THE ORIGIN OF MAN AND SOCIETY

Early Beginnings of Culture and Society

One of the most fundamental beliefs of evolutionism is that man has evolved from beasts through time, chance natural
selection. Some scholars insist that evolutionism foes not assume that man has evolved from apes but rather from “ape-
like” creatures. What has been sought in palaeoanthropology (the study of human and pre-human fossil records) then are
the transitional stages from the ape-like creatures to man. But remains pertinent to evolutionary transitions are seemingly
elusive, as well as the missing links that could prove that apes & man are related. Paleoanthropologists have to begin with
some idea of how an ape’s structural features have evolved into those of a man today, but only human skulls are found in
fossil records. The most often-cited evidence to prove this evolution is the shape & cranial capacity of the human & pre-
human skulls.

The interests of scientists in the origin & evolution of man have been evident since 1930. Their ideas culminated upon the
publication of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) & Descent of Man (1871). Darwin’s theory that man has
evolved from simple forms of organism is based on the findings of paleontology & the study of man with other living
animals. His theory further argues that man descended from the apes.

Primitive forms of life during the early era have evolved from one-celled organisms to reptiles until much later, birds &
mammals appeared in the tertiary period known as the “Age of Mammals.”

The present modern human being had evolved through natural mutation, normal variation & natural selection. This
evolution is characterized by developments which occurred six million years or more ago, during the successive divisions
of the tertiary period. This period has five epochs:

1. Paleocene. This epoch, also known as “early recent,” lasted around 65 million years ago. It is marked by the demise
of dinosaurs, as well the existence of pre-primates like the femur in Madagascar, Africa & Indonesia.

2. Eocene. This epoch lasted 30 to 45 million years ago. It is marked by warm tropical climates, along with the
appearance of the order of mammals and prosimian-like primates. Anthropoids appeared during this period.

3. Oligocene. This epoch, which lasted around 30 million years ago, was relatively short. During its time span, major
changes occurred like the appearance of elephants with trunks & early horses. The landscape also experience growth
of vast tracts of grassland.

4. Miocene. This epoch lasted around 23 million years ago. Its language is marked by the development of two major
ecosystems: kelp forests & grassland.

5. Pliocene. This epoch lasted approximately five million years ago. It is characterized by the cooling & drying of the
global environment. These changes led to the further spread of grasslands & growth of savannas. Life forms include
those of A.robustus, A. africanus, A. anamensis & Ardipithecus.

According to Palispis, the Class Mammalia to which also man belongs is divided into:

1. Monotremes. These are warm-blooded mammals with high metabolic rate. They typically have hair on their bodies &
produce milk through their mammary glands. Monotremes lay eggs, hatch them & nurse the young.

2. Marsupials. These animals have relatively short gestation span making them give birth to their young alive and in a
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premature state. Mother marsupials carry their young for a time inside a pocket called marsupium, located on the belly
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THE ORIGIN OF MAN AND SOCIETY | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY
of the mother. These mammals possess four pairs of molars in each jaw. The kangaroos of Australia are a popular example
of marsupials.

3. Eutheria. Eutherias are placental mammals whose young are nourished prenatally through the placenta, like the
carabao, monkey, cat, dog, ape & man.

Human Fossils Discovered

The earliest known fossilized creatures identified as man were discovered in a limestone cave in Taung, South Africa. A
skull, which was thought to be that of a small man, was recovered in the area. It was called Australopithecus or the
“southern ape.”

In 1959, Louis Leakey discovered a fossil hominid skull at Olduvai Gorge in the eastern Serengeti plains of Tanzania &
named this specimen Zinjanthropus.

In East Java, Indonesia, the “Java Man” was discovered in 1891 at Trinil-Ngawi Regency on the banks of the Solo River. The
discoverer, Eugene Dubios, gave it the name Pithecanthropus erectus or the “upright ape man.” The fossil was not a
complete specimen, which consisted only of skull, teeth & a femur.

The “Peking man” or Sinanthropus pekinensis, currently known as Homo erectus pekinensis, is an example of Homo erectus.
Its remains consisted of a group of fossil elements discovered from 1923 to 1927 during excavation studies Zhoukoudian
near Beijing, China.

