensis helped Ardipithecus ramidus, drawing on two words
define ideas about early hominids. from the Afar language suggesting that it was
Lucy was the size of a female chim- humanitys root species. But skeptics argue
panzee, with long arms, a small that the published fossils are so chimplike
brain, and a strikingly apelike jaw to that they may represent the long-lost ancestor
match. But she also showed more of the chimp, not
derived, humanlike traits. She and 13 human, lineage.
versity in their teeth and anatomy. That sug- individuals of her species, dubbed the First The next f ield
CREDITS: (CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT) 1998 DAVID L. BRILL/BRILL ATLANTA; 1999 TIM D. WHITE/BRILL ATLANTA; 1994 TIM D. WHITE/BRILL ATLANTA; 1996

gests a period of hominid evolution even earli- Family, were bipedal and had thick tooth season, team mem-
er than most researchers have believed and enamel, large molars, and smaller canines ber Yohannes Haile-
also prompts questions about how reliably the shaped like those of later australopithecines, Selassie found the
molecular clock is calibrated (see sidebar on p. reflecting a transition from a diet of fruits and first of more than
1217). Another surprise is that the oldest ho- leaves to one of hard roots, tubers, insects, and 100 fragments that
minids were walking upright yet living in small animals, says paleoanthropologist make up about half
woodlands, dealing a lethal blow to the hy- William Kimbel of the Institute of Human of a single skeleton
pothesis that bipedalism emerged when ho- Origins at Arizona State University in
minids first stood up and stretched their legs Tempe. Her curved fingers revealed
on the savanna. These fossils are causing a grasping hands, whereas apes grasp
paradigm shift, says paleontologist Martin with both feet and hands.
Pickford of the Collge de France in Paris, co- But despite the bounty of A.
discoverer of Millennium Man. A lot of old afarensis fossils, researchers were
ideas will be put into the wastebasket. stymied as they sought to discover
Into the trash, in fact, may go the very Lucys own roots. Beyond 3.6 mil-
definition of what it means to be a hominid, lion years you were just in a black
as there is now little agreement on what key hole in the fossil record until you got Root ape? Tim White
traits identify an exclusively human ances- back into the middle Miocene [about ( left ) thinks Ardi-
tor. Nor is there agreement on which species 15 million to 9 million years ago], re- pithecus ramidus led
led to Homo, or even whether the fossils calls White. And the muddle of ape to Homo.
represent different species or variation within fossils in the early Miocene, when
a single species. Preconceptions of a large- apes underwent a burst of speciation of this species, in-
toothed, fully bipedal, naked ape standing in and came in all sorts of body plans, cluding a pelvis, leg,
the Serengeti 6 million years ago are X-Files made it difficult to sort out which anatomical ankle and foot bones, wrist and hand bones, a
paleontology, says White. What were traits were inherited from the common ances- lower jaw with teethand a skull. But in the
learning is we have to approach this fossil tor of chimps and humansand which ones past 8 years no details have been published
DAVID L. BRILL/BRILL ATLANTA

record stripped of our preconceptions of evolved only in apes or only in humans, notes on this skeleton. Why the delay? In part be-
what it is to be a hominid. paleoanthropologist Carol Ward of the Uni- cause the bones are so soft and crushed that
versity of Missouri, Columbia. preparing them requires a Herculean effort,
The First Family For years the leading explanation was says White. The skull is squished, he says,
For 20 years, A. afarensis was without rival as that the diverse Miocene apes went through and the bone is so chalky that when I clean
the first known hominid. Lucy was discovered a bottleneck, with only a few lucky apes an edge it erodes, so I have to mold every one

