General Considerations

1.1 Measurement and Control Devices and/or

FLOWSHEET SYMBOLS AND P&I DIAGRAMS 4 Function Symbols 19
Scope 4 Fieldbus P&ID Examples: DeviceNet 22
General 4 Multipoint, Multifunction, and Multivariable
Application to Industries 4 Devices and Loops 23
Fieldbus Devices, Loops, and Networks 28
Application to Work Activities 5
Comments and Exceptions (Including Non-
Application to Classes of Instrumentation and to
ISA Industrial Practice) 28
Instrument Functions 5
P&IDs: Practical Aspects and Practices in the
Extent of Loop and Functional Identification 5
EPC Industry 28
Extent of Symbolization 5
Inclusion of the New S5.1 Standard (now
ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) in User/Owner 1.2
Documents 5 FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS AND FUNCTION
Definitions Related to Flowchart Diagram SYMBOLS 31
Symbology 6 ISA Functional Diagramming (EX-SAMA) 31
General 6 Instrument and Control Systems Functional
Definitions Related to Flowsheet Symbology 6 Diagramming 31
Identification System Guidelines 9 Equivalent P&ID Loop, Functional Instrument
General 9 and Electrical Diagrams 31
Instrument Index 10 Functional Diagramming Symbol Tables 32
Guideline Modifications 10
Multipoint, Multivariable, and Multifunction
Devices 10 1.3
System Identification 10 INSTRUMENT TERMINOLOGY AND
Loop Identification Number 10 PERFORMANCE 46
Identification Letter Tables 11 Introductory Notes 46
General 11 Operating Conditions vs. Performance 47
Graphic Symbol System Guidelines 19 Sources and References 47
General 19 Definition of Terms 47
Guideline Modifications 19 Test Procedures 74
Instrument Line Symbols 19 Calibration Cycle 75

1
2003 by Bla Liptk
 2 General Considerations

Calibration Curve 75 Configuration Tools 94

Test Procedures 75 Device Configuration 95
References 77 Identification 96
Calibration 97
Monitoring 98
1.4
Simulation 98
SYSTEM ACCURACY 78
Diagnostics 98
Definitions of Terms 78 Reference 99
Language, Terminology, and Reality 78
Clarifying the Accuracy Statement 79
Terminology of Inaccuracy and Repeatability 79 1.7
The Accuracy Statement 80 INSTRUMENT INSTALLATION 100
Flow Measurement Example 80 Cost 100
Analog and Linear DevicesTraditional Installation Documentation 100
Magnetic Flowmeters 81 Physical vs. Schematic Documents 100
Analog, NonlinearOrifice Plates 81 Safety in Design 100
Digital LinearTurbine Flowmeter 82 Pipe and Tube Material 102
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Combined System Accuracy 83 Electrical Installations in Potentially Explosive

Basis 1 83 Locations 103
Basis 2 83 Physical Support 103
Temperature and Pressure Effects 84 Process Industries Practices 104
Repeatability vs. Total Error 85 Bibliography 104
References 85
Bibliography 85
1.8
INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION 108
1.5 Introduction 108
UNCERTAINTY CALCULATIONS 86 Calibration of Pressure Sensors 108
Uncertainty and Error 86 As-Found and As-Left Data 109
Classifying Error Sources and Their Hysteresis 110
Uncertainties 87 Calibration Traceability 110
The ISO Classification of Errors and Linearity and Damping Adjustments 110
Uncertainties 87 Automated Calibration Equipment 111
ISO Type A Uncertainties and Errors 87 Calibration of Temperature Sensors 111
ISO Type B Uncertainties and Errors 87 Calibration Intervals 112
Engineering Classification of Errors and Calibration of Smart Instruments 112
Uncertainties 89 Assessment of Accuracy 112
Random Errors and Uncertainties 89 Calibration and Range Setting 112
Systematic Errors and Uncertainties 89 References 113
Total Uncertainty 90
ISO Total Uncertainty 90
1.9
Engineering Total Uncertainty 90
RESPONSE TIME AND DRIFT TESTING 114
Calculation Example 90
ISO Uncertainty Calculation Example 91 Fundamentals of Response Time Testing 114
Engineering Uncertainty Calculation Laboratory Testing 115
Example 91 Testing of Temperature Sensors 115
Summary 91 Testing of Pressure Sensors 115
References 91 In Situ Response Time Testing 116
Bibliography 92 Testing of Temperature Sensors 117
Testing RTDs 117
Testing Thermocouples 118
1.6 Analysis of LCSR Test Results 119
CONFIGURING INTELLIGENT DEVICES 93 Applications of LCSR Testing 120
Design Feature Recommendations 93 In Situ Testing of Pressure Sensors 121
Costs 93 Analyzing of Noise Data 121
Introduction 93 On-Line Verification of Calibration 122

2003 by Bla Liptk

 Contents of Chapter 1 3

Drift Evaluation Using Multiple Sensors 122 1.11

Empirical Models, Neural Networks 123 INSTRUMENT EVALUATION 136
References 125 Evaluation Results 136
Organization 137
Evaluation Methodology 137
1.10
System Configuration 137
REDUNDANT AND VOTING SYSTEMS 126
System Functions 139
Introduction 126 Properties 139
Hardware Redundancy 126 Test Conditions 140
Software Redundancy 127 Evaluation Techniques 140
Fault-Tolerant Computer System Relevant Standards 141
Design 128 Bibliography 141
Field Instrument Redundancy and Voting 129
Single-Transmitter Configuration 129
Two-Transmitter Configuration 130 1.12
Three-Transmitter Configuration 130 BINARY LOGIC DIAGRAMS 142
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Diagnostic Coverage 130 Logic Diagrams 142

Engineering Redundant Measures 132 Logic Symbols 143
Complex Control Loops 132 Preparation of Logic Diagrams 143
Final Control Elements 132 Diagram Interpretation 146
Availability Considerations 133 Active and Passive Logic 148
References 134 Final Caution 148
Bibliography 134 Bibliography 149

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams*
G. PLATT (1982) B. G. LIPTK (1995) J. E. JAMISON, A. ROHR (2003)

The purpose of this section is to help the reader establish a A limited number of examples are provided later that
uniform means of depicting and identifying all classes of instru- illustrate (with the emphasis on digital systems/loops) how
ments, instrumentation systems, and functions used for measure- to accomplish the following:
ment, monitoring, and control. It is done by presenting a des-
ignation system of graphic symbols and identification codes.*
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It must be noted that a significant part of this section has a) Design an identification system and construct an iden-
been extracted from the revision work of the ISA** SP5.1 tification number
subcommittee, and much of it has been based on draft work- b) Use graphic symbols to construct the following:
ing documents being utilized at the time of this writing, 1) Schematic diagrams of instrument devices and
documents with which one of the authors has been actively functions in monitoring and control loops
involved. Other portions of this section, dealing with certain 2) Schematic and ladder diagrams of electrical circuits
symbols, graphics, and practical tips, are based on the c) Add information and simplify diagrams
authors experience in industry and are not part of the SP5.1
subcommittees proposed forthcoming revision.
Examples of symbol applications are generally shown as
A disclaimer to any future ISA standards documents is applied in the oil and chemical processing industries as in
hereby stated: The reader is cautioned that the draft ISA the original version of this standard, but the principles shown
document that provided much of the information in this sec- are applicable to most other industries.
tion has not been approved as of the time of this writing. It Specific applications are to be addressed in greater detail
cannot be presumed to reflect the position of ISA or any
and will be forthcoming in the planned S5.1 (now ANSI/ISA-
other committee, society, or group. The intent is to pass along
5.01.01) series of Technical Reports dedicated to the various
to the reader the best and latest thinking on this subject at
processing, generating, and manufacturing industries. These
this point in time, although many items are contentious and
will include processes such as continuous and batch chemical,
are ultimately subject to change in the continuously evolving
oil, and metal refining, pulp and paper, water and waste
fields of digital control systems and digital data buses.
treatment, power generation and distribution, and discrete
Another view of flowsheet and piping and instrument parts manufacturing.
diagram (P&ID) symbols and diagrams covered in this sec-
tion is in terms of practical aspects and practices used by
instrumentation and control practitioners in the engineering,
Application to Industries
procurement, and construction (EPC) industry.
The proposed revised ISA S5.1 (now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01)
standard will be suitable for use in the above-mentioned
SCOPE** process industries and in discrete parts manufacturing where
the use of control system schematic and functional diagram-
General ming is required to describe the relationship with processing
equipment and the functionality of measurement and control
The procedural needs of various users are different, and these equipment.
differences are recognized, when they are consistent with the Certain fields, such as astronomy, navigation, and med-
objectives of this standard, by providing alternative symbol
icine, use very specialized instruments that are different from
and identification methods.
conventional industrial process instruments. No specific
effort was made to have the ISA standard meet the require-
* Used with permission of the Instrument, Systems and Automation ments of those fields. However, it is expected that, in certain
Society. areas such as control functional diagrams, they will prove
**Formerly called the Instrument Society of America. applicable for such specialized fields.

4
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 5

Application to Work Activities and functions. The user is free to apply additional identifica-
tion by serial, equipment, unit, area, or plant number or any
The proposed revised ISA S5.1 (now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) other additional means required for the unique identification
standard will be suitable for use whenever reference to mea- of a loop, instrument, or function.
surement and control instrumentation, control device functions, A unique function identification number shall identify
or software applications functions is required for the purposes each instrument, its inherent functions, and each configurable
of symbolization and identification. Such references may be function that requires or allows a user-assigned, unique
required for the following uses as well as others: microprocessor or computer address required by a loop.
a) Design sketches
b) Teaching examples Extent of Symbolization
c) Technical papers, literature, and discussions The standard provides symbol sets for the graphic depiction
d) Instrumentation system diagrams, loop diagrams, logic of limited or total functionality for instruments and other
diagrams, and functional diagrams devices, entire monitor/control loops, or control circuits. The
e) Functional descriptions amount of detail to be shown by the use of symbols depends
f) Conceptual drawings: process flow diagrams (PFDs) on the purpose and audience for which the document is being
and utility flow diagrams (UFDs) prepared.
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g) Construction drawings: engineering flow diagrams A sufficient number of symbols should be used to show
(EFDs), mechanical flow diagrams (MFDs), piping the functionality of the instrumentation and control loop
and instrument diagrams (P&IDs), and system flow being depicted. However, it is not considered necessary to
diagrams (SFDs) provide a symbol for each instrument device and each func-
h) Specifications, purchase orders, manifests, and other tion within a loop.
lists Additional construction, fabrication, installation, and
i) Identification and tag numbering of instruments and operation details of an instrument are better described in a
control functions suitable specification, data sheet, drawing, sketch, or other
j) Installation, operating, and maintenance instructions, document intended for individuals who require such details.
drawings, and records
Inclusion of the New S5.1 Standard
The standard is intended to provide sufficient information
(now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) in User/Owner Documents
to enable anyone with a reasonable amount of process and
instrumentation knowledge to understand the methods of This is a new concept in ISA standards at this point in time.
measurement and process control. Mandatory use of the standard is required by users/owners
It is not necessary to possess the detailed knowledge of based on the following statements.
a specialist in instrumentation and control systems to under- When the latest issue of the standard is included in
stand the standard. user/owners engineering and/or design guidelines or stan-
dards by reference and
Application to Classes of Instrumentation
and to Instrument Functions a) Without exception, then the standard in its entirety
shall be mandatory.
The symbolism and identification methods provided in the
b) With exceptions, then the parts of the standard:
standard are applicable to all classes and types of measure-
1) Excepted to shall be fully described and detailed.
ment and control instruments and functions.
2) Not excepted to shall be mandatory.
The methods can be used for, but are not limited to,
describing and identifying the following:
When a previous issue of the standard is included by
a) Discrete (individual) instruments and their functions reference with or without exception in user/owners engineer-
b) Shared display and control functions ing and design guidelines or standards, that standard in part
c) Distributed control functions or in its entirety shall be mandatory until such time as the
d) Computer control functions user/owners guidelines or standards are revised. When the
e) Programmable logic controller display and control new issue is used as a guide in the preparation of user/owners
functions guidelines or standards, symbols and letter and symbol mean-
f) Application software display and control functions ings different from those in the standard shall be fully
described and detailed.
Extent of Loop and Functional Identification Symbols and the meanings of letters and symbols from
previous issues of the S5.1 standard (now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01)
The ISA S5.1 standard (now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) provides that are different from those contained in this new issue may
identification codes and methods for the alphanumeric iden- continue to be used, provided that they are fully described
tification of monitoring and controlling loops, instruments, and detailed.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 6 General Considerations

DEFINITIONS RELATED TO FLOWCHART Behind the panel A location that, in a broad sense, means
DIAGRAM SYMBOLOGY not normally accessible to an operator, such as the
rear of an instrument or control panel, an enclosed
See statement of permission on page 4. instrument rack or cabinet, or an instrument rack
room within an area that contains a panel.
General Binary A signal or device that has only two discrete posi-
tions/states and, when used in its simplest form, as
For the purpose of understanding the ISA S5.1 standard (now in binary signal as opposed to analog signal, the
ANSI/ISA-5.01.01), the following definitions and terminol- term denotes an onoff or highlow state.
ogy apply. For a more complete treatment, see ISA-S51.1 Board A freestanding structure consisting of one or more
and the ISA-S75 series of standards. Terms italicized within sections, cubicles, or consoles that has groups of
a definition are also defined in this clause. discrete (individual) instruments mounted on it,
houses the operatorprocess interface, and is chosen
Definitions Related to Flowsheet Symbology to have a unique designation. See panel.
Bubble The preferred term for the circular symbol used
Accessible A feature of a discrete device function or fea- to denote and identify the purpose of an instrument
ture of an interactive shared system function or fea- or function that may contain a tag number. See alter-
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ture that can be used or seen by an operator for the native term, balloon.
purpose of performing control operations, such as Communication link A wire, cable, or transmitter net-
setpoint changes, auto-manual transfer, or onoff work or bus system that connects dedicated micro-
operations. processor-based and computer-based systems so
Alarm An indicating instrument that provides a visible that they share a common database and communi-
and/or audible indication if and when the value (or cate according to a rigid protocol in a hierarchical
rate of change value) of a measured or initiating and/or peer-to-peer relationship. See also data link.
variable is out of limits, has changed from a safe to a) Wires or cables may be of twisted pair, coaxial,
an unsafe condition, and/or has changed from a nor- telephone, or fiber optic construction.
mal to an abnormal operating state or condition. b) Transmitters may be radio, telephone, and/or
a) Actuation may be by binary switch or function microwave devices.
or analog transmitter or function. Computer control system A system in which all control
b) Indication may be by annunciator panel, flashing action takes place within a control computer, such
light, printer, buzzer, bell, horn, siren, and/or as a mainframe computer or minicomputer, which
shared graphic display systems. may be single or redundant.
Analog A signal or device that has no discrete positions Computing device Preferred term for a device that per-
or states and changes value as its input changes forms one or more calculations or logic operations,
value. When used in its simplest form, as in analog or both, and transmits one or more resultant output
signal as opposed to binary signal, the term signals. See also computing relay.
denotes a continuously varying quantity. Computing function A hardware or software function that
Application software Software specific to a user applica- performs one or more calculations or logic opera-
tion that is configurable and in general contains tions, or both, and transmits one or more resultant
logic sequences, permissive and limit expressions, output signals.
control algorithms, and other code required to con- Computing relay Alternative term for a device that per-
trol the appropriate input, output, calculations, and forms one or more calculations or logic operations,
decisions. See also software. or both, and transmits one or more resultant output
Assignable A system feature permitting channeling or signals. See also computing device.
directing of a signal from one device to another Configurable A term for devices or systems whose func-
without the need for changes in wiring either by tional or communication characteristics can be
means of patching, switching, or via keyboard com- selected or rearranged through setting of program
mands to the system. switches, application software, fill-in-the-blank
Auto-manual station A manual loading station or control forms, pull-down menus, entered values or text, or
station that also provides switching between manual other methods other than rewiring as a means of
and automatic control modes of a control loop. See altering the configuration.
also manual loading station. Controller A device having an output that varies to reg-
Balloon An alternative term for the circular symbol used ulate a controlled variable in a specified manner that
to denote and identify the purpose of an instrument may be a self-contained analog or digital instrument
or function that may contain a tag number. See pre- or may be the equivalent of such an instrument in a
ferred term, bubble. shared-control system.