The “Wadjak Man I” was discovered by B.D. can Rietschoten in 1888 on the slopes of Gunung Lawu, Central Java during a
marble-mining operation. The following year, the remains were turned over to Eugene Dubois. He made his own
excavation at the wall of Dalrymple Creek in Talgai station in the Darling Downs, southwest of Brisbane.

The “Niah Man,” a more advance form of hominid, was discovered in 1958 in the Niah Cave, Sarawak, Borneo. An analysis
of this human skull indicated that it is a person of late immaturity & unknown sex.

In the Philippines, the Tabon skull fragment was discovered in 1962. It is known as the “Tabon Man,” a Homo sapiens
estimated to have existed 22,000 years ago.

Tools Used by the Early Man

According to Oakley, what distinguished the ancient ape-like man from true apes is his use of cultural materials which led
to the appearance of the modern man.

The early history of the world is often divided into periods that were named after technology or cultural materials used
during that certain time. The three main divisions are:

1. Stone Age. This period is subdivided into:

a. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)

b. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

c. Neolithic (New Stone Age)

2. Bronze Age
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3. Iron Age

THE ORIGIN OF MAN AND SOCIETY | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY
As the name suggests, the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic period was defined by the use of the first tools made of any hard
stone. Later, the flint made a greater variety possible. In the New Stone Age or Neolithic, man, made better tools for the
domestication of plants & animals, which included flaked tools with ground blades or cutting edges. During the middle
part of the New Stone Age, numerous tools appeared like axes, adzes, & ridge-back types. By the latter period of the New
Stone Age, hard materials capable of being polished emerged. New techniques of tool-making, such as sawing & drilling
were also introduced.

Bronze buckets & axheads were made during the succeeding period of the Bronze Age in the 7th century B.C. The dagger,
as well as a Roman scythe, is an example of tools invented during the Iron Period.

The oldest artifacts in Asia found in Zhoukoudian, China, are the chopping tools made by the alternate slaking chert
pebbles. In Europe, the Abbevellian, a hand axe, was discovered & believed to have been used during the first interglacial
period of the lower Pleistocene. In India, crudely made chopper tools were found similar to those in Europe & Africa. In
the Philippines, big, crude choppers are the earliest surviving tools of ancient man. Robert Fox & Alfredo Evangelista
discovered artifacts that consisted of flaking tools made of local materials common in nearby river beds. There were also
few chopper tools made of igneous rocks & very few pebble stones.

Classification of Human Races

Since the beginning of human civilization, there have been numerous migrations & mingling of people during periods of
relative stability. The basic classification of races is made possible by knowing the past migrations & settlements, processes
of genetic inheritance & effects of culture. Anthropologists usually classify human race into three basic types:

1. Mongoloid (also called Oriental or Mongolic) is a historical & racial category used to describe the people from East &
Southeast Asia. The term “mongoloid” comes from the Mongol people of East Asia, who invaded most of Eurasia in the
13thcentury & established what came to be known as the Mongol Empire. They have a mixed color of skin, yellowish to
light brown on the average. Hair types & color also vary but usually black & straight.

2. Caucasoid or Caucasian is commonly used to refer to the Europeans and other light-skinned populations within these
areas, IT is also used to demote the indigenous population of Europe, North Africa & West, Central & South Asia. They
have variable skin color from the lightest color to dark brown. They are commonly referred to as the white race.

3. Negroid is a term that has its etymological roots in the Latin word niger meaning “black.” In modern use, this race refers
to the indigenous populations of Central & South Africa. Their skin varies from yellowish brown to dark browns to black.
They also have curly to frizzy hair, wide nose, small eyes & thick lips.

SOURCE:
Coloma, et.al. Essentials of Sociology & Anthropology: An Interactive Study (QC: C&E Publishing, Inc., 2012), 33-38.
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THE ORIGIN OF MAN AND SOCIETY | SARAH GAIL A. ORTIZ, M.A. THEOLOGY