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 295 15 FEBRUARY 2002 1215

 NEWS FOCUS
published last year in the This view, so far based chiefly on the fe-
Djourab Desert African Homeland Comptes Rendus de mur, has been greeted with skepticism.
A. bahrelghazali lAcadmie des Sciences There is nothing in the announcement that
Unpublished skull Hadar Middle Awash/ des Paris, paleontologist makes that femur bipedal, says Missouris
A. afarensis Aramis
A. afarensis Brigitte Senut of the Na- Ward. The onus is on them to prove it.
Omo A. ramidus kadabba tional Museum of Natural However, those who have seen casts of the
A. afarensis A. ramidus ramidus
P. aethiopicus R . Konso A. garhi History in Paris, Pickford, fossils say that Senut and Pickford have a leg
P. boisei ile P. boisei
N and their colleagues intro- to stand on: As a working hypothesis, I think
West Turkana
Koobi Fora duced these 13 fossils as they are correct, although they dont have the
P. boisei
P. aethiopicus A. afarensis Orrorin tugenensis, from most diagnostic set of fragments, says Ian
P. boisei
the Tugen words for Tattersall, a paleoanthropologist at the Ameri-
Lake Turkana Allia Bay original man (Science, can Museum of Natural History in New York
Lomekwi A. anamensis
K. platyops 13 July 2001, p. 187). City. To cement their claim, Senut and Pick-
Lake Albert Kanapoi Senut and Pickford ford have made new computed tomography
A. anamensis
Lothagam Lake put the fossils at 5.8 mil- scans, which reveal that the structure of the
Hominid indeterminate Victoria Lukeino lion to 6.1 million years bone in the neck of the femur resembles that
O. tugenensis
old, although a rival team of hominids rather than apes. They have also
Olduvai Gorge Kilimanjaro Peninj (Science, 13 April 2001, revealed a groove on the back of the femoral
P. boisei P. boisei
p. 198) now dates the neck for the attachment of the obturator exter-

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on September 10, 2007

L. Tanganyika
Laetoli
Lukeino Formation at nus muscle, which they say shows that the
A. afarensis 5.72 million to 5.88 mil- bone was remodeled by upright walking.
lion years ago; those ra- But it may take more than legs to make a
L. Malawi diometric dates were hominid. Senut and Pickford, fresh from the
published this month in field in November, say they now have a total
Malema the Journal of Human of 22 fossils of O. tugenensis from at least six
P. boisei
Za

Evolution (JHE) by paleo- individuals from four sites, including a thumb

mb
ezi

anthropologist Andrew bone and pretty much the entire adult denti-
R.

Makapansgat Hill of Yale University tion, says Pickford. He reports that

Kromdraai A. africanus and colleagues. O. tugenensis has thicker tooth enamel than
P. robustus Whatever the precise Ardipithecus ramidus. And he notes that O. tu-

CREDITS: MARC DEVILLE/GAMMA

Limpopo R.
age, the find is sensation- genensis and Homo both have small molars
Sterkfontein
A. africanus Drimolen al. Senut and Pickford say relative to their bigger bodies, a complex not
P. robustus
A. afarensis? O. tugenensis is definite- shared by australopithecines, including Lucy,
Taung
ly a hominida bold who have big teeth for their small bodies. But
A. africanus
0 500 miles
claim that rests primarily A. ramidus has the edge in its hominidlike ca-
Swartkrans Scale
. on three thighbones, or nines, while O. tugenensis has small V-shaped
al R P. robustus 0 500 km
Va femora. Their initial re- canines like a female
Orange R.
port focused on the top chimps (see charac-
Fossil trail. Many kinds of hominids lived in Africa 6 million to 2.5 end of the femur, which ter table on p. 1218).
million years ago, before Homo appeared. they said was more hu- Each team ranks
manlike than those of the importance of
australopithecines. In these traits different-
of the broken pieces to reconstruct it. The fact, they propose that O. tugenensis walked ly and so comes to a
team hopes to publish in a year or so, and more like humans than Lucy did, based on different conclusion
White claims that the skeleton is worth the six features, including the size and shape of about ancestry. In
wait, calling it a phenomenal individual the head and neck of Orrorins femur. fact, only a few parts
that will be the Rosetta stone for under- The implications are startling: If Senut and of each species have
standing bipedalism. Pickford are right, that suggests that
And a few clues to Ardipithecus emerged Millennium Man is the ancestor of
last year, when Haile-Selassie published fos- Homo and that Lucy was not the
sils of an older subspecies from the Middle mother of us all (see diagram on p.
Awash, called A. ramidus kadabba and dated 1214). Otherwise, it implies what
to 5.2 million to 5.8 million years ago. These Pickford calls yo-yo evolution,
fossils have literally a toehold on the hominid where humanlike bipedalism evolved
branch of the ape family tree: Their classifica- in O. tugenensis, was modified in
tion rests partly on a nearly complete foot A. afarensis, then later returned to a
bone that the team thinks was used to toe human kind of walking.
off in a manner seen only in upright walkers. Thus Senut and Pickford argue
that O. tugenensis is ancestral to
Millennium Man Homo by way of a proposed genus
The other chief contender for first hominid called Praeanthropus, which in-
was discovered by a joint Kenyan-French cludes certain fossils now assigned
team in October 2000, some 1200 kilometers to A. afarensis and A. anamensis. Spying the thigh. Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford
southwest of Aramis in the Lukeino Forma- They also suggest that Ardipithecus (above) discovered O. tugenensiss thighbone; they say it
tion of Kenyas Tugen Hills. In a short paper gave rise to chimpanzees. shows signs of upright walking.