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 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 7

a) An automatic controller varies its output auto- a) Signals that have any number of noncontinuous
matically in response to a direct or indirect input distinct or defined states or positions. Binary
of a measured process variable. signals are a subset. See binary.
b) A manual controller, or manual loading station, b) Instruments or devices that have separate or indi-
varies its output in response to a manual adjust- vidual entities, such as a single-case controller
ment; it is not dependent on a measured process or recorder.
variable. Distributed control system Instrumentation, input/output
c) A controller may be an integral element of other devices, control devices, and operator interface
functional elements of a control loop. devices that, in addition to executing stated control
Control station A manual loading station that also provides and indication functions, permits transmission of
switching between manual and automatic control control, measurement, and operating information to
modes of a control loop. See also auto-manual station. and from single- or multiple-user specifiable locations,
a) The operator interface of a distributed control connected by single or multiple communication
system may be referred to as a control station. links.
Control valve A device, other than a common, hand- Field instrument An instrument that is not mounted on a
actuated process block valve or self-actuated check panel or console or in a control room but commonly
valve, that directly manipulates the flow of one or in the vicinity of its primary element or final control
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more fluid process streams. element. See local instrument.

a) The designation hand control valve shall be Final control element A device, such as a control valve,
limited to hand-actuated valves that, when used that directly controls the value of the manipulated
for process throttling, require identification as variable of a control loop.
an instrument or control device. Function The purpose of, or the action performed by, a
Converter A device that receives information as one form device or application software.
of an instrument signal and transmits an output sig- Identification The sequence of letters or digits, or both,
nal as another form, such as a current to pneumatic used to designate an individual instrument, function,
signal converter. or loop.
a) An instrument that changes a sensors output to Instrument A device used for direct or indirect measure-
a standard signal is properly designated as a ment, monitoring, or control of a variable.
transmitter and not a converter. Typically, a tem- a) Includes primary elements, indicators, control-
perature element (TE) connects to a transmitter lers, final control elements, computing devices,
(TT) and not to a converter (TY). and electrical devices such as annunciators,
b) A converter is sometimes referred to as a trans- switches, and pushbuttons.
ducer, a completely general term not recom- b) Does not apply to an instruments internal com-
mended for signal conversion. ponents or parts, such as receiver bellows or
Data link A wire, cable, or transmitter network or bus sys- resistors.
tem that connects field located devices with dedicated Instrumentation A collection of instruments or functions
microprocessors so that they share a common data- or their application for the purpose of measuring,
base and communicate according to a rigid protocol monitoring, controlling, or any combination of these.
in a hierarchical or peer-to-peer relationship to other Local instrument An instrument that is not mounted on a
such devices and/or compatible microprocessor- panel or console or in a control room but commonly
based systems. See also communication link. is in the vicinity of its primary element or final
a) Wire or cable may be of twisted-pair, coaxial, control element. See field instrument.
telephone, or fiber optic construction. Local panel A panel that is not a central or main panel
b) Transmitters may be radio, telephone, or micro- and is commonly located in the vicinity of plant
wave devices. subsystems or subareas (sometimes called a local
Detector A device that is used to detect the presence of instrument panel).
something, such as flammable or toxic gases or dis- a) The term local panel instrument should not be
crete parts. See also primary element and sensor. confused with local instrument or local instru-
Device A piece of instrument hardware that is designed ment panel.
to perform a specific action or function, such as a Loop A combination of two or more instruments or con-
controller, indicator, transmitter, annunciator, or trol functions arranged so that signals pass from one
control valve. to another for the purpose of measurement indica-
Digital A signal or device that generates or uses binary tion or control of a process variable.
digit signals to represent continuous values or dis- Manual loading station A device or function that has a
crete states. manually adjustable output and may also have indi-
Discrete A term used to describe the following: cators, lights, and/or other functions that are used

2003 by Bla Liptk

 8 General Considerations

to actuate or modulate one or more devices. It does Program A repeatable sequence of actions that defines
not provide switching between auto-manual modes the state of outputs as a fixed relationship to the state
of a control loop. of inputs.
Measurement The determination of the existence or mag- Programmable logic controller A controller, usually with
nitude of a process variable. multiple inputs and outputs, that contains an alter-
Monitor A general term for an instrument or instrument able program that is
system used to measure or sense the status or mag- a) Typically used to control binary and/or discrete
nitude of one or more variables for the purpose of logic or sequencing functions.
deriving useful information. This sometimes means b) Also used to provide continuous control functions.
an analyzer, indicator, or alarm. Relay A device whose function is to pass on information
Monitor light A light that indicates which of a number of in an unchanged form or in some modified form;
normal (but not abnormal) conditions of a system or often used to mean the preferred term, computing
device exists. See also pilot light. device.
Multifunction devices Devices (controllers) that receive a) Relay is a term applied specifically to an electric,
one or more input signals and send out two or more pneumatic, or hydraulic switching device that is
output signals or perform two or more functions. actuated by a signal, and to functions performed
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See multipoint and multivariable devices. by a relay.

Multipoint devices Indicators or recorders that may be Scan To sample or multiplex, in a predetermined manner,
single or multivariable type and that receive input each of a number of variables periodically and/or
signals from two or more primary elements or trans- intermittently.
mitters. See multifunction devices and multivariable a) A scanning or multiplexing device is often used
devices. to ascertain the state or value of a group of
Multivariable devices Devices (indicators, recorders, or variables and may be associated with other func-
controllers) that receive two or more input signals tions such as recording and alarming.
and send one output signal. See multifunction and Sensor A separate or integral part, or function, of a loop
multipoint devices. or an instrument that first senses the value of a process
Panel A freestanding or built-in structure, consisting of variable. It assumes a corresponding predetermined
one or more sections, cubicles, consoles, or desks, in and intelligible state and/or generates an output signal
which groups of instrument hardware are mounted. indicative of or proportional to the process variable.
It could house the operatorprocess interface and is See also detector and primary element.
given a unique designation. Setpoint An input variable that sets the desired value of
Panel-mounted An instrument or other device that is the controlled variable manually, automatically, or
mounted in a panel or console and is accessible for by means of a program in the same units as the
an operators normal use. controlled variable.
a) A function that is normally accessible to an Shared control A feature of a control device or function
operator in a shared-display system is the equiv- that contains a number of preprogrammed algo-
alent of a discrete panel-mounted device. rithms that are user retrievable, configurable, and
Pilot light A light that indicates which of a number of connectable. It allows user-defined control strategies
normal conditions of a system or device exists. It is or functions to be implemented and is often used to
not an alarm light that indicates an abnormal con- describe the control features of a distributed control
dition. See also monitor light. system.
Primary element An external or internal instrument, or a a) Control of multiple process variables can be
system element, that quantitatively converts the implemented by sharing the capabilities of a
measured variable into a form suitable for measure- single device of this kind.
ment. See also detector and sensor: Shared display The operator interface device (such as
a) An orifice plate is an external primary element. video, light emitting diode, liquid crystal, or other
b) The sensing portion of a transmitter is an inter- display unit) used to display process control infor-
nal primary element. mation from a number of sources at the command
Process Any operation or sequence of operations involv- of the operator. It is often used to describe the visual
ing a change of energy, state, composition, dimen- features of a distributed control system.
sion, or other properties that may be defined with Software The programs, codes, procedures, algorithms,
respect to zero or some other defined initial value. patterns, rules, and associated documentation
Process variable Any measurable property of a process. required for the operation or maintenance of a
Used in this standard to apply to all variables other microprocessor- or computer-based system. See also
than instrument signals between devices in a loop. application software.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 9

Software link The interconnection of system components Loop and functional identification shall be assigned in
via communications networks or functions via soft- accordance with the guidelines in the standard or with mod-
ware or keyboard instruction. ified guidelines based on the standard, established by the user
Supervisory setpoint control system The generation of or owner of the plant, unit, or facility in which the instru-
setpoint or other control information by a computer mentation is to be installed.
control system for use by shared control, shared A unique loop identification number shall be assigned to
display, or other regulatory control devices. identify each monitoring and control loop. A unique instru-
Switch A device that connects, disconnects, selects, or trans- ment identification/tag number based on the loop identifica-
fers one or more circuits and is not designated as a tion number shall be assigned for each monitoring or control
controller, relay, or control valve. As a verb, the term loop to identify each of the following:
is also applied to a function performed by a switch.
Test point A process connection to which no instrument a) Hardware device and integral functions
is permanently connected; it is intended for the tem- b) Application software functions that require or allow a
porary or intermittent connection of an instrument. user-assigned unique microprocessor or computer
Transducer A general term for a device, which can be a address
primary element, transmitter, relay, converter, or
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other device, that receives information in the form A monitor or control loop consists of some or all of the
of one or more physical quantities, modifies the following (as indicated):
information or its form if required, and produces a
resultant output signal. a) Measurement of the process variable (monitor and
Transmitter A device that senses a process variable control):
through the medium of a sensor or measuring element 1) Measuring element device, such as an orifice plate
and has an output whose steady-state value varies or thermocouple
only as a predetermined function of the process vari- 2) Measurement transmitter, with an integral measuring
able. The sensor can be an integral part, as in a direct element, such as a pressure transmitter or without
connected pressure transmitter, or a separate part, as an integral measuring element, such as a temperature
in a thermocouple-actuated temperature transmitter. transmitter and thermocouple
b) Conditioning of the measurement or input signal
(monitor and control):
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM GUIDELINES 1) Calculating devices
2) Calculating functions
See statement of permission on page 4. 3) Safety barriers
c) Monitoring of the process variable (monitor):
General 1) Indicating or recording device
This subsection establishes an identification system for instru- 2) Application software display function
ment loop devices and functions. It is logical, unique, and d) Controlling of the process variable (control):
consistent in application with a minimum of exceptions, spe- 1) Indicating or recording control device
cial uses, and requirements. The identification system is used 2) Application software control function
to identify instrumentation in text, sketches, and drawings e) Conditioning of the controller or output signal (control):
when used with graphic symbols as described in the subsection 1) Calculating devices
titled Graphic Symbol System Guidelines. 2) Calculating functions
The identification system provides methods for identify- f) Modulation of the manipulated variable (control):
ing instrumentation required to monitor, control, and operate 1) Control valve modulation or onoff action
a processing plant, unit operation, boiler, machine, or any 2) Manipulation of another control loop setpoint
other system that requires measurement, indication, control, 3) Limiting another control loop output signal
modulation, and/or switching of variables.
Primary instrumentation, hardware and software devices, Secondary instrumentation shall be assigned instrument
and functions that measure, monitor, control, and calculate, and identification/tag numbers or other forms of identification in
application software functions that require or allow user- accordance with the guidelines established in the ISA stan-
assigned identities, shall be assigned both loop and functional dard or with modified guidelines based on the standard estab-
identification. lished by the user/owner of the plant, unit, or facility in which
Secondary instrumentation, such as hardware devices the instrumentation is to be installed.
that measure and monitor, as well as level glasses, pressure Examples of instrument identification systems will be
gauges, and thermometers, shall be assigned only a functional found in a future series of S5.1 (now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01)
identification. Technical Reports.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 10 General Considerations

Instrument Index Multifunction devices that receive two or more input sig-
nals, send out two or more output signals, or perform two or
Loop identification numbers and instrument identification/ more functions may be assigned readout/passive or output/
tag numbers shall be recorded in an instrument index (either active function multifunction [U] and shall have a loop num-
manually generated or computerized instrument database), ber assigned according to the measured/initiating variable.
which shall be maintained for the life of the facility for the Loops that perform two or more functions from a single
recording and control of all documents and records pertain- measured/initiating variable may have the following:
ing to the loops and their instrumentation and functions.
An instrument index shall contain references to all instru- a) Each function assigned a unique instrument/tag num-
mentation data required by owner or government regulatory ber and shown on diagrams as multiple tangent bub-
agency management-of-change requirements. It should con- bles for the integral functions and multiple individual
tain, as a minimum, for each loop: bubbles for the nonintegral functions.
b) One readout/passive and/or output/active function des-
a) Loop identification number ignated by succeeding letter [U], for the integral func-
b) Service description tions and multiple individual bubbles for the nonintegral
c) Instrument identification/tag numbers functions, and, if necessary, a note or comment defining
d) Piping and instrument (P&ID) drawing numbers the integral functions.
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e) Instrument data sheet numbers

f) Location plan numbers Graphic symbol examples of these loops are given later in
g) Installation detail drawing numbers this section.

Guideline Modifications System Identification

These guidelines may be modified to suit the requirements Instrumentation is often assembled into systems for various
of the following: reasons including ease of purchase, ease of application, com-
patibility, and so on. These systems may need to be identified
a) Existing user-designed identification and numbering on drawings and in text.
schemes that are not included in this standard Some of the more common instrumentation systems and
b) Computer databases used for record keeping the system codes for identifying them are the following:
c) Microprocessor-based monitoring or control systems
ACS = Analyzer control system
When modified guidelines are adopted, they shall be fully BMS = Burner management system
described and detailed in the user/owners engineering or CCS = Computer control system
design standards. CEMS = Continuous emissions monitoring system
DCS = Distributed control system
Multipoint, Multivariable, and Multifunction Devices FDS = Flame detection system
MMS = Machine monitoring system
Input and output devices and functions that are components PCCS = Personal computer control system
of a multipoint device shall have tag suffixes that delineate PLC = Programmable logic controller
between the different components. SIS = Safety instrumented system
Multivariable devices that receive two or more input sig- VMS = Vibration monitoring system
nals, transmit one output signal, and have been assigned Suffixes may be added to the instrumentation system codes
measured/initiating variable multivariable [U], shall have the [SC] when required as follows:
following indicators:
a) [SC] 1, [SC] 2, and so forth, when more than one
a) Each different input shall be assigned its own loop system is used in a complex
identification number, and each output indicating, b) [SC]-M, [SC]-L, when main and local systems are
recording, switching, alarming, or other device and used in a unit
function that is actuated solely by a single variable, c) [SC]-[unit identifier]
shall be assigned an instrument/tag number that iden-
tifies it as part of these loops. Loop Identification Number
b) Each indicating, recording, switching, alarming, or
other device or function that is actuated by more than A loop identification number is a unique combination of letters
one of the multivariables shall be assigned an instru- and numbers that is assigned to each monitoring and control
ment/tag number that identifies it as part of the mul- loop in a facility to identify the process or machine variable that
tivariable loop. is being measured for monitoring or control (see Table 1.1a).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 11

TABLE 1.1a TABLE 1.1b

Typical Loop Identification Number Typical Instrument Identification/Tag Number
Measured/Initiating Variable 10 - P D A L - *01 A - A - 1 Loop identification
number
10 - P - *01 A Loop identification number
10 Optional loop
10 Optional loop number prefix
number prefix
- Optional punctuation
- Optional punctuation
P Measured/initiating variable
P *01 A Loop number,
- Optional punctuation measured variable
*01 Loop number P D *01 A Loop number, first
A Optional loop number suffix letters
- Optional punctuation
First Letters
*01 Loop number
10 - P D - *01 A Loop identification number
A Optional loop
10 Optional loop number prefix number suffix
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- Optional punctuation P D A L Functional

P D First letters identification letters
P Measured/initiating variable P D First letters
D Variable modifier P Measured/initiating
- Optional punctuation variable

*01 Loop number D Variable modifier

A Optional loop number suffix A L Succeeding letters

A Function identifier
See statement of permission on page 4.
L Function modifier
- Optional punctuation
Loop identification numbers are assigned as follows: A Tag number suffix

a) Numerals in parallel, serial, or parallel/serial sequences - Optional punctuation

b) Letters or letter combinations selected from Table 1.1c, 1 Tag number suffix
Identification Letters (column 1, Measured/Initiating
See statement of permission on page 4.
Variables and column 2, Variable Modifiers)

Loop identification number numerals shall be assigned

to loop variables letters according to one of the following
sequencing methods: combinations of allowable instrumentation identification/tag
numbers.)
a) Parallel: duplicated numerical sequences for each loop
variable letter or letter combination
b) Serial: the same numerical sequence regardless of loop
variable letter or letter combination IDENTIFICATION LETTER TABLES
c) Parallel/serial: parallel sequences for selected loop
variable letters or letter combinations and a serial See statement of permission on page 4.
sequence for the remainder
General
Loop number numerical sequences are normally three or
more digits, -*01, -*001, -*0001, and so on, where This clause provides in tabular form the alphabetic building
blocks of the Instrument and Function Identification System
a) -* can be any digit from 0 to 9 in a concise, easily referenced manner.
b) Coded digits are related to drawing numbers or equip- Table 1.1c, Identification Letters, defines and explains the
ment numbers individual letter designators to be used as loop and functional
c) *00, *000, *0000, and so on are not used identifiers in accordance with the guidelines of the subsection
titled Identification System Guidelines.
Gaps may be left in any sequence to allow for the addition The letters in Table 1.1c shall have the mandatory mean-
of future loops. (See Tables 1.1c through 1.1f for various ings as given in the table except as follows:

2003 by Bla Liptk

 12 General Considerations

TABLE 1.1c
Identification Letters (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)

First Letters (1) Succeeding Letters (15)

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5
Measured/Initiating Variable Variable Modifier Readout/Passive Function Output/Active Function Function Modifier

A Analysis Alarm
B Burner, combustion Users choice Users choice Users Choice
C Users choice Control Close
D Users choice Differential, deviation Deviation
E Voltage Sensor, primary element
F Flow, flow rate Ratio
G Users choice Glass, gauge, viewing device
H Hand High
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I Current Indicate
J Power Scan
K Time, schedule Time rate of change Control station
L Level Light Low
M Users choice Middle,
intermediate
N Users choice Users choice Users choice Users Choice
O Users choice Orifice, restriction Open
P Pressure Point (test connection)
Q Quantity Integrate, totalize Integrate, totalize
R Radiation Record
S Speed, frequency Safety Switch
T Temperature Transmit
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction
V Vibration, mechanical analysis Valve, damper, louver
W Weight, force Well
X Unclassified X-axis Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified
Y Event, state, presence Y-axis Auxiliary devices
Z Position, dimension Z-axis Driver, actuator, unclassified
final control element

See statement of permission on page 4.

a) The user shall assign a variable name to the users a) The user shall assign a variable name to the users
choice letters in column 1 and a function name to the choice letters in the First Letter column.
users choice letters in columns 3 through 5 when such
letters are used. Tables 1.1e and 1.1f, Allowable Function Identification
b) The user may assign meanings to the blanks in col- Letter Combinations, provide allowable combinations of
umns 2 through 5 if needed. function identifying letters.
The letter combinations shall have the meanings given
in the table, except as follows:
Table 1.1d, Allowable Loop Identification Letter Schemes,
provides the allowable loop identification letters and combi- a) The user shall assign a variable and/or function to
nations according to the loop identification number construc- users choice letters if used.
tion schemes. b) The user may assign a meaning to blanks if needed.
The letters and combinations shall have the mandatory c) Cells marked N/A are combinations that shall not be
meanings as given in the table except as follows: allowed.

2003 by Bla Liptk

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TABLE 1.1d
Allowable Loop Identification Letter Schemes
Scheme 1 Scheme 2 Scheme 3 Scheme 4 Scheme 5 Scheme 6 Scheme 7(1) Scheme 8(1) Scheme 9(1)

Parallel Serial Parallel Serial Parallel Serial

Parallel Serial

2003 by Bla Liptk

Parallel Meas./Init. Serial Meas./Init. Measured/Initiating
First Measured/Initiating Meas./Init. Var. w/Var. Parallel First Meas./Init. Var. w/Var. Serial First Measured/Initiating Variable w/Variable
Letters Variable Var. Mod. Letters Var. Mod. Letters Variable Modifier First Letters

A Analysis A-*01 A-*01 A-*01 A-*01 A-*01 A-*01 A-*01 A-*01 A-*01

B Burner, combustion B-*01 B-*01 B-*01 B-*02 B-*02 B-*02 B-*01 B-*01 B-*01

C Users choice C-*01 C-*01 C-*01 C-*03 C-*03 C-*03 C-*02 C-*02 C-*02

D Users choice D-*01 D-*01 D-*01 D-*04 D-*04 D-*04 D-*03 D-*03 D-*03

E Voltage E-*01 E-*01 E-*01 E-*05 E-*05 E-*05 E-*04 E-*04 E-*04

F Flow, flow rate F-*01 F-*01 F-*06 F-*06 F-*01 F-*01

FF Flow ratio F-*01 FF-*02 F-*06 FF-*07 F-*01 FF-*02
FQ Flow total FQ-*03 FQ-*01 FQ-*08 FQ-*07 FQ-*03 FQ-*01

G Users choice G-*01 G-*01 G-*01 G-*07 G-*09 G-*08 G-*05 G-*05 G-*05

H Hand H-*01 H-*01 H-*01 H-*08 H-*10 H-*09 H-*06 H-*06 H-*06

I Current I-*01 I-*01 I-*01 I-*09 I-*11 I-*10 I-*07 I-*07 I-*07

J Power J-*01 J-*01 J-*01 J-*10 J-*12 J-*11 J-*08 J-*08 J-*08

K Time K-*01 K-*01 K-*01 K-*11 K-*13 K-*12 K-*09 K-*09 K-*09

L Level L-*01 L-*01 L-*01 L-*12 L-*14 L-*13 L-*01 L-*01 L-*01

M Users choice M-*01 M-*01 M-*01 M-*13 M-*15 M-*14 M-*10 M-*10 M-*10

N Users choice N-*01 N-*01 N-*01 N-*14 N-*16 N-*15 N-*11 N-*11 N-*11

O Users choice O-*01 O-*01 O-*01 O-*15 O-*17 O-*16 O-*12 O-*12 O-*12

P Pressure P-*01 P-*18 P-*01 P-*01

PF Pressure ratio P-*01 PF-*02 P-*01 P-*16 PF-*19 P-*17 P-*01 PF-*02
PK Pressure schedule PK-*03 PK-*20 PK-*03 PK-*03
PD Pressure difference PD-*04 PD-*01 PD-*21 PD-*18 PD-*04

Q Quantity Q-*01 Q-*01 Q-*01 Q-*17 Q-*22 Q-*19 Q-*13 Q-*13 Q-*13
1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams

(Continued)
13
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14
TABLE 1.1d Continued
Allowable Loop Identification Letter Schemes
Scheme 1 Scheme 2 Scheme 3 Scheme 4 Scheme 5 Scheme 6 Scheme 7(1) Scheme 8(1) Scheme 9(1)

Parallel Serial Parallel Serial Parallel Serial

Parallel Serial

2003 by Bla Liptk

Parallel Meas./Init. Serial Meas./Init. Measured/Initiating
First Measured/Initiating Meas./Init. Var. w/Var. Parallel First Meas./Init. Var. w/Var. Serial First Measured/Initiating Variable w/Variable
Letters Variable Var. Mod. Letters Var. Mod. Letters Variable Modifier First Letters

R Radiation R-*01 R-*01 R-*01 R-*18 R-*23 R-*20 R-*14 R-*14 R-*14
General Considerations

S Speed S-*01 S-*01 S-*01 S-*19 S-*24 S-*21 S-*15 S-*15 S-*15
T Temperature T-*01 T-*25 T-*01 T-*01
TF Temperature ratio T-*01 TF-*02 T-*01 T-*20 TF-*26 T-*22 T-*01 TF-*02
TK Temperature schedule TK-*03 TK-*27 TK-*03 TD-*01
TD Temperature difference TD-*04 TD-*01 TD-*28 TD-*23 TD-*04

U Multivariable U-*01 U-*01 U-*01 U-*21 U-*29 U-*24 U-*16 U-*16 U-*16

V Vibration, machine V-*01 V-*01 V-*01 V-*22 V-*30 V-*25 V-*17 V-*17 V-*17
analysis

W Weight, force W-*01 W-*31 W-*18 W-*18

WD Weight difference WD-*02 WD-*32 WD-*19 WD-*19

WF Weight ratio W-*01 WF-*03 W-*01 W-*23 WF-*33 W-*26 W-*18 WF-*20 WF-*20
WK Weight loss (gain) WK-*04 WK-*34 WK-*21 WK-*21
WQ Weight total WQ-*05 WQ-*35 WQ-*22 WQ-*22

X Unclassified X-*01 X-*01 X-*01 X-*24 X-*36 X-*27 X-*19 X-*23 X-*23

Y Event, state, presence Y-*01 Y-*01 Y-*01 Y-*25 Y-*37 Y-*28 Y-*20 Y-*24 Y-*24

Z Position, dimension Z-*01 Z-*01 Z-*38 Z-*29 Z-*25 Z-*25

ZX Position, X-axis ZX-*02 ZX-*01 ZX-*39 ZX-*30 ZX-*26 ZX-*26

ZY Position, Y-axis ZY-*03 ZY-*01 ZY-*40 ZY-*31 ZY-*27 ZY-*27
ZZ Position, Z-axis Z-*01 ZZ-*04 ZZ-*01 Z-*26 ZZ-*41 ZZ-*32 Z-*21 ZZ-*28 ZZ-*28
ZD Gauge deviation ZD-*01 ZD-*01 ZD-*42 ZD-*33 ZD-*29 ZD-*29
ZDX Gauge X-axis deviation ZDX-*02 ZDX-*01 ZDX-*43 ZDX-*34 ZDX-*30 ZDX-*30
ZDY Gauge Y-axis deviation ZDY-*03 ZDY-*01 ZDY-*44 ZDY-*35 ZDY-*31 ZDY-*31
ZDZ Gauge Z-axis deviation ZDZ-*04 ZDZ-*01 ZDZ-*45 ZDZ-*36 ZDZ-*32 ZDZ-*32

See statement of permission on page 4.

Note (1): Assignment shown is one of many possibilities.
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TABLE 1.1e
Allowable Readout/Passive Function Identification Letter Combinations

2003 by Bla Liptk

A(1) B E G I L N O P Q R W X

Absolute Alarms Deviation Alarms Sensor,

First Measured/Initiating Users Primary Gauge, Users Orifice Point Integrate
Letters Variable H M L D DH DL Choice Element Glass (2) Indicate Light Choice Restrict (Test Conn.) Totalize Record Well Unclassified

A Analysis AAH AAM AAL AAD AADH AADL AE N/A AI N/A AP N/A AR N/A
B Burner, combustion BAH BAM BAL BAD BADH BADL BE BG BI BL N/A N/A N/A BR N/A
C Users choice CAH CAM CAL CAD CADH CADL CE CG CI CL CR
D Users choice DAH DAM DAL DAD DADH DADL DE DG DI DL DR
E Voltage EAH EAM EAL EAD EADL EADL EE EG EI EL N/A EP N/A ER N/A
F Flow, flow rate FAH FAM FAL FAD FADH FADL FE FG FI FL FO FP FQ FR N/A
FF Flow ratio FFAH FFAM FFAL FFAD FFADH FFADL FE N/A FFI N/A N/A N/A N/A FFR N/A
FQ Flow total FQAH FQAM FQAL FQAD FQADH FQADL N/A N/A FQI N/A N/A N/A N/A FQR N/A
G Users choice GAH GAM GAL EAD GADH GADL GI GR
H Hand N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A HI N/A N/A N/A N/A HR N/A
I Current IAH IAH IAL IAD IADH IADL IE N/A II IL N/A IP N/A IR N/A
J Power JAH JAM JAL JAD JADH JADL JE N/A JI JL N/A JP JQ JR N/A
K Time N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A KI KL N/A N/A KQ KR N/A
L Level LAH LAM LAL LAD LADH LADL LE LG LI LL N/A LP N/A LR N/A
M Users choice MAH MAM MAL MAD MADH MADL MI MR
N Users choice NAH NAM NAL NAD NADH NADL NI NR
O Users choice OAH OAM OAL OAD OADH OADL OI OR
P Pressure PAH PAM PAL PAD PADH PADL PE PG PI PL N/A PP N/A PR N/A
PD Pressure differential PDAH PDAM PDAL PDAD PDADH PDADL PDE PDG PDI PDL N/A PDP N/A PDR N/A
PF Pressure ratio PFAH PFAM PFAL PFAD PFADH PFADL N/A PFI N/A N/A N/A N/A PFR N/A
PK Pressure schedule PKAH PKAM PKAL PKAD PKADH PKADL N/A PKI PKL N/A N/A N/A PKR N/A
Q Quantity QAH QAM QAL QAD QADH QADL N/A QI QL N/A N/A N/A QR N/A
R Radiation RAH RAM RAL RAD RADH RADL RE RG RI RL N/A RP RQ RR N/A
S Speed SAH SAM SAL SAD SADH SADL SE SG SI N/A N/A SP N/A SR N/A
T Temperature TAH TAM TAL TAD TADH TADL TE TG TI TL N/A TP N/A TR TW
TD Temperature TDAH TDAM TDAL TDAD TDADH TDADL TE TDG TDI TDL N/A N/A N/A TDR N/A
differential

(Continued)
1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams
15
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16

TABLE 1.1e Continued

Allowable Readout/Passive Function Identification Letter Combinations
A(1) B E G I L N O P Q R W X

2003 by Bla Liptk

Absolute Alarms Deviation Alarms Sensor,
First Measured/Initiating Users Primary Gauge, Users Orifice Point Integrate
Letters Variable H M L D DH DL Choice Element Glass (2) Indicate Light Choice Restrict (Test Conn.) Totalize Record Well Unclassified

TF Temperature ratio TFAH TFAM TFAL TFAD TFADH TFADL N/A N/A TFI N/A N/A N/A N/A TFR N/A
General Considerations

TK Temperature TKAH TKAM TKAL TKAD TKADH TKADL N/A N/A TKI TKL N/A N/A N/A TKR N/A
schedule
U Multivariable N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
V Vibration, machine VAH N/A VAL VAD VADH VADL VE VG VI N/A N/A VP N/A VR N/A
analysis
W Weight, force WAH WAM WAL WAD WAD WADL WE N/A WI WL N/A N/A N/A WR N/A
WD Weight difference WDAH WDAM WDAL WDAD WDAD WDADL WE N/A WDI WDL N/A N/A N/A WDR N/A
WF Weight ratio WFAH WFAM WFAL WFAD WFAD WFADL WE N/A WFI N/A N/A N/A N/A WFR N/A
WK Weight loss (gain) WKAH WKAM WKAL WKAD WKAD WKADL N/A N/A WKI WKL N/A N/A N/A WKR N/A

WQ Weight total WQAH WQAM WQAL WQAD WQAD WQADL N/A N/A WQI WQL N/A N/A N/A WQR N/A
X Unclassified XAH XAM XAL XAD XAD XADL XE XG XI XL N/A N/A N/A XR N/A
Y Event, state, YSAH N/A YAL N/A N/A N/A N/A YG YI YL N/A N/A N/A YR N/A
presence
Z Position, dimension ZAH ZAM ZAL ZAD ZADH ZADL ZE ZG ZI ZL N/A N/A N/A ZR N/A
ZX Position, X-axis ZXAH ZXAM ZXAL ZXAD ZXADH ZXADL ZXE ZXG ZXI ZXL N/A N/A N/A ZXR N/A
ZY Position, Y-axis ZYAH ZYAM ZYAL ZYAD ZYADH ZYADL ZYE ZYG ZYI ZYL N/A N/A N/A ZYR N/A
ZZ Position, Z-axis ZZAH ZZAM ZZAL ZZAD ZZADH ZZADL ZZE ZZG ZZI ZZL N/A N/A N/A ZZR N/A
ZD Gauge deviation ZDAH ZDAM ZDAL ZDAD ZDADH ZDADL ZDE ZDG ZDI N/A N/A N/A N/A ZDR N/A
ZDX Gauge X-axis ZDXAH ZDXAM ZDXAL ZDXAD ZDXADH ZDXADL ZDXE ZDXG ZDXI N/A N/A N/A N/A ZDXR N/A
deviation
ZDY Gauge Y-axis ZDYAH ZDYAM ZDYAL ZDYAD ZDYADH ZDYADL ZDYE ZDYG ZDYI N/A N/A N/A N/A ZDYR N/A
deviation
ZDZ Gauge Z-axis ZDZAH ZDZAM ZDZAL ZDZAD ZDZADH ZDZADL ZDZE ZDZG ZDZI N/A N/A N/A N/A ZDZR N/A
deviation

See statement of permission on page 4.

N/A = not allowed.
Note (1): Alarm combinations are given with Function Modifiers for deviation from set point and absolute values. Adding [H] or [L] forms lowlow and highhigh alarm Functional Identifications.
Note (2): Readout/Passive Function [G] (glass, gauge) is shown for local direct connected devices, such as flow sight glasses, level glasses, pressure gauges, and thermometers, and also for weigh scales
and position indicators. These devices provide a simple view of a process condition. The Readout/Passive Function [I] (indicate) may continue to be used in facilities where it is currently used.
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TABLE 1.1f
Allowable Output/Active Function Identification Letter Combinations
C K S T U V X Y Z

Measured/ Controller Switch Transmitter Valve Compute

2003 by Bla Liptk

First Initiating Control Multi- Damper Convert Actuator
Letters Variable C(4)(5) IC(3) RC(3) CV(6) Station H M L T IT RT function Louver Unclassified Relay Drive

A Analysis AC AIC ARC N/A AK ASH ASM ASL AT AIT ART AU AV AX AY

B Burner, BC BIC BRC N/A BK BSH BSM BSL BT BIT BRT BU BV BX BY BZ
combustion
C Users choice CC CIC CRC CK CSH CSM CSL CT CIT CRT CU CV CX CY
D Users choice DC DIC DRC DK DSH DSM DSL DT DIT DRT DU DV DX DY
E Voltage EC EIC ERC N/A EK ESH ESM ESL ET EIT ERT EU N/A EX EY EZ
F Flow, flow rate FC FIC FRC FCV FK FSH FSM FSL FT FIT FRT FU FV FX FY
FF Flow ratio FFC FFIC FFRC N/A FFK FFSH FFSM FFSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A FFX FFY
FQ Flow total FQC FQIC FQRC FQCV FQK FQSH FQSM FQSL FQT FQIT FQRT N/A FQV FQX FQY
G Users choice GC GIC GRC GK GSH GSM GSL GT GIT GRT GU GV GX GY
H Hand HC HIC N/A HCV N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A HV HX HY
I Current IC IIC IRC N/A IK ISH ISM ISL IT IIT IRT IU N/A IX IY IZ
J Power JC JIC JRC N/A JK JSH JSM JSL JT JIT JRT JU N/A JX JY JZ
K Time KC KIC KRC N/A N/A KSH KSM KSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A KX KY
L Level LC LIC LRC LCV LK LSH LSM LSL LT LIT LRT LU LV LX LY
M Users choice MC MIC MRC MK MSH MSM MSL MT MIT MRT MU MV MX MY
N Users choice NC NIC NRC NK NSH NSM NSL NT NIT ORT NU NV NX NY
O Users choice OC OIC ORC OK OSH OSM OSL OT OIT BRT OU OV OX OY
P Pressure PC PIC PRC PCV PK PSH PSM PSL PT PIT PRT PU PV PX PY
PD Pressure PDC PDIC PDRC PDCV PDK PDSH PDSM PDSL PDT PDIT PDRT PDU PDV PDX PDY
differential
PF Pressure ratio PFC PFIC PFRC N/A PFK PFSH PFSM PFSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A PFX PFY
PK Pressure schedule PKC PKIC PKRC N/A PKADH PKSH PKSM PKSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A PKX PKY
Q Quantity QC QIC QRC QCV QADH QSH QSM QSL QT QIT QRT QU N/A QX QY
R Radiation RC RIC RRC N/A RADH RSH RSM RSL RT RIT RRT RU RV RX RY
S Speed SC SIC SRC SCV SADH SSH SSM SSL ST SIT SRT SU SV SX SY
T Temperature TC TIC TRC TCV TADH TSH TSM TSL TT TIT TRT TU TV TX TY
TD Temperature TDC TDIC TDRC N/A TDADH TDSH TDSM TDSL TDT TDIT TDRT TDU TDV TDX TDY
1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams

differential

(Continued)
17
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18
TABLE 1.1f Continued
Allowable Output/Active Function Identification Letter Combinations
C K S T U V X Y Z

Measured/ Controller Switch Transmitter Valve Compute

2003 by Bla Liptk

First Initiating Control Multi- Damper Convert Actuator
Letters Variable C(4)(5) IC(3) RC(3) CV(6) Station H M L T IT RT function Louver Unclassified Relay Drive