1216 15 FEBRUARY 2002 VOL 295 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

 NEWS FOCUS
65
64 New Fossils Raise Molecular Questions published in the December issue of the Journal of Heredity ,
63 Hedgess team compares 50 nuclear genes among great apes and
62 Paleontologists arent the only researchers tracing the ape family Old World monkeys and concludes that humans split from chim-
61 tree: For years, molecular biologists have been analyzing our family panzees 4.5 million to 6.5 million years ago.
60 relations by scanning the DNA of living primates and tallying the Even if the new fossils hold up as hominids, Hedges says the
59 number of mutations that have occurred over time in comparable data fit, allowing half a million years for hominids to diversify into
58 stretches. Almost every study has concluded that humans and our the fossil genera Orrorin and Ardipithecus. If [paleontologists]
57 closest relatives, the chimpanzees, last shared a common ancestor have something at 6 million years [ago], no problem, Hedges says.
56 about 5 million to 7 million years ago. But at least one geneticist consistently comes up with much
55 But with paleontologists uncovering two or more hominids al- earlier dates, because he uses a different fossil calibration point.
54 ready on different evolutionary paths by about 6 million years ago Researchers must calibrate their molecular clocksthat is, calcu-
53 (see main text), some researchers say that the timing is getting late how many nucleotide changes occur per million yearsby
52 too close for comfort. By molecular reckoning, before 7 million using a date from the fossil record. Most use the split between
51 years ago there shouldnt even be a clear hominid lineage. That apes and monkeys, typically between 20 million and 25 million
50 raises the question: Has our molecular clock been correctly cali- years ago. But geneticist Ulfur Arnason of the University of Lund
49 brated? asks Phillip Tobias of the University of the Witwatersrand in Sweden thinks that the ape-monkey split is poorly recorded in
48 in Johannesburg, South Africa. For now, theres enough fudge in fossils and probably occurred twice as long ago, about 50 million
47 both kinds of data to make a consistent scenario, but some geneti- years ago. To calibrate his clock, he uses several fossil data points