TF Temperature ratio TFC TFIC TFRC N/A TFADH TFSH TFSM TFSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A TFX TFY
TK Temperature TKC TKIC TKRC N/A TKADH TKSH TKSM TKSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A TKX TKY
schedule
General Considerations

U Multivariable UC UIC URC N/A N/A USH USM USL UT N/A N/A N/A N/A UX UY
V Vibration, VC VIC VRC N/A VADH VSH VSM VSL VT VIT VRT N/A N/A VX VY
machine analysis
W Weight, force WC WIC WRC WCV WAD WSH WSM WSL WT WIT WRT WU WV WX WY
WD Weight difference WDC WDIC WDRC N/A WDAD WDSH WDSM WDSL WDT WDIT WDRT WDU N/A WDX WDY
WF Weight ratio WFC WFIC WFRC N/A WFAD WFSH WFSM WFSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A WFX WFY
WK Weight loss (gain) WKC WKIC WKRC N/A WKAD WKSH WKSM WKSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A WKX WKY
WQ Weight total WQC WQIC WQRC N/A WQAD WQSH WQSM WQSL N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A WQX WQY
X Unclassified XC XIC XRC N/A XAD XSH XSM XSL XT XIT XRT XU XV XX XY XZ
Y Event, state, YC YIC YRC N/A N/A YSH YSM YSL YT YIT YRT YU N/A YX YY YZ
presence
Z Position, ZC ZIC ZRC N/A ZADH ZSH ZSM ZSL ZT ZIT ZRT ZU ZV ZX ZY ZZ
dimension
ZX Position, X-axis ZXC ZXIC ZXRC N/A ZXADH ZXSH ZXSM ZXSL ZXT ZXIT ZXRT N/A ZXV ZXX ZXY ZXZ
ZY Position, Y-axis ZYC ZYIC ZYRC N/A ZYADH ZYSH ZYSM ZYSL ZYT ZYIT ZYRT N/A ZYV ZYX ZYY ZYZ
ZZ Position, Z-axis ZZC ZZIC ZZRC N/A ZZADH ZZSH ZZSM ZZSL ZZT ZZIT ZZRT N/A ZZV ZZX ZZY ZZZ
ZD Gauge deviation ZDC ZDIC ZDRC N/A ZDADH ZDSH ZDSM ZDSL ZDT ZDIT ZDRT N/A ZDV ZDX ZDY ZDZ
ZDX Gauge X-axis ZDXC ZDXIC ZDXRC N/A ZDXADH ZDXSH ZDXSM ZDXSL ZDXT ZDXIT ZDXRT N/A ZDXV ZDXX ZDXY ZDXZ
deviation
ZDY Gauge Y-axis ZDYC ZDYIC ZDYRC N/A ZDYADH ZDYSH ZDYSM ZDYSL ZDYT ZDYIT ZDYRT N/A ZDYV ZDYX ZDYY ZDYZ
deviation
ZDZ Gauge Z-axis ZDZC ZDZIC ZDZRC N/A ZDZADH ZDZSH ZDZSM ZDZSL ZDZT ZDZIT ZDZRT N/A ZDZV ZDZX ZDZY ZDZZ
deviation

See statement of permission on page 4.

N/A = not allowed.
Note (3): The combinations in the [IC] and [RC] columns indicate the order to be followed in forming the Functional Identification of a controller device or function that also provides indication or recording.
Note (4): The combinations in the [C] column do not have operator visible indication of measured variable, set point, or output signal, when used with discrete hardware single case instruments.
Note (5): The combinations in the [C] column may also be used for a controller function configured in a shared or distributed control system.
Note (6): The combinations in the [CV] column indicate the order to be followed in forming the Functional Identification for self-actuated control valves.
 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 19

GRAPHIC SYMBOL SYSTEM GUIDELINES Tables 1.1o through 1.1r, Final Control Elements, consist
of various geometric shapes that represent final control
See statement of permission on page 4. elements, such as control valves and their actuators, that are
located in the process piping:
General
Table 1.1oControl Valve Bodies
The future revised ISA Standard S5.1 (now ANSI/ISA- Table 1.1pControl Valve Actuators
5.01.01) establishes a graphic symbol system and functional Table 1.1qSelf-Actuated Devices (includes such self-
identification for depicting instrument loop devices and func- actuated elements as pressure control valves and
tions, application software functions, and the interconnec- pressure relief valves)
tions between them that is logical, unique, and consistent in Table 1.1rFailure Position Indicators for Control
application with a minimum of exceptions, special uses, and Valves (indicates the position which the valve takes
requirements. when/if the actuating power fails)
The graphic symbol system shall be used to depict instru-
mentation in text and in sketches and drawings. When used Table 1.1s, Electrical Schematic Symbols, represents
with identification letters and numbers as described in the electrical circuit elements.
subsection titled Identification System Guidelines, it shall
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Specific industrial application examples of the graphic

identify the functionality of each device and function shown. symbol system will be found in a future series of S5.1 (now
The graphic symbol system provides methods for sche- ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) Technical Reports. Sketches that are
matic loop diagramming, functional diagramming (see Section not all inclusive of acceptable methods of depicting instru-
1.2), and electrical schematic diagramming of any process or mentation are included in the following text to illustrate the
system that requires measurement, indication, control, mod- intent of the standard. However, the individual symbols and
ulation, or switching of variables. their meanings are to be mandatory in the future, imminent
Table 1.1g, Instrument Line Symbols, contains lines used standard.
to represent process connections and the measurement and
control signals that connect instruments and functions to the
process and to each other. Guideline Modifications
Tables 1.1h through 1.1k depict circles, squares, dia- These guidelines may be modified to suit the requirements
monds, hexagons, and lines used to represent the majority of of existing user-designed graphic symbols that are not
hardware and software instruments and functions as follows: included in this standard. When modified symbols are
Table 1.1h, Discrete (Individual) Devices and/or Functions, adopted, they shall be fully described and detailed in the
represents discrete hardware instruments and/or functions that user/owners engineering or design standards.
are implemented in nonmicroprocessor-based systems similar
or equal to single-case transmitters, controllers, indicators, or
recorders. Instrument Line Symbols
Table 1.1i, Shared Continuous Devices and/or Functions,
represents shared and/or distributed software analog instru- In Table 1.1g, symbols represent the following:
ments and/or functions that are implemented in microproces-
a) Instrument and device connections at process mea-
sor-based systems similar or equal to distributed control or
surement points
programmable logic control systems.
b) Connections to instrument power supplies
Table 1.1j, Shared OnOff Devices and/or Functions,
c) Signals between measurement and control instruments
represents shared and/or distributed onoff software instru-
and functions
ments and/or functions that are implemented in microproces-
sor-based control systems similar or equal to a distributed
control or programmable logic control systems. Lines shall be
Table 1.1k, Computer Devices and/or Functions, repre-
sents shared and/or distributed onoff software instruments a) Fine in relation to process equipment and piping lines
and/or functions that are implemented in a computer-based b) As short as possible and consistent with clarity
control system.
Figures 1.1l and 1.1m illustrate some practical but not Measurement and Control Devices
standardized P&ID symbology for a fieldbus system and/or Function Symbols
(DeviceNet).
Table 1.1n, Primary ElementsFlow, describes various See Table 1.1h, Discrete (Individual) Devices and/or Func-
geometric shapes that represent primary measurement ele- tions, in which symbols represent discrete devices that per-
ments, such as orifice plates and thermocouples, that are form continuous and/or onoff functions that do not share
located in the process piping. control or display functions for the following:

2003 by Bla Liptk

 20 General Considerations

TABLE 1.1g
Instrument Line Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol Application

01 Instrument impulse line from process

Instrument impulse line from equipment
Analyzer sample line from process
Functional instrument diagram signal lines
02 ST
Heat (cool) traced instrument impulse line from process
Heat (cool) traced instrument impulse line from equipment
Heat (cool) traced analyzer sample line from process
Type of tracing may be indicated as ET = electrical, RT = refrigerated, ST = steam, etc.
03 Generic instrument impulse line connected to process line
Generic instrument impulse line connected to equipment
04 Heat (cool) traced generic instrument impulse line connected to process line
Heat (cool) traced generic instrument impulse line connected to equipment
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Process line or equipment may or may not be traced

05 Heat (cool) traced instrument connected to process impulse line
Instrument impulse line may or may not be traced

06 Flanged instrument connection to process line

Flanged instrument connection to equipment
07 Threaded instrument connection to process line
Threaded instrument connection to equipment
08 Socket welded instrument connection to process line
Socket welded instrument connection to equipment
09 Welded instrument connection to process line
Welded instrument connection to equipment
Practical industry tip: Use symbol for both seal weld on threaded connection as well as butt weld on larger sizes
10 AS Instrument air supply
Indicate supply pressure as required: AS-60 psig, AS-400 kPa, etc.
IA (instrument air) or PA (plant air) may be used for AS
Use as required
11 ES Instrument electric power supply
Indicate voltage and type as required, e.g., ES-24 VDC, ES-120 VAC, etc.
Use as required
Practical industry tip: Add note if it is coming from UPS
12 Undefined signal
Use for PFDs
Use for discussions or diagrams where type of signal, pneumatic or electronic, is not of concern
13 Pneumatic signal
14 Electric signal
Electronic signal
Functional instrument diagram signal lines
15 Hydraulic signal
16 Filled thermal element capillary tube
17 Guided electromagnetic signal
Fiber optic cable
Guided sonic signal
18 Unguided electromagnetic signal
Unguided sonic signal
Alternate radio communication link (see symbol 22)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 21

TABLE 1.1g Continued

Instrument Line Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol Application
19 Communication link or system bus, between devices and functions of a microprocessor-based system
Industry tip: Use this for traditional DCS main data highway systems.
System internal software link
20 Shared communication link or bus (not system bus) between two or more independent microprocessor-based systems
Shared data link from/between field located microprocessor-based devices and/or functions
Industry tip: Use for fieldbus field devices
21 Dedicated communications link or bus (not system bus) between two or more independent microprocessor-based systems
Dedicated data link from a field located microprocessor-based device and/or function
22 Dedicated radio communications link (not system bus) between radio transmitting and receiving devices and/or systems
Unguided radio signal
Alternate unguided electromagnetic signal (see symbol 18)
23 Mechanical link or connection
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24 Signal connector
Drawing-to-drawing signal connector
Internal signal connector used to avoid long signal lines
25 Signal connector
Internal signal connector used to avoid long signal lines
Drawing-to-drawing signal connector

See statement of permission on page 4.

a) Measurement (transmitters, primary elements)

TABLE 1.1h b) Indication (indicators, annunciators)
Discrete (Individual) Devices and/or Functions (proposed for
c) Control (controllers, control valves, switches, solenoids)
the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time
of this writing) Limited operator accessibility (setpoint changes, control
No. Symbol Location and Accessibility mode transfers, etc.) and unlimited engineer or technician acces-
01 Field or locally mounted sibility through location and enclosure methods are shown.
Not panel or cabinet mounted Table 1.1i covers analog, digital, and/or discrete shared
Normally accessible to an operator control devices and/or functions for continuous control, indi-
cation, calculation, and so forth that are microprocessor based
02 Central or main control room
and configurable. They communicate with each other and
Front of main panel mounted
share control or display functions in applications such as
Normally accessible to an operator
distributed control and programmable logic systems.
03 Central or main control room Limited operator accessibility (setpoint changes, control
Rear of main panel mounted mode transfers, and so forth) and unlimited engineer acces-
Not normally accessible to an operator sibility is through local or wide area communications net-
works, keyboards, and video displays as shown.
04 Secondary or local control room
Field or local control panel
Table 1.1j deals with analog, digital, and discrete control
Front of secondary or local panel mounted devices and functions for onoff or binary control, indication,
Normally accessible to an operator calculation, and so forth that are microprocessor based and
05 Secondary or local control room
configurable. They communicate with each other and share
Field or local control panel control or display in distributed control and programmable
Rear of secondary or local panel or cabinet mounted logic systems.
Not normally accessible to an operator Limited operator accessibility (setpoint changes, control
06 Signal processor identifier located in upper right mode transfers, and so on) and unlimited engineer accessibility
or left quadrant of symbols above is through local or wide area communications networks, key-
Signal processor identifier attached to symbols boards, and video displays as shown.
where affected signals are connected The devices and functions in Table 1.1k include process
plant computer-implemented regulatory and/or advanced con-
See statement of permission on page 4. trol analog/digital/discrete (individual) control and indication
functions that are mainframe computer or minicomputer based.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 22 General Considerations

TABLE 1.1i TABLE 1.1j

Shared Continuous Devices and/or Functions (proposed for the Shared onoff devices and/or Functions (proposed for the next
next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this
this writing) writing)
No. Symbol Location and Accessibility No. Symbol Location and Accessibility

01 Dedicated single function device 01 Field or locally mounted

Field or locally mounted Not panel or cabinet mounted
Not panel or cabinet mounted Normally accessible to an operator at device
Normally accessible to an operator at device
02 Central or main console
02 Central or main console
Visible on video display
Visible on video display
Normally accessible to an operator at console
Normally accessible to an operator at console
03 Central or main console
03 Central or main console
Not visible on video display
Not visible on video display
Not normally accessible to an operator at console
Not normally accessible to an operator at
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console 04 Secondary or local console

04 Secondary or local console Field or local control panel
Field or local control panel Visible on video display
Visible on video display Accessible to an operator at console
Normally accessible to an operator at console 05 Secondary or local console
05 Secondary or local console Field or local control panel
Field or local control panel Not visible on video display
Not visible on video display Not normally accessible to an operator at console
Not normally accessible to an operator at 06 Mathematical function located in upper right or
console left quadrant of symbols above
06 Mathematical function located in upper right or Mathematical function attached to symbols where
left quadrant of symbols above affected signals are connected
Mathematical function attached to symbols where
affected signals are connected See statement of permission on page 4.

See statement of permission on page 4.

TABLE 1.1k
Limited operator accessibility (setpoint changes, control Computer Devices and/or Functions (proposed for the next revision
of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
mode transfers, etc.), and unlimited engineer accessibility is
through local or wide area communications networks, key- No. Symbol Location and Accessibility
boards, and video displays as shown. 01 Undefined location
Undefined visibility
Fieldbus P&ID Examples: DeviceNet Figures 1.1l and 1.1m Undefined accessibility
show the practical methods used by one EPCM company in 02 Central or main computer
establishing a P&ID detail and markup for a low-voltage Visible on video display
motor control plus a VFD motor control implemented with Normally accessible to an operator at console or
DeviceNet as the fieldbus. It should be pointed out that these computer terminal
figures do not completely conform to the ISA S5.1 (now 03 Central or main computer
ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) proposed standard and are a compromise Not visible on video display
born of necessity. Not normally accessible to an operator at console
In Table 1.1n, symbols are pictorial representations of pri- or computer terminal

mary flow elements that generate a measurement or signal equal 04 Secondary or local computer
to, or a signal proportional to, a fluid flow rate or total flow. Visible on video display
Normally accessible to an operator at console or
In Table 1.1o, valve body symbols, when combined with
computer terminal
valve actuator symbols, shall be used to represent control
05 Secondary or local computer
valves and solenoid valves as follows:
Not visible on video display
Symbols 01 through 05 may be used as generic symbols
Not normally accessible to an operator at console
to represent control and solenoid valve bodies. or computer terminal
The remaining symbols may be used when it is desired
to more clearly indicate a specific valve body type. See statement of permission on page 4.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 23

Available XL XA XCR XSR SI SC XGM I

XL XA XCR XSR XGM I xxx
xxx Not 81001 81001 81001 81001 81001 81001 81001
81001 81001 81001 81001 81001 Available
DCS Common Start/Stop Run
Control Trouble Command Status
L/R Status Common Start/Stop Run Alarm
Trouble Command Status
Alarm

START
P.B.
DCS
MCC ENABLE

MCC HS
80001 H/O/A
M

DETAIL # VFD-01

M
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SC
81001

XGM XCR
I XSR
DETAIL # MLV-01 xxx XA
81001
XL

I XGM XCR
xxx XSR
81001 XL
XA

MCC

VFD

P&ID MARK UP

MCC HS
80001 H/O/A
FIG. 1.1m
VFD motor control on DeviceNet (detail and P&ID mark up).

M Multivariable devices are indicators, recorders, and con-

trollers that receive input signals from two or more primary
elements or transmitters and control one manipulated variable.
P&ID MARK UP Multifunction devices are controllers or switches that
receive input signals from two or more primary elements or
FIG. 1.1l
transmitters and control two or more manipulated variables.
Low voltage motor control on DeviceNet (detail and P&ID mark up).
Single variable or multivariable multipoint indicators and
recorders for two or three points shall be drawn with bubbles
either
a) Tangent to each other in the same order, left to right,
In Table 1.1s, contacts shall be shown in shelf condition.
as the pen or pointer assignments:
Rising switch actuator will cause contacts to switch.

Multipoint, Multifunction, FR PR TR
01 01
01
and Multivariable Devices and Loops

Multipoint devices are indicators or recorders that may be

FT PT TT
single or multivariable and receive input signals from two or 01 01 01
more primary elements or transmitters.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 24 General Considerations

TABLE 1.1n TABLE 1.1o

Primary ElementsFlow (proposed for the next revision of ISA Final Control ElementsControl Valve Bodies (proposed for the
S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing) next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of
No. Symbol Description this writing)
No. Symbol Description
01 Generic flow element
FE 01 Generic two-way valve
Straight globe control valve
02 Standard orifice plate
Two-way solenoid valve
Restriction orifice
Gate valve
03 Orifice plate in quick change fitting
02 Generic two-way angle valve
Angle globe control valve
04 Generic venturi tube, flow nozzle, or flow Angle solenoid valve
tube
03 Generic three-way valve
Notation required if used for more than one
Three-way globe control valve
type
Three-way solenoid valve
05 Venturi tube Arrow indicates air failure or
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de-energized flow path

06 Flow nozzle
04 Generic four-way valve
07 Flow tube Four-way plug or ball control
valve
08 Standard pitot tube
Four-way four ported onoff valve
09 Averaging pitot tube Arrows indicate air failure or
de-energized flow paths
10 Turbine flowmeter 05 Four-way five ported onoff valve
Propeller flowmeter Arrows indicate air failure or
11 Vortex shedding flowmeter de-energized flow paths

12 Target flowmeter
06 Butterfly valve
13 M Magnetic flowmeter

14 Positive displacement flowmeter 07 Two-way globe valve

15 Cone meter 08 Ball valve

Annular orifice meter
16 Wedge meter 09 Plug valve

17 Coriolis flowmeter 10 Eccentric rotary disc valve

18 Sonic flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeter 11 Diaphragm valve

19 Variable area flowmeter

12 Pinch valve

13 Generic damper
20 Open channel weir plate Generic louver

14 Parallel blade damper

21 Open channel flume
Parallel blade louver
22 Flow straightening vanes
15 Opposed blade damper
Flow conditioning element
Opposed blade louver
See statement of permission on page 4.
See statement of permission on page 4.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 25

TABLE 1.1p TABLE 1.1q

Final Control ElementsControl Valve Actuators (proposed for Final Control ElementsSelf-Actuated Devices (proposed for the
the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of
of this writing) this writing)
No. Symbol Description No. Symbol Description

01 Generic actuator 01 Automatic flow regulator

Spring-opposed diaphragm linear actuator XXX XXX = FCV w/o indicator
XXX = FICV w/integral indicator

02 Spring-diaphragm actuator with positioner 02 FI

Variable area flowmeter with a manual
regulating valve
03 Constant flow regulator
FI

03 Pressure-balanced diaphragm linear actuator Manual setpoint variable area flowmeter

04 Flow sight glass

FG
Type shall be noted if more than one type used
04 Generic piston actuator
05 Generic flow restriction
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May be linear or rotary FO

Single stage orifice plate as shown
Note required for multistage or capillary tube
05 Piston actuator, single-acting, spring-opposed, types
with positioner 06 Restriction orifice hole drilled in valve plug
FO
Tag number may be omitted if valve is otherwise
identified
06 Piston actuator, double-acting, with positioner
07 Level regulator
TANK
Ball float and mechanical linkage

07 Rotary motor-operated actuator 08 Backpressure regulator

M May be electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic Internal pressure tap

09 Backpressure regulator
08 S Automatic reset solenoid actuator
External pressure tap
Nonlatching solenoid actuator
Dual solenoids may be used
10 Pressure-reducing regulator
09 S Manual or remote reset solenoid actuator Internal pressure tap
R Latching solenoid actuator
11 Pressure-reducing regulator
10 S Manual and remote-reset solenoid actuator External pressure tap
R R Latching solenoid actuator
12 Differential-pressure regulator
11 Manual actuator External pressure taps
Hand actuator
12 Spring-, weight-, or pilot-actuated relief or safety 13 Differential-pressure regulator
actuator Internal pressure taps
13 Actuator with side-mounted handwheel
14 Pressure-reducing regulator w/integral outlet
PG
pressure relief and pressure gauge

14 Actuator with top-mounted handwheel

15 Generic pressure safety valve
Pressure relief valve

15 Electrohydraulic actuator
E 16 Generic vacuum safety valve
H May be linear or rotary action
Vacuum relief valve

See statement of permission on page 4.

17 Generic pressure and vacuum relief valve
Tank pressure and vacuum relief valve

2003 by Bla Liptk

 26 General Considerations

b) Separate from each other, with pen or pointer number

TABLE 1.1q Continued indicated preferably in upper right or left quadrant and
Final Control ElementsSelf-Actuated Devices (proposed for the
a note defining instrument or device indicated in pref-
next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of
erably lower right or left quadrant:
this writing)
No. Symbol Description
PEN #2 PEN #1 PEN #3
18 Pressure safety element
FR PR TR
Pressure rupture disk 01
01
01
Pressure relief NOTE 1 NOTE 1 NOTE 1

19 Pressure safety element

Vacuum rupture disk FT PT TT
01
Vacuum relief
01 01

20 Temperature regulator
Note 1. Indicated pen in 3-pen Recoder
Filled thermal system

21 TANK
Thermal safety element
TSE Fusible plug or disk Multipoint indicators and recorders for four or more
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points may be drawn with bubbles separate from each other,

22 Generic moisture trap with point number indicated by adding a suffix to the tag
T
Steam trap numbers as follows:
Note required for other trap types
a) Single variable:
23 Moisture trap with equalizing line
TANK

See statement of permission on page 4. TE TI TE TI TE TI

01-01 01-01 01-02 01-02 01-03 01-03

b) Multivariable:
TABLE 1.1r
Final Control ElementsControl Valve Air Failure Position
Indication (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now
ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
TE UI PT UI PT UI
01-01 01-02 01-02 01-03 01-03
No. Method 1 Method 2 Definition 01-01

01 Fail to open position

FO Multivariable controllers may be drawn with bubbles

02 Fail to closed position for each measured variable input and for the output to the
final control element; measured variable indicators may
be:
FC
a) Shown:
03 Fail locked in last position

FL
PT PI TI LI FI
04 Fail at last position
11
11
51
21 71

Drift open

TT
51
FL/DO
UC

05 Fail at last position 01
LT
Drift closed
21 UV

01

FL/DC
FT FO

71
See statement of permission on page 4.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 27

TABLE 1.1s
Electrical Schematic Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol Description
01 Normally open, single-circuit pushbutton switch contact
Single-pole, normally open (SPNO) pushbutton switch contact
Combine with symbols 06 or 07 to form toggle or rotary-actuated switches
02 Normally closed, single-circuit pushbutton switch contact
Single-pole, normally closed (SPNC) pushbutton switch contact
Combine with symbols 06 or 07 to form toggle or rotary-actuated switches
03 Normally open, double-circuit pushbutton switch contact
Double-pole, normally open (DPNO) pushbutton switch contact
Combine with symbols 06 or 07 to form toggle or rotary-actuated switches
04 Normally closed/normally open double-circuit pushbutton switch contact
Double-pole, normally open/closed (DPNO/NC) pushbutton switch contact
Combine with symbols 06 or 07 to form toggle or rotary-actuated switches
05 Two-position toggle or rotary-maintained position pushbutton switch actuator
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Combine with symbols 01 through 05 to form single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) or multipole double-throw (DPDT,
TPDT, etc.) switches
06 Three-position toggle or rotary-maintained position pushbutton switch actuator
Combine with symbols 01 through 05 to form single-pole, triple-throw (SPTT) or multipole, triple-throw (DPTT, TPTT,
etc.) switches
07 Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) normally open toggle switch
Form A switch contact
08 Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) normally closed toggle switch
Form B switch contact
09 Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) normally closed/normally open toggle switch
Form C switch contact

10 Pressure switch actuator

11 Differential-pressure switch actuator

12 Liquid level switch actuator

13 Temperature switch actuator

14 Flow switch actuator

15 Foot switch actuator

16 Relay coil

17 Normally open relay contact

18 Normally closed relay contact

19 Connection convention A:
Left = not connected
Right = connected

20 Connection convention B:
Left = not connected
Right = connected

2003 by Bla Liptk

 28 General Considerations

b) Assumed: for the draft standard work outlined in this section to be dis-
cussed and approved as the latest revision to ISA S5.1 (now
ANSI/ISA-5.01.01). (For specific details on fieldbus technolo-
PT gies, please refer to later chapters and sections in this volume.)

11
Certain techniques and shortcuts used by several EPCM
companies, and how they have handled fieldbus symbology,
will be mentioned in this subsection. A few companies have
TT

51
generated their P&IDs using the proposed Instrument Line
UC Symbol no. 20 (Table 1.1g) as the shared data links or FOUN-

01 DATION fieldbus (FF) segments between field located micro-
LT processor-based devices as well as FF host systems. In this
21 UV

01 way, it is implicit that the devices connected by that symbol
are fieldbus devices and do not need any further symbology
or identification on the P&IDs. This symbol also has been
FT FO used for other fieldbuses such as PROFIBUS PA, PROFIBUS
71
DP, AS-i Bus, and DeviceNet (see Figures 1.1l and 1.1m).
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Another symbol used by the EPCM companies for field-

Multifunction controllers shall be drawn with bubbles for bus has been the Instrument Line Symbol no. 19 (Table 1.1g),
each measured variable input and output to final control which is the current existing symbol (ANSI/ISA S5.1-
elements; measured variable indicators may be: 1984[1992]) and normally the one used for data links and
DCS data highways. This has been done occasionally when
a) Shown: the EPCM companys client/owner had specific, custom
P&ID symbology standards and was reluctant to change a
worldwide standard to a new symbol such as no. 20. Once
PT
again, any field devices such as transmitters and control
11 valves that are connected together by Symbol no. 19 are now
TI
51
LI
21
known to be fieldbus-type devices. The disadvantage is that
TT
51 the P&IDs must be studied carefully to determine real com-
UU
01 munication link, DCS data highway, system bus, or internal
SP SP
LT
21
PC FC
software link applications from the fieldbus applications.
11 71
Another EPCM company used the conventional analog
FT
UV
01
PV
11
FV
71 electronic signal (Symbol no. 14 in Table 1.1g) at the urging
71
of its client but added the suffix FB to each fieldbus device
FO FO FO bubble on the P&IDs. Once again, this was not a standardized
approach, and it led to ambiguity and misunderstanding.
b) Assumed: It is highly recommended that the proposed draft revision
Instrument Line Symbol no. 20 (which we hope will be
PT
approved by the time this volume is released) be used for all
11
types of fieldbus segments and networks.
TT
51 P&IDs: Practical Aspects and Practices
UU
01 in the EPC Industry
SP SP
LT
21
PC FC
11 71 Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs) are the basic doc-
FT UV PV FV uments describing a plant from mechanical and control point
71 01 11 71
of view. They are sometimes called mechanical flow dia-
FO FO FO
grams (MFDs) by some EPC and operating companies. Pro-
cess flowsheets/diagrams (PFDs) are used and generated by
Fieldbus Devices, Loops, and Networks process design engineering in the very early stage of the front-
end engineering phase and do not normally include ISA
Comments and Exceptions (Including Non-ISA Industrial symbols except in the most elementary fashion. However,
Practice) Instrument and control systems staff working at they are the starting point for P&ID development.
engineering, procurement, and construction management The P&ID life cycle extends through the feasibility study,
(EPCM) companies had to improvise on P&ID symbols for project estimate, detailed engineering phase, construction
fieldbus devices, loops, segments, and networks throughout the phase, precommissioning, commissioning, and, finally, to
late 1990s and early 2000s. This has been the case while waiting exploitation of the plant. According to which phase the

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 29

project is in, the P&IDs show different level of details to suit industry, some boiler manufacturers show the transmitters
various needs. (since they are supplied by them) and the control loops in
several different documents (vendor package drawings) to
1) During the feasibility study, not all equipment and lines be delivered to the DCS supplier or the EPC company
are shown; only the major ones appear, such as used responsible for DCS design. To prevent multiple repeats of
to follow the path of authorizations, obtain of financing, the same information, some typical sketches should be pre-
and so on. At this stage, only major equipment is sized, pared covering, for instance, the indications and commands
such as to show environmental impact, and effluent related to an onoff motor-operated valve, an inching motor-
systems are studied to comply with the information operated valve, high-voltage motors, low-voltage motors,
requested by various environmental authorities. Only onoff pneumatic valves, and so forth. The typical sketches
major lines are shown, without sizing information. Very shall be numbered and referred to nearby each device on the
few instruments and control loops are shown, and then P&ID to which it applies.
only in the most simplified manner. Although the P&ID symbols are normally in accordance
2) During the project estimate, all equipment is shown, with ISA standards, it is recommended that a P&ID symbol
but without auxiliary services such as cooling water key sheet be prepared with a summary of all equipment and
to machinery. The lines are sized, and their material instrument symbols used to prevent any misunderstanding.
and rating are shown. All control loops are shown, or The reader is referred to the previous subsection, Inclusion
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

at least all transmitters, local instruments, and control of the New S5.1 Standard (now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01) in
valves. All motor-operated valves and safety valves are User/Owner Documents.
shown and are sized if possible. Small-bore/diameter The tag numbering of the instruments shall be in accor-
piping (<2 in) is not shown unless it is made of an dance with ISA guidelines, standards, and recommended
exotic material. practices previously covered in this section, and all compo-
3) Within the detailed engineering phase, the P&IDs are nents of a loop shall have the same distinctive number so as
issued several times, incorporating information as it to simplify maintenance and understanding of the process.
becomes available from vendors or as derived from In the case in which an instrument or loop is cancelled, its
calculations and finalization of choices. Normally, tag number shall not be used again to prevent the possibility
there are about three or four issues before the issue of keeping the old process data that is no longer correct. The
for construction. At that time, the P&IDs shall show tag/loop cancellations must be carefully noted and retained
all equipment and all lines including services to in the instrument index, and especially in the computerized
machinery, drains, and vents (as far as piping is con- instrument database (IDB) that generates the index. For the
cerned) and all instruments, control loops, and valves same reason, if an instrument or a loop is moved to a different
(as far as instrumentation is concerned). tapping point, it should be renamedalthough this depends
on different company standards/policies on this subject. In
Each line shall be sized, classified, and numbered, mean- some cases, two pieces of equipment are used (e.g., two
ing that each line is identified with nominal diameter, piping pumps, one spare to the other), which are named with the
class (which defines the material), rating (unless the piping suffix A/B. Their relevant instruments are often tagged with
class covers only one rating), corrosion allowance, and win- the tag number suffixed with A/B. To avoid misinterpretations
terization. The control valves shall be shown with their true when two or three instruments are used in a redundant/voting
nominal diameter and flange rating along with block and configuration, it is suggested to attach suffixes to them using
bypass valves, handwheel, action on air failure, and possibly the letters X, Y, and Z.
the pressure drop. If the valve is the angle type, the inlet Even though the P&IDs are not representative of the
and outlet shall be shown correctly. The transmitters shall be layout of the plant, it is recommended that the equipment be
shown singularly, duplicated, or triplicated, with their pres- shown as it is to appear; e.g., a horizontal vessel shall be
sure taps. If level bridles are used, they shall be shown with shown as horizontal and not vertical, and a boiler feed water
correct valving. The flow measurements shall show the cor- pump with intermediate MP draft should be shown with the
rect type of primary element. Magnetic flowmeters that are nozzles in correct sequence. A distillation column with dif-
required to run full should show the indication low point. ferent sections should be represented not as a constant one
If some devices (such as desuperheaters) require special but to be roughly representative of the true situation. It is
precautions, such precautions shall be shown to prevent noted that the P&IDs are to be suitable for a take-off of the
wrong piping design (e.g., minimum unobstructed straight valves, reducers, branches, and instruments, but not for the
length = X feet). The safety valves shall be shown with size take-off of piping and elbows.
and rating of input and output connections plus the set pres- The P&IDs depicting utility distribution or fire detec-
sure. All vents, drains, silencers, and so on shall be shown. tion/fighting instead follow the plant plot plan and include
If many vents use common silencers, this shall be clearly some instruments as well.
indicated by means of drafting or notes. The control loops It is important that all instruments appear on the P&ID
shall be shown in complete form. However, in the power and that none is overlooked. If some instruments are supplied

2003 by Bla Liptk

 30 General Considerations

as an integral part of a machine (e.g., resistance temperature different products. Sometimes, it is a concern that the
detectors in electric motor windings and vibration probes in revamping or debottlenecking of the original plant could be
a compressor or turbine), it is advisable that the manufac- so extensive that the original P&IDs need to be redrawn. In
turers P&ID be numbered with the same system as the this case, it is possible that starting from existing P&IDs
project P&IDs, and always from the viewpoint of taking care could cause the introduction of several errors because they
of all signals that will be connected to a PLC or DCS. In have not been updated.
fact, most EPC companies supply the proper compatible tags The P&IDs have also a commercial impact on a project
and loop numbers from the IDB to the vendor after the first in that a payment is tied to their first issue. In defining the
vendor document/drawing review and subsequent return to commercial aspects, one should determine to what extent the
the vendor. first issue of the P&IDs shall be complete so as to avoid
During construction and precommissioning, the P&IDs conflicts between the owner and the supplier. A possible
are used to keep track of the installed piping and instruments. request could be as follows:
At the precommissioning stage, they are used to verify that
the plant has been built according to the P&IDs issued for
All lines sized, classified, and numbered
construction. This is called the check against P&IDs. Any
All instruments tagged
discrepancy found during this check shall be resolved and
All set values of safety valves shown
the plant modified or, if acceptable, the P&IDs shall be
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marked up to prepare the as-built issue.