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on September 10, 2007

46 cists are reviewing their calculations. that he considers more reliable, such as when whales split from
45 The first molecular study back in 1967 dated the split between even-toed ungulates, which he dates to 60 million years ago. As a
44 humans and apes to 5 million years ago, and Vince Sarich of the Uni- result, he has dated the human-chimp split to 10.5 million to
43 versity of California, Berkeley, co-author of the study, still stands by 13.5 million years ago.
42 that date. I still bet that either the morphology or dates or both will Those dates are now getting a second look. But Hedges and
41 be found wanting for these 6-million-year-old hominids, he says. phylogeneticist Morris Goodman of Wayne State University in De-
40 Since Sarichs work, about 10 studies have done the analysis troit stick by their analysis, saying it requires a primate calibration
39 with different stretches of DNA, and most came up with the same point because mutation rates may have sped up in primates. At any
38 range of dates, says evolutionary biologist Blair Hedges of Pennsyl- rate, both geneticists and paleontologists will be watching the
37 vania State University, University Park. In the most recent study, molecular clock as the new fossils are evaluated. A.G.
36
35
34 been published so far, and thus its possible But that wind moves the dunes and exposes And it would cast more doubt on the
33 that both teams fossils are the same creature. new fossils, says Brunet. Since 1994, his once-popular idea that bipedalism emerged
32 I think theres a good chance that Orrorin team has found an amazing 8000 fossils, after climate change forced apes out of the
31 is really Ardipithecus, says Whites collabo- mostly animals, at 300 sites dating from 3 trees into the grasslands. Animal remains as-
30 rator, C. Owen Lovejoy of Kent State Uni- million to 7 million years ago. Their discov- sociated with Brunets putative hominid
29 versity in Ohio. Lovejoy suggests that the eries include a hominid lower jaw dated to fossilsincluding monkeys and a species of
28 differences in the two apes may merely be 3.5 million years ago that Brunet has as- extinct pigindicate that they may have
27 variation within the genus of Ardipithecus, signed to a new species, A. bahrelghazali, been living in trees near the shores of ancient
26 which he suggests was the root ape that though others suspect it may be A. afarensis. Lake Chad, perhaps on the edge of a vast,
25 once ranged throughout Africaa view barren steppe or desert.
24 Senut and Pickford strongly protest. Those environmental de-
23 tails are signif icant, says
22 Into the woods White, because they fit with
21 While each team has been analyzing its fos- the ancient environment at
20 sils and preparing its case, a third team has Ardipithecus ramidus sites in
19 unearthed an equally ancient, as-yet- Image not Ethiopia. Analysis of the car-
18 unpublished skull that may shed light on the available for bon chemistry of the soils at
17 competing claims. The skull was discovered those sites shows that A.
16 last summer in the Djourab Desert in Northern online use. ramidus was not living in
15 Chad, in a layer of sediment that may date to grassy savanna, but probably
14 over 6 million years. Members of the French- in a forested upland, says pa-
13 Chadian Paleoanthropological Mission, led by leoanthropologist Stanley
12 paleontologist Michel Brunet of the University Ambrose of the University of
11 of Poitiers, wont discuss details until they Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
10 publish, but those who have seen the skull are Digging the desert. Michel Brunet searches for fossils in Chad. And the older A. ramidus
9 intrigued by its mix of old and new traits. You kadabba also roamed a thick
8 only have to look at Brunets skull to see that If the older, unpublished skull proves to be forest, 25 kilometers to the east.
7 things were more complicated than we a hominid, it would kill once and for all the At about the same time, the small chew-
CREDIT: SIGMA-CORBIS PARIS

6 thought, says GWUs Wood. old idea that all hominids evolved on the east ing teeth of O. tugenensis suggest that it, like
5 The desert where Brunets team found side of the African Rift Valley, where most Ardipithecus, was eating soft fruit and leaves
4 the skull is perhaps the most hostile envi- fossils have been found, and that the other as it foraged through the trees. Soil chem-
3 ronment for plumbing human origins. One African apes evolved on the western side. istry and the mix of animal fossils support a
2 field rule is never to touch metal, as it might Chadian hominids show that part of our hu- wooded environment for the Lukeino For-
1 be a land mine, and the wind is relentless. man story is in West Africa, says Brunet. mation too, according to both Pickford and

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 295 15 FEBRUARY 2002 1217

 NEWS FOCUS

Hill. The bottom line: Thus far, all older ho- upper layer. It clearly wasnt where the
minids have been found in forested environ- hominids were, says Leakey.
ments, notes Ambrose. But Leakey had much better luck in
If these ancient forest-dwellers do prove to slightly younger rocks. Throughout the
be bipedal, upright walking may have started 1990s, on the scrubby shores of Lake
in the forest, for any number of reasons, such Turkana, Kenya, she and her colleagues
as to carry food, display strength, attract found the best contender for the long-
mates, or use tools, says paleoanthropologist sought ancestor of Lucy herself: A. ana-
Henry McHenry at the University of Califor- mensis, which means of the lake in
nia, Davis. And it may be that these different the local Turkana language. The 88 fos-
hominids had more than one way to walk up- Image not sils, which include many fragmented
right, an idea that gets support from yet another teeth, several jaws, part of a humerus,
new discovery, this time of a later hominid. available for and possibly a shinbone, reveal a
South African workers recently unveiled a online use. bipedal australopithecine with a narrow,
spectacular 3.3-million-year-old australo- apelike lower jaw. The fossils were dated
pithecine skeleton, still partly encased in rock to 3.9 million to 4.2 million years ago
in the Sterkfontein Caves, with an unusual, and were found in what were once the
slightly divergent big toe. Known as Little tree-lined banks of an ancient river.
Foot, this nearly complete skeleton resembles A. anamensis appears after a major