During commissioning, some modifications could be nec- To go even farther, the size of control valves could be
essary to overcome operational problems that could arise. shown.
These modifications could involve additional drains and vents, The P&IDs are the first step in ensuring the safety of
control strategy changes, and so forth and need to be recorded maintenance personnel, which today is based on widely used
on the P&IDs to be introduced in the as-built issue. outsourcing. For example, people should immediately be
During the life cycle of the plant, the P&IDs can be warned about the risks involved in the case of piping that has
modified because of different products required, different a high rating, is made with an exotic material, has high
feedstock, or additional treatment systems. This is even more corrosion allowance, has a thick insulation, or belongs to a
evident in batch processes that can be modified to obtain system with high set values for the safety valves.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols*
J. E. JAMISON (2003)

The purpose of this section is to help the reader establish a The intent is to pass along to the reader the best and latest
uniform means of depicting and identifying mainly digital- thinking on this subject at this point in time.
based application software functions used for measurement,
monitoring, and control. It is done by presenting a designa-
tion system including graphic symbols and identification codes ISA FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMMING (EX-SAMA)*
as well as functional diagramming techniques that were
formerly known as the Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers Instrument and Control Systems Functional Diagramming
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Association (SAMA) system.

Symbol tables are given for use in preparing instrument and
It must be noted that a significant part of this section has
control loop functional diagrams, which are not normally
been extracted from the revision work of the ISA SP5.1
shown on process flow diagrams (PFDs) and piping and instru-
subcommittee, and much of it has been based on draft work-
ment diagrams (P&IDs). They are used to depict monitoring
ing documents being utilized at the time of this writing,
and control loops in functional instrument diagrams, functional
documents with which one of the authors has been actively
logic diagrams, application software diagrams, sketches, and
involved. Other portions of this section are based on the
text. They shall be prepared from the following:
authors experience in the industry and are not any part of
the SP5.1 subcommittee proposed forthcoming revision. a) Instrument line symbols
A disclaimer to any future ISA standards documents is b) Instrument functional diagramming symbols
hereby stated: The reader is cautioned that the draft ISA c) Mathematical function block symbols
document that provided much of the information in this
Equivalent P&ID Loop, Functional Instrument
section has not been approved as of the time of this writing.
and Electrical Diagrams
It cannot be presumed to reflect the position of ISA or any
other committee, society, or group. See statement of permission in the footnote below.

a) P&ID loop schematic:

LT
71

LSH LSL LIC

01 01 01

Start
HS SP

01B-1
FT FIC
Stop H-O-A 01 01

HS HS
01B-2 01A
FV
01

P FO
01

* Used with permission of the Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society.

31
2003 by Bla Liptk
 32 General Considerations

b) Functional instrument diagram:

LT FT
*01 *01

H/ L A
N
D

A
Auto A
K I HS*1A N OR NOT
D
NOT

A
K I A N Start Pump
Start OR
HS*1B-1 N D
D

A
HS*1B-2
Stop N
T A T A
D
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Overload
S NOT

R
F(x) Reset

c) Electrical schematic diagram:

START

HS-01B-1

M1

STOP
LSL-01 H OL
HS-01A M
HS-01B-2 0

M2

LSH-01

Note: There is no equivalent electrical schematic for the hardware and function level for configuration and other
process control instrumentation. purposes.
The symbols in Table 1.2b are never used in P&IDs and
Functional Diagramming Symbol Tables* are used to help document and diagram logic control designs
The symbols used in Table 1.2a are not normally used on and narratives. The present standard ISA S5.2 (ANSI/ISA-
P&IDs but are used to diagram control systems at the S5.21976 [R1992]) is now being revised and rolled into the
new ANSI/ISA-5.01.01 standard as proposed in the current
(as of this writing) Draft 4. Symbols, truth tables, definitions,
*The symbols have been extracted by ISA, with permission, from Scientific
Apparatus Manufacturers Association SAMA Standard PMC 22.11981, and graphs used in this section are in accordance with Draft
Functional Diagramming of Instrument and Control Systems, which is no 4 and are very different from S5.2. They are given here to
longer supported by SAMA. illustrate the latest thinking in this area, including expanded

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 33

TABLE 1.2a
Functional Diagramming SymbolsInstrument and Mathematical Functions (proposed for the next revision
of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol Description

01 Measuring device
Input device
Readout device
Output device
Symbols from Tables 1.1h through 1.1k may be used
02 Automatic controller
Single-mode controller
Discrete device driver
Insert function symbols, as required to define controller algorithm, from Table 1.2c
Use for vertical diagramming
03 Automatic controller
Two-mode controller
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Insert function symbols, as required to define controller algorithm, from Table 1.2c
Use for vertical diagramming
04 Automatic controller
Three-mode controller
Insert function symbols, as required to define controller algorithm, from Table 1.2c
Use for vertical diagramming
05 Automatic signal processor
Insert function symbol from Table 1.2c
Use for vertical diagramming
06 Automatic controller
Two-mode controller
Insert function symbols, as required to define controller algorithm, from Table 1.2c
Use for horizontal diagramming
07 Automatic controller
Two-mode controller
Insert function symbols, as required to define controller algorithm, from Table 1.2c
Use for horizontal diagramming
08 Automatic signal processor
Insert function symbol from Table 1.2c
Use for horizontal diagramming
May be rotated 90
09 Final control element
Control valve
Insert function symbol identifier from Table 1.2c (no. 14)
10 Final control element with positioner
Control valve with positioner
Insert function symbol identifier from Table 1.2c (no.14)
11 Manual signal processor
* (*) = A, adjustable signal generator
(*) = T, signal transfer
12 Manual auto station
A T

See statement of permission on page 31.

timing functions. Application information and examples on Binary logic switching and memory functions are
the use of the binary symbols are given in Section 1.12, Binary used in analog or sequential control schemes. In truth
Logic Diagrams, and they use the current standard ANSI/ISA- tables and graphs, logic one (1) is true and logic zero
S5.21976 (R1992). (0) is false .

2003 by Bla Liptk

 34 General Considerations

TABLE 1.2b
Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph

01 AND gate.
A Output is true only if all inputs are true.
B A
C N O
D
x

A B C x O 1
A 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 0 0 B
3 0 1 0 0 0
4 0 0 1 0 0 C
5 0 0 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0 0 X
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7 1 0 1 0 0
8 1 0 0 1 0
9 0 1 1 0 0 O
10 0 1 0 1 0
11 0 0 1 1 0 t
12 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 0 1 1 0
15 0 1 1 1 0
16 1 1 1 1 1
02 OR gate.
A Output is true if any input true.
B
C OR O

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 1
3 0 1 0 0 1 B
4 0 0 1 0 1
C
5 0 0 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 1
7 1 0 1 0 1 X
8 1 0 0 1 1
9 0 1 1 0 1
O
10 0 1 0 1 1
11 0 0 1 1 1
t
12 1 1 1 0 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 0 1 1 1
15 0 1 1 1 1
16 1 1 1 1 1

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 35

TABLE 1.2b Continued

Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph
03 Qualified OR gate with greater than or equal to qualifications.
A Output equals 1 if number of inputs equal to 1 are greater than or equal to n inputs.
B
n Truth table and graph are for n equals 2.
C O

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 0 0 B
4 0 0 1 0 0 C
5 0 0 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0 1
X
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7 1 0 1 0 1
8 1 0 0 1 1
9 0 1 1 0 1
O
10 0 1 0 1 1
11 0 0 1 1 1 t
12 1 1 1 0 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 0 1 1 1
15 0 1 1 1 1
16 1 1 1 1 1
04 Qualified OR gate with greater than qualifications.
A Output equals 1 if number of inputs equal to 1 are greater but not equal to n inputs.
B
>n Truth table and graph are for n equals 2.
C O

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 0 0 B
4 0 0 1 0 0
C
5 0 0 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0 0
7 1 0 1 0 0 X
8 1 0 0 1 0
9 0 1 1 0 0
O
10 0 1 0 1 0
11 0 0 1 1 1
t
12 1 1 1 0 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 1
14 1 0 1 1 1
15 0 1 1 1 1
16 1 1 1 1 1

(Continued)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 36 General Considerations

TABLE 1.2b Continued

Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph
05 Qualified OR gate with less than or equal to qualifications.
A Output equals 1 if number of inputs equal to 1 are less than or equal to n inputs.
B
n Truth table and graph are for n equals 2.
C O

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 1
3 0 1 0 0 1 B
4 0 0 1 0 1
C
5 0 0 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 1
7 1 0 1 0 1 X
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8 1 0 0 1 1
9 0 1 1 0 1
O
10 0 1 0 1 1
11 0 0 1 1 1
t
12 1 1 1 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 0 1 1 0
15 0 1 1 1 0
16 1 1 1 1 0
06 Qualified OR gate with less than qualifications.
A Output equals 1 if number of inputs equal to 1 are less but not equal to n inputs.
B
<n Truth table and graph are for n equals 2.
C O

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 1
3 0 1 0 0 1 B
4 0 0 1 0 1 C
5 0 0 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 0
X
7 1 0 1 0 0
8 1 0 0 1 0
9 0 1 1 0 0
O
10 0 1 0 1 0
11 0 0 1 1 0 t
12 1 1 1 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 0 1 1 0
15 0 1 1 1 0
16 1 1 1 1 0

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 37

TABLE 1.2b Continued

Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph
07 Qualified OR gate with equal to qualifications.
A Output equals 1 if inputs equal to 1 are equal to n inputs.
B
=n Truth table and graph are for n equals 2.
C O

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 0 0 B
4 0 0 1 0 0 C
5 0 0 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0 1
X
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7 1 0 1 0 1
8 1 0 0 1 1
9 0 1 1 0 1
O
10 0 1 0 1 1
11 0 0 1 1 1 t
12 1 1 1 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 0 1 1 0
15 0 1 1 1 0
16 1 1 1 1 0
08 Qualified OR gate with not equal to qualifications.
A Output equals 1 if inputs equal to 1 are not equal to n inputs.
B
C n O Truth table and graph are for n equals 2.

A B C x O 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 A 0
2 1 0 0 0 1
3 0 1 0 0 1 B
4 0 0 1 0 1
C
5 0 0 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 0
7 1 0 1 0 0 X
8 1 0 0 1 0
9 0 1 1 0 0
O
10 0 1 0 1 0
11 0 0 1 1 0
t
12 1 1 1 0 1
13 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
14 1 0 1 1 1
15 0 1 1 1 1
16 1 1 1 1 1

(Continued)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 38 General Considerations

TABLE 1.2b Continued

Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph
09 NOT gate.
A NOT O Output is false if input is true.
Output is true if input is false.

A O 1
1 0 A 0
0 1
1
O 0

t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
10 Basic memory.
A S C Outputs C and D are always opposite.
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If input A equals 1, then output C equals 1, and D equals 0.

B R D
If input A changes to 0, output C remains 1 until input B equals 1, then C equals 1, and D equals 0.
If input B equals 1, then output D equals 1, and C equals 0.
If input B changes to 0, output D remains 1 until input A equals 1, then D equals 1, and C equals 0.
If inputs A and B are simultaneously equal to 1, then outputs C and D change state.

A B C D 1
1 0 0 0 1 A 0
2 1 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 0 B
4 0 1 0 1
C
5 0 0 0 1
6 1 1 1 0
7 0 0 1 0 D
8 1 1 0 1
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
11 Set dominant memory (So dominant).
A So C Outputs C and D are always opposite.
If input A equals 1, then output C equals 1, and D equals 0.
B R D
If input A changes to 0, output C remains 1 until input B equals 1, then output C equals 1, and
D equals 0.
If input B equals 1, then output D equals 1, and C equals 0.
If input B changes to 0, output D remains 1 until input A equals 1, then output D equals 1, and
C equals 0.
If inputs A and B are simultaneously equal to 1, then output C equals 1, and D equals 0.

A B C D 1
1 0 0 0 1 A 0
2 1 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 0 B
4 0 1 0 1
C
5 0 0 0 1
6 1 1 1 0
7 0 0 1 0 D
8 1 1 1 0
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 39

TABLE 1.2b Continued

Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph
12 Reset dominant memory (Ro dominant).
A S C Outputs C and D are always opposite.
B Ro D If input A equals 1, then output C equals 1, and D equals 0.
If input A changes to 0, output C remains 1 until input B equals 1, then output C equals 1, and
D equals 0.
If input B equals 1, then output D equals 1, and C equals 0.
If input B changes to 0, output D remains 1 until input A equals 1, then output D equals 1, and
C equals 0.
If inputs A and B are simultaneously equal to 1, then C equals 0, and D equals 1.

A B C D 1
1 0 0 0 1 A 0
2 1 0 1 0
B
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3 0 0 1 0
4 0 1 0 1
C
5 0 0 0 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 0 0 0 1 D
8 1 1 0 1
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
13 Pulse duration, fixed.
Output O changes from 0 to 1 and remains 1 for prescribed time duration t when input I changes
I t PD O
from 0 to 1.

NONE 1
I 0

t t

t
14 Off-time delay.
Output O changes from 0 to 1 when input I changes from 0 to 1.
I t DT O
Output O changes from 1 to 0 after input I changes from 1 to 0 and has been equal to 0 for
time duration t.
NONE 1
I 0

t t

(Continued)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 40 General Considerations

TABLE 1.2b Continued

Instrument and Control System Functional Diagramming SymbolsBinary Logic, Memory, and Time Functions (proposed for the next
revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Truth Table Definition/Graph
15 On-time delay.
Output O changes from 0 to 1 after input I changes from 0 to 1 and I remains 1 for prescribed
I t GT O
time duration t.
Output O remains 1 until
R a. Input I changes to 0.
b. Reset R changes to 1.
NONE 1
I 0

O
t t t
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R
t
16 Pulse duration, variable.
Output O changes from 0 to 1 when input I changes from 0 to 1.
I t LT O
Output O changes from 1 to 0 when
a. Input I has equaled 1 for time duration t.
R b. Input I changes from 1 to 0.
c. Reset R changes to 1.
NONE 1
I 0

O
t t t

R
t

See statement of permission on page 31.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 41

TABLE 1.2c
Mathematical Function Block Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Function Equation/Graph Definition
01 M = X 1 + X 2 .+ X n Output equals the algebraic sum of inputs.

X Xn M

X1

Summation X2

t t

02 Output equals the algebraic sum of the inputs divided by number

. +
/n
M = X1 + X2 X n/n
of inputs.
X M
X1

X2

X3
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Average
t t

03 M = X1 X2 Output equals the difference between two inputs.

X X1 M

X2

Difference
t t

04 M = X1 X2 Output equals the product of the two inputs.

X X
X1
M

X2
Multiplication

t1 t t1 t

05 M = X1 / X2 Output equals the quotient of the two inputs.

X1
X M
X2

Division

t1 t t1 t

06 Output is equal to the square of the input.

2
2
M=X
X M

X
Square

t t

07 n Output is equal to the nth power of the input.

M= X
n
X X M

Exponential

t t

(Continued)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 42 General Considerations

TABLE 1.2c Continued

Mathematical Function Block Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Function Equation/Graph Definition
08 Output is equal to the square root of the input.

X M
M= X

Square Root

t t

09 n Output is equal to the nth root of the input.

M= X
n

X M

nth Root
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t t

10 M = KX Output is proportional to the input.

K or P X M Replace K with 1:1 for volume boosters.
Replace K with 2:1, 3:1, etc. for integer gains.

Proportional

t1 t t1 t

11 M = KX t1 t
Output is inversely proportional to the input.

-K or -P X

Reverse
Proportional M
t1 t

12 Output varies with the magnitude and time duration of the input.

or I M = (1/TI )
X
X dt
M
Output is proportional to the time integral of the input.
TI, the integral time constant.

Integral

t1 t2 t t1 t2 t

13 M = T D (dX/dt) Output is proportional to the time rate of change of the input.

d/dt or D X M
TD , derivative time constant.

Derivative

t1 t t1 t

14 M = (X) Output is a nonlinear or unspecified function of the input.

(X) X M Function is defined in note or other text.

Unspecified
Function
t t

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 43

TABLE 1.2c Continued

Mathematical Function Block Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Function Equation/Graph Definition
15 M = X(t) Output equals a nonlinear or unspecified time function times the

(t) X M input.
Output is a nonlinear or unspecified time function.

Time Function

t1 t t1 t

16 M = X 1 for X 1 X 2 , M = X 2 for X 1 X 2 Output equals greater of two or more inputs.

> X
X1

X2
M

High Select
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t1 t t1 t

17 M = X 1 for X 1 X 2 , M = X 2 for X 1 X 2 Output equals lesser of two or more inputs.

< X
X1 M

X2
Low Select
t1 t t1 t

18 M = X1 for X1 H, M = X2 for X1 H Output equals the lower of the input or high limit values.

> X
X M

High Limit

t1 t t1 t

19 M = X1 for X1 L, M = X2 for X1 L Output equals the higher of the input or low limit values.

< X
X M

Low Limit

t1 t t1 t

20 dM/dt = dX/dt (dX/dt H, M = X) Output equals input as long as the input rate of change does not
V dM/dt = H (dX/dt H, M X)
dX/dt>H dM/dt=H
exceed the limit value that establishes the output rate of change
until the output again equals the input.

Velocity Limiter X M

t1 t2 t t1 t2 t

(Continued)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 44 General Considerations

TABLE 1.2c Continued

Mathematical Function Block Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Function Equation/Graph Definition
21 M=X+b Output is equal to input plus an arbitrary value.

+
X M

Positive Bias
t t
X M

t t
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22 M=Xb Output is equal to input minus an arbitrary value.

X M

b
Negative Bias

t t
X M

t t

25 I = P, P = I, etc. Output signal type is different from that of input signal.

/ I P * is equal to:
E voltage, A analog
I current, B binary
Conversion P pneumatic, D digital
R resistance, H hydraulic
O electromagnetic, sonic
t t

26 Output state is dependent on the value of the input.

H
(State 1) M = 0 @ X < H
(State 2) M = 1 @ X Output changes state when the input is equal to or higher than an
arbitrary high limit.
X
High Signal
X
Monitor
State State
H 1 2

t1 t t1

27 (State 1) M = 0 @ X H Output state is dependent on the value of the input.

L (State 2) M = 1 @ X > Output changes state when the input is equal to or lower than an
arbitrary low limit.
X M
Low Signal X
Monitor State State
L 1 2

t t

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 45

TABLE 1.2c Continued

Mathematical Function Block Symbols (proposed for the next revision of ISA S5.1 [now ANSI/ISA-5.01.01] at the time of this writing)
No. Symbol/Function Equation/Graph Definition
28 Output states are dependent on value of input.
HL
(State 1) M = 1 @ X L
(State 2) M = 0 @ L < X < H Output changes state when input is equal to or lower than an
(State 3) M = 1 @ X arbitrary low limit or equal to or higher than an arbitrary high limit.
X M
High/Low Signal
X
Monitor
H State State State
1 2 3
L

t t

29 (State 1) M = X1 Output equals input that is selected by transfer.

T (State 2) M = X2
X1
Transfer is actuated by external signal.
X M
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Transfer
State
2
X2 State
1

t t

See statement of permission on page 31.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance*
B. G. LIPTK (1982, 1995, 2003)

This section was reprinted with format change only from the This standard is primarily intended to cover the field of
work titled Process Instrumentation Terminology (ANSI/ analog measurement and control concepts and makes no effort
ISA-51.1-1979, Reaffirmed 26 May 1995) with the permis- to develop terminology in the field of digital measurement
sion of The Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society. and control.
This permission is gratefully acknowledged. When using the
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

definitions in this document, please indicate, This definition

is from ANSI/ISA-51.11979 (R1993), Process Instrumenta- INTRODUCTORY NOTES
tion Terminology. Copyright 1993, ISAThe Instrumenta-
tion, Systems and Automation Society. For information, visit Defined terms, where used as a part of other definitions, are
www.isa.org. set in italics to provide a ready cross-reference. In defining
The purpose of this standard is to establish uniform termi- certain performance terms, the context in which they are used
nology in the field of process instrumentation. The generalized has been considered. It is fitting, therefore, that the philoso-
test procedures described in the section titled Test Proce- phy of performance evaluation on which these terms are
dures are intended only to illustrate and clarify accuracy- based be explained.
related terms. It is not intended that they describe specific Ideally, instruments should be designed for realistic oper-
and detailed test procedures. ating conditions (those they are likely to meet in service),
This process instrumentation terminology standard is and they should be evaluated under the same conditions.
intended to include many specialized terms used in the indus- Unfortunately, it is not practical to evaluate performance
trial process industries to describe the use, performance, under all possible combinations of operating conditions. A
operating influences, hardware, and product qualification of test procedure must be used that is practical under laboratory
the instrumentation and instrument systems used for mea- conditions and, at the same time, will make available, with
surement, control, or both. Many terms and definitions relate a reasonable amount of effort, sufficient data on which a
to performance tests and environmental influences (operating judgement of field performance can be made.
conditions) as further explained in the Introductory Notes The method of evaluation envisioned is that of checking
section. Basically, this document is a guideline to promote significant performance characteristics such as accuracy rat-
vendor/user understanding when referring to product speci- ing, dead band, and hysteresis under a set of reference oper-
fications, performance, and operating conditions. Process ating conditions, these having a narrow range of tolerances.
industries include chemical, petroleum, power generation, air Reference performance is, therefore, to be evaluated and
conditioning, metallurgical, food, textile, paper, and numer- stated in terms of reference operating conditions. Generally,
ous other industries. reference performance under reference operating conditions
The terms of this standard are suitable for use by people represents the best performance that can be expected under
involved in all activities related to process instrumentation, ideal conditions.
including research, design, manufacture, sales, installation, The effect of change in an individual operating condition,
test, use, and maintenance. such as ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative
The standard consists of terms selected primarily from humidity, line voltage, and frequency, will be determined
Scientific Apparatus Makers Association (SAMA) Standard individually throughout a range defined as normal operating
PMC20.1 and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) conditions. Logically, these can be expected to occur above
Standard C85.1. Additional terms have been selected from and below the values of reference operating conditions during
other recognized standards. Selected terms and definitions field operation.
have not been modified unless there was a sufficiently valid While this approach does not duplicate all actual condi-
reason for doing so. New terms have been added and defined tions, where many operating variables may vary simulta-
where necessary. neously in random fashion, it does develop data from which

* Used with permission of the Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society.

46
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 47

performance may be inferred from any given set of operating An omission or alteration of a note following a definition
conditions. is not considered to be a modification of the definition and
The effect of changes in an individual operating condi- is not identified by the abbreviation Ref.
tion, all other operating conditions being held within the Principal source documents used from the many reviewed
reference range, is herein called operating influence. There are as follows:
may be an operating influence corresponding to a change in
each operating condition. In some cases, the effect may be 1) American National Standard C39.41966, Specifica-
negligible; in others, it may have significant magnitude. tions for Automatic Null-Balancing Electrical Measur-
Tabulations of operating influences will usually denote ing Instruments, published by the American National
the performance quality level of a given design. Comparisons Standards Institute, Inc., copyright 1966 by ANSI.
of reference performance and operating influences for instru- 2) American National Standard C42.1001972, Dictio-
ments of a given design, or for different designs, will show nary of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.,
clearly their relative merits and probable performance under copyright 1972 by IEEE.
actual operating conditions. 3) American National Standard C85.11963, Terminol-
ogy for Automatic Control, published by the Ameri-
can Society of Mechanical Engineers, copyright 1963
Operating Conditions vs. Performance by ASME.
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4) SAMA Standard PMC20.11973, Process Measure-

Operating Conditions Performance ment and Control Terminology, published by Scientific
Reference Reference (Region within which accuracy Apparatus Makers Association, Process Measurement
(narrowband) statements apply unless indicated otherwise.) and Control Section, Inc., copyright 1973 by SAMA-
Normal (wideband) Conditional (Region within which the PMC.
influence of environment on performance
is stated.)
Copies of the American National Standards referred to
above may be purchased from the American National Stan-
Operative Limits Indefinite (Region within which influences are
dards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018. Copies
(extreme band) not stated and beyond which damage may
occur.)
of the SAMA Standard may be purchased from Process Mea-
surement and Control Section, Inc., SAMA, 1101 16th Street
N.W., Washington, DC 20036.

SOURCES AND REFERENCES

DEFINITION OF TERMS
In the preparation of this standard of terminology, many
standards and publications sponsored by technical organiza- Accuracy*. In process instrumentation, degree of confor-
tions such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers mity of an indicated value to a recognized accepted
(ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers standard value, or ideal value. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8)
(IEEE), and ISA (formerly called the Instrument Society of Accuracy, measured. The maximum positive and nega-
America) were studied by the committee, in addition to those tive deviation observed in testing a device under
listed as principal source documents. These are listed as specified conditions and by a specified procedure.
references. See Figure 1.3a. Note 1: It is usually measured as
Existing terms and definitions have been used wherever an inaccuracy and expressed as accuracy. Note 2: It
they were considered suitable. In many cases, terms have is typically expressed in terms of the measured vari-
been extracted from source documents with verbatim defini- able, percent of span, percent of upper range value,
tions. In such cases, permission to quote from the respective percent of scale length, or percent of actual output
source document has been obtained from the organization reading. See section titled Test Procedures.
concerned, as indicated below. Terms defined verbatim are Accuracy rating. In process instrumentation, a number or
followed by the reference number in parentheses. For exam- quantity that defines a limit that errors will not
ple, (4) after a defined term indicates that this term is quoted exceed when a device is used under specified oper-
verbatim from ANSI C85.1, Terminology for Automatic ating conditions. See Figure 1.3a. Note 1: When oper-
Control. ating conditions are not specified, reference operating
In other cases, definitions have been modified in varying conditions shall be assumed. Note 2: As a perfor-
degrees to conform with current practice in process instru- mance specification, accuracy (or reference accuracy)
mentation. These have been noted in parentheses as Ref.
followed by the reference number. For example, (Ref. 8) * Throughout this handbook, the term inaccuracy has been used instead of
indicates that this term is a modified definition of the refer- accuracy, because the term relates to the error in a measurement. In the
enced term in SAMA-PMC 20.11973, Process Measure- following paragraphs, the accuracy term is used, because this section is being
ment and Control Terminology. quoted from an ISA standard and not because the author agrees with its use.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 48 General Considerations

Adjustment, span. Means provided in an instrument to

Output
Maximum Actual change the slope of the inputoutput curve. See span
Positive Deviation
shift.
Actual Downscale Adjustment, zero. Means provided in an instrument to
Calibration Curve
Specified
produce a parallel shift of the inputoutput curve.
Characteristic See zero shift.
High or Positive
Curve
Permissible Air conditioned area. See area, air conditioned.
Limit of error Accuracy Rating Air consumption. The maximum rate at which air is con-
sumed by a device within its operating range during
Actual Upscale Measured steady-state signal conditions. Note: It is usually
3
Calibration Curve Accuracy expressed in cubic feet per minute (ft /min) or cubic
3
meters per hour (m /h) at a standard (or normal)
Maximum Actual specified temperature and pressure. (8)
Negative Deviation
Ambient pressure. See pressure, ambient.
Low or Negative
Ambient temperature. See temperature, ambient.
Permissible Amplifier. A device that enables an input signal to control
Limit of Error
power from a source independent of the signal and
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Input
Span thus be capable of delivering an output that bears
0 100% some relationship to, and is generally greater than,
the input signal. (3)
FIG. 1.3a
Analog signal. See signal, analog.
Accuracy.
Area, air conditioned. A location in which temperature
at a nominal value is maintained constant within
shall be assumed to mean accuracy rating of the device narrow tolerance at some point in a specified band
when used at reference operating conditions. Note 3: of typical comfortable room temperature. Humidity
Accuracy rating includes the combined effects of is maintained within a narrow specified band. Note:
conformity, hysteresis, dead band, and repeatability Air conditioned areas are provided with clean air
errors. The units being used are to be stated explic- circulation and are typically used for instrumenta-
itly. It is preferred that a sign precede the number tion, such as computers or other equipment requir-
or quantity. The absence of a sign indicates a + and ing a closely controlled environment. (Ref. 18)
a sign. Area, control room. A location with heat and/or cooling
Accuracy rating can be expressed in a number of forms. facilities. Conditions are maintained within speci-
The following five examples are typical: fied limits. Provisions for automatically maintaining
constant temperature and humidity may or may not
(a) Accuracy rating expressed in terms of the measured be provided. Note: Control room areas are com-
variable. Typical expression: The accuracy rating is monly provided for operation of those parts of a
1C, or 2F. control system for which operator surveillance on a
(b) Accuracy rating expressed in percent of span. Typical continuing basis is required. (18)
expression: The accuracy rating is 0.5% of span. Area, environmental. A basic qualified location in a plant
(This percentage is calculated using scale units such with specified environmental conditions dependent on
as degrees Fahrenheit, psig, and so forth.) severity. Note: Environmental areas include air con-
(c) Accuracy rating expressed in percent of the upper ditioned areas; control room areas, heated and/or
range value. Typical expression: The accuracy rating is cooled; sheltered areas (process facilities); and out-
0.5% of upper range value. (This percentage is calcu- door areas (remote field sites). See specific definitions.
lated using scale units such as kPa, degrees Fahrenheit, Area, outdoor. A location in which equipment is exposed
and so forth.) to outdoor ambient conditions, including temperature,
(d) Accuracy rating expressed in percent of scale length. humidity, direct sunshine, wind, and precipitation.
Typical expression: The accuracy rating is 0.5% of (Ref. 18)
scale length. Area, sheltered. An industrial process location, area, stor-
(e) Accuracy rating expressed in percent of actual output age, or transportation facility, with protection
reading. Typical expression: The accuracy rating is against direct exposure to the elements, such as
1% of actual output reading. direct sunlight, rain or other precipitation, or full
wind pressure. Minimum and maximum tempera-
Accuracy, reference. See accuracy rating. tures and humidity may be the same as outdoors.
Actuating error signal. See signal, actuating error. Condensation can occur. Ventilation, if any, is by
Adaptive control. See control, adaptive. natural means. Note: Typical areas are shelters for

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 49

operating instruments, unheated warehouses for of the abscissa is called the corner frequency. See
storage, and enclosed trucks for transportation. (18) Figure 1.3b. (4, 8)
Attenuation. (1) A decrease in signal magnitude between Calibrate. To ascertain outputs of a device corresponding
two points or between two frequencies. (2) The to a series of values of a quantity that the device is
reciprocal of gain. Note: It may be expressed as a to measure, receive, or transmit. Data so obtained
dimensionless ratio, scalar ratio, or in decibels as are used to:
20 times the log10 of that ratio. (Ref. 4) 1. Determine the locations at which scale gradua-
Auctioneering device. See signal selector. tions are to be placed
Automatic control system. See control system, automatic. 2. Adjust the output, to bring it to the desired value,
Automatic/manual station. A device that enables an oper- within a specified tolerance
ator to select an automatic signal or a manual signal 3. Ascertain the error by comparing the device out-
as the input to a controlling element. The automatic put reading against a standard (Ref. 3)
signal is normally the output of a controller, while Calibration curve. A graphical representation of the cali-
the manual signal is the output of a manually oper- bration report. (Ref. 11) For example, see Figure 1.3ff.
ated device. Calibration cycle. The application of known values of the
Backlash. In process instrumentation, a relative move- measured variable and the recording of correspond-
ing values of output readings, over the range of the
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ment between interacting mechanical parts, result-

ing from looseness when motion is reversed. (Ref. 4) instrument, in ascending and descending directions.
Bode diagram. In process instrumentation, a plot of log (Ref. 11)
gain (magnitude ratio) and phase angle values on a Calibration report. A table or graph of the measured rela-
log frequency base for a transfer function. See tionship of an instrument as compared, over its
Figure 1.3b. (8, Ref. 4) range, against a standard. (Ref. 8) For example, see
Table 1.3gg.
Break point. The junction of the extension of two conflu-
Calibration traceability. The relationship of the calibra-
ent straight line segments of a plotted curve. Note:
tion of an instrument through a step-by-step process
In the asymptotic approximation of a log-gain vs.
to an instrument or group of instruments calibrated
log-frequency relation in a Bode diagram, the value
and certified by a national standardizing laboratory.
(Ref. 11)
.1 .5 1 5 10 50 100 Cascade control. See control, cascade.
2
Break Point Characteristic curve. A graph (curve) that shows the
1.0 ideal values at steady state, or an output variable of
a system as a function of an input variable, the other
input variables being maintained at specified con-
Gain or Magnitude Ratio

0.5
stant values. Note: When the other input variables
Corner Frequency are treated as parameters, a set of characteristic
curves is obtained. (Ref. 17)
Closed loop. See loop, closed.
0.1
Closed-loop gain. See gain, closed-loop.
Coefficient, temperature/pressure/etc. See operating influ-
.05 ence.
Cold junction. See reference junction.
.02 Common-mode interference. See interference, common-
+60 mode.
Common-mode rejection. The ability of a circuit to dis-
criminate against a common-mode voltage. Note: It
Phase Angle, Degrees

0
may be expressed as a dimensionless ratio, a scalar
60 ratio, or in decibels as 20 times the log10 of that ratio.
Common-mode voltage. See voltage, common-mode.
Compensation. In process instrumentation, provision of a
120
special construction, a supplemental device or circuit,
or special materials to counteract sources of error
180 due to variations in specified operating conditions.
.1 .5 1 5 10 50 100
(Ref. 11)
Frequency Cycles Per Unit Time
Compensator. A device that converts a signal into some
FIG. 1.3b function that, either alone or in combination with
Typical Bode diagram. other signals, directs the final controlling element to

2003 by Bla Liptk

 50 General Considerations

reduce deviations in the directly controlled variable. Conformity, terminal-based. The maximum deviation of
See Figures 1.3j and 1.3k for application of setpoint the calibration curve (average of upscale and
compensator and load compensator. downscale readings) from a specified characteristic
Compliance. The reciprocal of stiffness. curve positioned so as to coincide with the actual
Computing instrument. See instrument, computing. characteristic curve at upper and lower range values.
Conformity (of a curve). The closeness to which the See Figure 1.3d. (8)
curve approximates a specified one (e.g., logarith- Conformity, zero-based. The maximum deviation of the
mic, parabolic, cubic, and so on). Note 1: It is usu- calibration curve (average of upscale and downscale
ally measured in terms of nonconformity and readings) from a specified characteristic curve posi-
expressed as conformity, e.g., the maximum devia- tioned so as to coincide with the actual characteristic
tion between an average curve and a specified curve. curve at the lower range value. See Figure 1.3e.
The average curve is determined after making two (Ref. 8)
or more full-range traverses in each direction. The Contact, operating conditions, normal. See operating con-
value of conformity is referred to the output unless ditions, normal.
otherwise stated. See linearity. Note 2: As a perfor- Control action. Of a controller or of a controlling system,
mance specification, conformity should be expressed the nature of the change of the output effected by
the input. Note: The output may be a signal or a
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as independent conformity, terminal-based confor-

mity, or zero-based conformity. When expressed value of a manipulated variable. The input may be
simply as conformity, it is assumed to be indepen- the control loop feedback signal when the setpoint
dent conformity. (8, Ref. 4) is constant, an actuating error signal, or the output
Conformity, independent. The maximum deviation of the of another controller. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8)
calibration curve (average of upscale and downscale Control action, derivative (rate) (d). Control action in
readings) from a specified characteristic curve posi- which the output is proportional to the rate of change
tioned so as to minimize the maximum deviation. of the input. (8, Ref. 4)
See Figure 1.3c. (8)

Output

Output

Upper
Specified Range
Characteristic
Actual Calibration Curve Value
Curve
Actual Calibration Curve (Average of Upscale and
(Average of Upscale and Downscale Readings)
Downscale Readings)

Maximum
Deviation

Specified
Characteristic
Curve
Maximum Deviations
are Minimized
Lower Range
Value

Input Input

Span Span
0 100% 0 100%

FIG. 1.3c FIG. 1.3d

Independent conformity. Terminal-based conformity.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 51

Output Control action, floating. Control action in which the rate

of change of the output variable is a predetermined
function of the input variable. Note: The rate of
Actual Calibration Curve change may have one absolute value, several abso-
(Average of Upscale and
Downscale Readings)
lute values, or any value between two predetermined
values. (Ref. 17, floating action)
Specified Control action, integral (reset) (i). Control action in which
Characteristic
the output is proportional to the time integral of the
Curve
input; i.e., the rate of change of output is proportional
to the input. See Figure 1.3f. Note: In the practical
embodiment of integral control action, the relation
between output and input, neglecting high-frequency
terms, is given by
Maximum Deviations are Y I /s
Minimized and Equal = , where 0
b << 1 1.3(1)
X bI /s + 1
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and
Lower Range
b = reciprocal of static gain
Value
1/2 = gain crossover frequency in hertz
s = complex variable
X = input transform
Y = output transform
Input I = integral action rate (4, 8)

Span
See note under control action.
0 100% Control action, proportional (p). Control action in which
there is a continuous linear relation between the
FIG. 1.3e output and the input. Note: This condition applies
Zero-based conformity. when both the output and input are within their
normal operating ranges and when operation is at a
frequency below a limiting value. (4, 8) See note
under control action.