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on September 10, 2007

its northern contemporary, A. afarensis, but it shift at these sites, from browsing
has yet to be classified. Although Little Foot species to those that eat more grasses,
was an upright walker, that big toe could have according to work Leakey published in
been used to grasp tree limbs and may have JHE last November with paleontolo-
created a gait different from Lucys, says dis- gist Alan Walker of Pennsylvania State
coverer Ron Clarke of the University of the University, University Park. Thats a
Witwatersrand (Science, 5 May 2000, p. 798). Mother of us all. Many researchers think Lucys sign that hominids are beginning to
Such diversity in walking styles means species eventually led to humans. get into more open country, says
that the signature of bipedalism in the bones Leakey. They would have been eating
may vary among upright apes, says paleo- down, stick on this patch, and youre likely to fruit, insects, small mammals, and perhaps
anthropologist Jeff Schwartz of the University find a hominid. some bird eggs and were predominantly
of Pittsburghand even raises the possibility In fact, one reason it took so long to find bipeds with tree-climbing [ability].
that bipedalism evolved more than once. fossils older than 4 million years is probably This progression into the bush continued,
because fossil hunters were scouring the as Leakey showed with another discovery in
Lucys origins wrong places. Through trial and error, paleo- 1999, of a skull and jaw fragment of a new
The new insight into ancient hominids pre- anthropologists have learned that the open species called Kenyanthropus platyops, nick-
named Flat-Faced Man. By 3.5 million years
ago, this species, whose flattened face resem-
TRACKING TRAITS bles that of a fossil called H. rudolfensis, was
Locomotion Canine size, Molar size relative Tooth moving between grasslands and wooded habi-
shape to body size enamel
tats on the western side of Lake Turkana.
Pan Knuckle- Large, sharpened, Small Thin (thick in Leakey suggests that both fossils may fit into
(chimpanzee) walker V shape orangutan and some
the new Kenyanthropus genus. If that classifi-
extinct apes)
cation holds up (the K. platyops skull was so
Ardipithecus ? Small, diamond shape Small Intermediate damaged that many question its classifica-
Orrorin Bipedal? Size of female chimp, Small Thick tion), it adds another character to the hominid
sharpened, V shape cast from 4 million to 3 million years ago. In
Australopithecus Bipedal Smaller, Large Thick addition to Lucys species, A. afarensis, the
anamensis diamond shape players now include K. platyops and
Australopithecus Bipedal Smaller, Large Thick A. bahrelghazali at 3.5 million years, Little
afarensis diamond shape Foot at 3.3 million, and possibly the proposed
Homo habilis Bipedal Smallest, Large Thick genus Praeanthropus. Although Little Foot
diamond shape may prove to be A. afarensis, Clarke and his
Homo erectus Bipedal Smallest, Small Thick colleagues last September announced six even
diamond shape older and more apelike australopithecine fos-
sils from Sterkfontein in South Africa.
Thought to be about 3.3 million to 3.5 million
ferred habitat is helping paleontologists find shorelines of ancient lakes and open years old, these are still being classified.
them. Were learning that these hominids are grasslandswhere later hominids are
not ubiquitous; they were restricted to certain foundcontain few traces of our earliest an- Single line or bushy tree?
CREDIT: (TOP) JOHN GURCHE

habitats, says White. Often we find them cestors. For example, Meave Leakey spent Given all this diversity, it is quite obvious
with seeds, fossil woods, abundant monkeys, much of the 1990s painstakingly gathering that australopithecines lived all over Africa,
and kudu [forest-dwelling antelopes] but lack fossils from what were the swampy shores of says Walker. But he thinks that all these new
of abundant aquatic mammals. Often we find an ancient river at Lothagam, in northern fossils may represent diversity within single
them where carnivores have destroyed a lot of Kenya. But she found no hominids in that species that unfolded into each other in a
the bone. Its this signature that says slow layer, although a scrap of jaw came from an linear procession. Although the number of

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 NEWS FOCUS
65 new species has doubled in the past decade, few signs of hominid statusat least for
64 Walker cautions that they are spread over now. Right now the two key traits are
63 millions of years. I think theres no strong bipedality and canine reduction and
62 evidence that theres anything more than one shape modification, says Arizona States
61 evolving hominid from 6 million years to Kimbel. As we go back further in time,
60 2.5 million years, he says. White and his it will be fascinating to see if one of
59 collaborators share this linear view, even these fades away, leaving the other as the
58 connecting the dots between species, saying seminal hominid modification.
57 that Ardipithecus ramidus gave rise to A. Even the current favorite trait,
56 anamensis, then A. afarensis on down to bipedalism, may not be enough to qual-
55 Homo, with some diversity at about the time ify as a hominid if other ancient apes
54 Homo emerges. were bipedal too. In the late Miocene,
53 But the field is deeply divided over this is- there was a whole proliferation of these
52 sue. When researchers such as Leakey, Wood, apes, sometimes running around on two
51 Tattersall, Pickford, and Senut look at the An ancestors smile. The teeth, jaw, and other bones legs, sometimes not. Why do they have
50 new fossils, instead of a parade of hominids, of A. anamensis suggest that it is Lucys ancestor. to be ancestral to us? wonders paleo-
49 they see a bushy tree with different hominids anthropologist Peter Andrews of the Nat-
48 hanging off different branches at the same species] was present from the start. ural History Museum in London.
47 time, making it difficult to draw a clear line Defining what is special about the human For casual visitors to that museum of hu-
lineage gets harder as the fossils get older man evolution, all the early figures may look

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on September 10, 2007

46 of descent. Were seeing a radiation, says
45 Wood. If you look at other mammals, whats and older. I just told my students, Im sorry, similarand very much like other apes. But
44 so unusual about that? Indeed, says Tatter- but I dont know how to distinguish the earli- in one ape-mans smile or stance, researchers
43 sall, the big lesson from each of these new est hominid from the earliest chimp ancestor hope to find the hint of things to come.
42 f inds is that diversity [in anatomy and anymore, says Wood. Others say there are a ANN GIBBONS
41
40 BECOMING HUM A N
39 MODERN HUMANS
38 mans, he explains, the face and eyes are
37
36 What Made tucked under the braincase, rather than thrust
forward prognathously, as in all other now-
extinct human species. And the modern hu-
35
34
33
Humans Modern? man skull is globular like a volleyball, in-
stead of oblong like a football.
32 Could our species have been born in a rapid burst of change? Researchers In Liebermans view, these two traits
31 from different disciplines are trying to find out rather than the long list of characters anthro-
30 pologists usually rely onare the key distin-
29 C A M B R I D G E , M A S S AC H U S E T T S , A N D I touch the underside of the frontal lobe. But guishing features of modern human skulls.
28 C AMBRIDGE, U.K.Three hominid skull casts with the other two, my pencil ends up under And, he says that this reshaping of the skull,
27 sit in a row on Daniel Liebermans desk, their the thick, bony brow ridge. In modern hu- which may have accommodated an expansion
26 empty eye sockets staring eerily in the key frontal or temporal lobes
25 ahead. If they could see, they of the brain, was produced by small
24 might catch a glimpse of Harvard evolutionary adjustments in a few
23 Universitys peaceful green quad, bones along the base of the skull,
22 just outside the anthropologists possibly due to only a handful of
21 window. But these skulls bear genetic changes. If hes right, the
20 witness, between them, to some rise of modern humans may have
CREDITS: (TOP TO BOTTOM) ALAN WALKER/ NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF KENYA; GRAHAM RAMSAY

19 of the most dramatic events in hu- been a relatively abrupt event rather
18 man prehistory, including the than a gradual evolution.
17 mysterious birth of our own It shows that the speciation
16 species, Homo sapiens. event doesnt have to be complicat-
15 The f irst skull, perhaps ed, with a lot of steps, says
14 300,000 years old, was found in Lieberman. You may only need
13 Zambia. It comes from a species one change, not 15 or 20 changes.
12 that may have been ancestral to Liebermans bold proposal is
11 both modern humans and Nean- the latest entry in a newly invigo-
10 dertals. The second is a Neander- rated debate over the making of
9 tal from France dating back modern humans. A flurry of new
8 70,000 years. And the last is a evidence from three sources
7 100,000-year-old H. sapiens dis- fossils, art and artifacts, and
6 covered in Israel. genesis forcing researchers to
5 Lieberman picks up each rethink just what traits mark the
4 skull in turn and pokes a pencil origin of our species and how and
3 up through the eye socket. Look when these traits appeared.
2 at the difference, he says. When Poking into human origins. Daniel Lieberman thinks a few genetic Some of this new evidence
1 I do this with the modern human, changes might have produced the Homo sapiens skull. challenges the notion that the de-

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