1
b
Gain (Log Scale)

X/b

1
Signal

Y
t
pu

0
ut
O
Angle
Phase

Input X
X

90
bl l to t
2 2
Frequency (Log Scale) Time
Bode Diagram (s = j) Step Response

FIG. 1.3f
Integral control action.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 52 General Considerations

aP

Gain (Log Scale)

Derivative Action Time

tY
P tpu
Ou
D(1 1 )

Signal
a
90
=0
Angle

en D
Phase

kt W
h = kt
P Input
p ut =
Out
0
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I a to t
2D 2D
Frequency (Log Scale) Time
Bode Diagram (s = j) Ramp Response

FIG. 1.3g
Proportional plus derivative control action.

Control action, proportional plus derivative (rate) (pd). and

Control action in which the output is proportional b = proportional gain/static gain
to a linear combination of the input and the time rate I = integral action rate
of change of the input. See Figure 1.3g. Note: In the P = proportional gain
practical embodiment of proportional plus derivative s = complex variable
control action, the relationship between output and X = input transform
input, neglecting high frequency terms, is Y = output transform (4, 8)
See note under control action.
Y 1 + sD Control action, proportional plus integral (reset) plus deriv-
= P , where a > 1 1.3(2) ative (rate) (pid). Control action in which the out-
X 1 + sD/a
put is proportional to a linear combination of the
input, the time integral of input, and the time rate
a = derivative action gain of change of input. See Figure 1.3i. Note: In the
D = derivative action time constant practical embodiment of proportional plus integral
P = proportional gain plus derivative control action, the relationship of
s = complex variable output to input, neglecting high-frequency terms, is
X = input transform
Y I /s + 1 + Ds
Y = output transform (4, 8) =P , where a > 1.0
b << 1
X bI /s + 1 + Ds/a
See note under control action. 1.3(4)
Control action, proportional plus integral (reset) (pi). Con-
trol action in which the output is proportional to a and
linear combination of the input and the time integral a = derivative action gain
of the input. See Figure 1.3h. Note: In the practical b = proportional gain/static gain
embodiment of proportional plus integral control D = derivative action time constant
action, the relationship between output and input, I = integral action rate
neglecting high-frequency terms, is P = proportional gain
s = complex variable
X = input transform
Y I /s + 1 Y = output transform (4, 8)
= P , where 0
b << 1 1.3(3)
X bI /s + 1 See note under control action.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 53

P
b
Gain (Log Scale)

Px/b

tY
1

tpu
Signal

Ou
0
1 Output When I = 0
I Px
Angle
Phase

Input
x
90
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bI I to t
2 2
Frequency (Log Scale) Time
Bode Diagram (s = j) Step Response

FIG. 1.3h
Proportional plus integral control action.

Control center. An equipment structure, or group of

P
b
structures, from which a process is measured, con-
trolled, and/or monitored. (Ref. 12)
Gain (Log Scale)

aP
Control, differential gap. Control in which the output of
a controller remains at a maximum or minimum
value until the controlled variable crosses a band or
gap, causing the output to reverse. The controlled
variable must then cross the gap in the opposite
1 P
direction before the output is restored to its original
+90 condition.
Control, direct digital. Control performed by a digital
device that establishes the signal to the final control-
Angle
Phase

0
ling element. Note: Examples of possible digital (D)
and analog (A) combinations for this definition are
90 (Ref. 8, control action, direct digital) as follows:
Ib I I a
2 2 2D 2 D
Final Controlling
Frequency (Log Scale) Feedback Elements Controller Element

Bode Diagram (s = j) 1. D D D
2. A D D
FIG. 1.3i
3. A D A
Proportional plus integral plus derivative control action.
4. D D A

Control, adaptive. Control in which automatic means are Control, feedback. Control in which a measured variable
used to change the type or influence (or both) of is compared to its desired value to produce an actu-
control parameters in such a way as to improve the ating error signal that is acted upon in such a way
performance of the control system. (8, Ref. 4, con- as to reduce the magnitude of the error. (Ref. 8,
trol system, adaptive) control action, feedback)
Control, cascade. Control in which the output of one con- Control, feedforward. Control in which information con-
troller is the setpoint for another controller. (Ref. 8, cerning one or more conditions that can disturb the
control action, cascade) conrolled variable is converted, outside of any feedback

2003 by Bla Liptk

 54 General Considerations

loop, into corrective action to minimize deviations high limiting value. (Ref. 8 control action, high
of the controlled variable. Note: The use of feedfor- limiting)
ward control does not change system stability, because Controlled system. See system, controlled.
it is not part of the feedback loop, which determines Controller. A device that operates automatically to regu-
the stability characteristics. See Figures 1.3j and 1.3k. late a controlled variable. Note: This term is ade-
(Ref. 8, control action, feedforward) quate for the process industries in which the word
Control, high limiting. Control in which the output sig- controller always means automatic controller.
nal is prevented from exceeding a predetermined In some industries, automatic may not be implied,

Load Load
Compensator

Feedforward
Path
Manipulated
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Variable

Final Directly Directly

Set Point Controlling Controlled Controlled
Set Point Compensator Element System Variable

Forward Controlling Elements

Controlling Process
System (Controlled System)

FIG. 1.3j
Feedforward control without feedback.

Feedforward
Paths
Set Point Load Load
Compensator Compensator

Manipulated
Summing Variable Directly
Point
Controlled
+ Final Directly Variable
Controlling Controlled
Set Element System
Point

Forward Controlling Elements

Feedback Signal Feedback

Elements

Controlling Process
System (Controlled System)

FIG. 1.3k
Feedforward control with feedback.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 55

and the term automatic controller is preferred. (8, Controller, program. A controller that automatically
Ref. 4, automatic controller) holds or changes setpoint to follow a prescribed
Controller, derivative (d). A controller that produces deriv- program for a process.
ative control action only. Controller, proportional (p). A controller that produces
Controller, direct acting. A controller in which the value proportional control action only. (8)
of the output signal increases as the value of the Controller, proportional plus derivative (rate) (pd). A con-
input (measured variable) increases. See controller, troller that produces proportional plus derivative (rate)
reverse acting. (Ref. 8) control action. (8)
Controller, floating. A controller in which the rate of Controller, proportional plus integral (reset) (pi). A con-
change of the output is a continuous (or at least a troller that produces proportional plus integral (reset)
piecewise continuous) function of the actuating control action. (8)
error signal. Note: The output of the controller may Controller, proportional plus integral (reset) plus deriv-
remain at any value in its operating range when the ative (rate) (pid). A controller that produces pro-
actuating error signal is zero and constant. Hence, portional plus integral (reset) plus derivative (rate)
the output is said to float. When the controller has control action. (8)
integral control action only, the mode of control has Controller, proportional speed floating. See controller, inte-
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

been called proportional speed floating. The use of gral (reset) (I). (8)
the term integral control action is recommended as Controller, ratio. A controller that maintains a predeter-
a replacement for proportional speed floating con- mined ratio between two variables. (Ref. 4, control
trol. (8) system, ratio, Ref. 8)
Controller, integral (reset) (i). A controller that produces Controller, reverse acting. A controller in which the
integral control action only. Note: It may also be value of the output signal decreases as the value of
referred to as controller, proportional speed float- the input (measured variable) increases. See con-
ing. (8) troller, direct acting. (Ref. 8)
Controller, multiple-speed floating. A floating controller Controller, sampling. A controller using intermittently
in which the output may change at two or more rates, observed values of a signal such as the setpoint
each corresponding to a definite range of values of signal, the actuating error signal, or the signal rep-
the actuating error signal. (8, Ref. 4, control sys- resenting the controlled variable to effect control
tem, multiple-speed floating) action. (8, Ref. 4, control system, sampling)
Controller, multiposition. A controller having two or Controller, self-operated (regulator). A controller in which
more discrete values of output. See Figure 1.3l. (8) all the energy to operate the final controlling element
Controller, onoff. A two-position controller of which is derived from the controlled system. (Ref. 4, Ref.
one of the two discrete values is zero. See Figures 8)
1.3n and 1.3o. (Ref. 8) Controller, single-speed floating. A floating controller in
which the output changes at a fixed rate, increasing
Range- Switching Range-
or decreasing depending on the sign of the actuating
Limit Points Limit error signal. See controller, floating. Note: A neutral
zone of values of the actuating error signal in which
Output

no action occurs may be used. (Ref. 4, control

system, single speed floating. Ref. 8)
Position 1
Controller, three-position. A multiposition controller hav-
ing three discrete values of output. See Figure 1.3m.
Position 2 Note: This is commonly achieved by selectively
Position 3 energizing a multiplicity of circuits (outputs) to
establish three discrete positions of the final con-
Position 4
trolling element. (Ref. 8)
Position 5 Controller, time schedule. A controller in which the set-
point or the reference-input signal automatically
adheres to a predetermined time schedule. (8. Ref. 4)
Controller, two position. A multiposition controller hav-
Input ing two discrete values of output. (Also called a
switch.) See Figures 1.3n and 1.3o. (8)
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5
Controlling system. See system, controlling.
FIG. 1.3l Control, low limiting. Control in which output signal is
Multi-position controller. prevented from decreasing beyond a predetermined

2003 by Bla Liptk

 56 General Considerations

Switching Switching
Range Limit Range Limit Range Limit Range Limit
Points Points
Output

Output
Position 1 Position 1
Live Neutral
Dead Intermediate Zone
Intermediate Zone
Position 2 Input
(Off) Position 2

Input
Position 3
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Zone 4
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Zone 5
Dead Intermediate Zone
General
Switching
Range Limit Range Limit Range Limit Range Limit
Points

Output
Output

Switching
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Points

Position 1
Position 1
Live Intermediate Zone (On)

Position 2 Position 2 Input

(Off)
Position 3 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Input
Zone 4

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 5

Live Intermediate Zone OnOff

FIG. 1.3m FIG. 1.3o

Three-position controller. Two-position controller with neutral intermediate zone.

Switching
Range Limit Range Limit
Point low limiting value. (Ref. 8, control action, low
limiting)
Output

Control mode. A specific type of control action such as

proportional, integral, or derivative. (8)
Position 1
Control, optimizing. Control that automatically seeks and
maintains the most advantageous value of a specified
Position 2
variable rather than maintaining it at one set value.
(Ref. 4, control action, optimizing)
Input
Control room area. See area, control room.
Zone 1 Zone 2 Control, shared time. Control in which one controller
General divides its computation or control time among several
Switching control loops rather than by acting on all loops simul-
Range Limit Range Limit
Point taneously. (Ref. 4, control action, shared time)
Output

Control, supervisory. Control in which the control loops

operate independently subject to intermittent correc-
Position 1 tive action, e.g., setpoint changes from an external
(On) source. (Ref. 4,control action supervisory)
Position 2 Input
Control system. A system in which deliberate guidance or
(Off) manipulation is used to achieve a prescribed value of
Zone 1 Zone 2 a variable. See Figure 1.3p. Note: It is subdivided into
OnOff a controlling system and a controlled system. (4, 8)
Control system, automatic. A control system that oper-
FIG. 1.3n ates without human intervention. (4) See also con-
Two-position controller. trol system.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 57

Actuating Manipulated
Forward Disturbance(s) Directly Indirectly
Reference Summing Variable
Error Controlling Controlled Controlled
Input Point
Signal Elements Variable Variable
Signal

Set Point Reference + Final Directly Indirectly

Input Controlling Controlled Controlled
Elements Element System System

Feedback
Signal
Feedback May Occur at
Elements Any Place in
the System
Indirectly Controlled Process
Indirectly Controlling
System (Vapor, Liquid, (Controlled
Controlled System
and Interface) Directly System)
Variable
Vapor Controlled
(Pressure) (Signal
Variable
(Temperature) Feedback Generator)
Elements
Liquid Set Point

Directly (Transmitter)
Controlled Reference
Input
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System Disturbance ( Flow)

(Liquid and Coil) Elements
Feedback Signal
(Force)
Manipulated
Variable (Integral Adjustment) Reference
(Flow) Input
Signal
(Force)

Final Summing
Controlling Point
Element Forward (Force Beam)
(Valve) Controlling
Elements Actuating Error
(Nozzle) Signal
(Vane Motion)
(Pneumatic Amplifier)

(Pneumatic Controller)

Controller
Feedback Reference
Output
(Integral Element Input
Signal
Adjustment) Feedback Element
Signal
Summing Point Reference
Actuating Input
Error Signal
Signal (Gain
Adjustment)

Forward
(Operational Controlling
Amplifier) Elements

(Electronic Controller)

FIG. 1.3p
Control system diagrams.

Control system, multi-element (multivariable). A control varied to relate, in some prescribed manner, the time
system utilizing input signals derived from two or average of the output to the actuating error signal.
more process variables for the purpose of jointly (Ref. 4, controller, time proportioning)
affecting the action of the control system. Note 1: Control valve. A final controlling element, through
Examples are input signals representing pressure which a fluid passes, which adjusts the size of flow
and temperature, or speed and flow, or other condi- passage as directed by a signal from a controller
tions. (Ref. 8) Note 2: A term used primarily in the to modify the rate of flow of the fluid. (Ref. 17,
power industry. value)
Control system, noninteracting. A control system with Control, velocity limiting. Control in which the rate of
multiple inputs and outputs in which any given change of a specified variable is prevented from
inputoutput pair is operating independently of any exceeding a predetermined limit. (Ref. 8, control
other inputoutput pair. action, velocity limiting)
Control, time proportioning. Control in which the output Corner frequency. In the asymptotic form of Bode dia-
signal consists of periodic pulses whose duration is gram, that frequency indicated by a break point, i.e.,

2003 by Bla Liptk

 58 General Considerations

the junction of two confluent straight lines asymp- Damping ratio. For a linear system of the second order
totic to the log gain curve. (4) described by the differential equation
Correction. In process instrumentation, the algebraic dif-
ference between the ideal value and the indication d2x dx
+ 2 0 + 02 = 0 1.3(6)
of the measured signal. It is the quantity that, added dt 2 dt
algebraically to the indication, gives the ideal value.
The damping ratio is the value of the factor . Note:
(correction = ideal value indication). 1.3(5) 0 is called the angular resonance frequency of the
See error. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8) Note: A positive correc- system. (17)
tion denotes that the indication of the instrument is Damping, relative. For an underdamped system, a number
less than the ideal value. expressing the quotient of the actual damping of a
Correction time. See time, settling. second-order linear system or element by its critical
Cycling life. The specified minimum number of full-scale damping. Note: For any system whose transfer func-
excursions or specified partial range excursions over tion includes a quadratic factor s 2 + 2 n s + n2 , rel-
which a device will operate as specified without ative damping is the value of , since = 1 for critical
changing its performance beyond specified toler- damping. Such a factor has a root + j in the
complex s-plane, from which = /n = /(0 + ) .
2 2 1/2
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ances. (Ref. 11)

Damped frequency. See frequency, damped. D controller. See controller, derivative (D).
Damping. (1) (noun) The progressive reduction or sup- Dead band. In process instrumentation, the range through
pression of oscillation in a device or system. (2) which an input signal may reverse direction without
(adjective) Pertaining to or productive of damping. initiating observable change in output signal. (See
Note 1: The response to an abrupt stimulus is said Figure 1.3r. Ref. 8) Note 1: There are separate and
to be critically damped when the time response is distinct inputoutput relationships for increasing
as fast as possible without overshoot, under- and decreasing signals as shown in Figure 1.3r(b).
damped when overshoot occurs, or overdamped Note 2: Dead band produces phase lag between input
when response is slower than critical. Note 2: Vis- and output. Note 3: Dead band is usually expressed
cous damping uses the viscosity of fluids (liquids in percent of span. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8) See zone, dead
or gases) to effect damping. Note 3: Magnetic damp- and test procedure.
ing uses the current induced in electrical conductors Dead time. See time, dead.
by changes in magnetic flux to effect damping. Dead zone. See zone, dead.
(Ref. 4, Ref. 8, Ref. 11) Delay. The interval of time between a changing signal
Damping factor. For the free oscillation of a second-order and its repetition for some specified duration at a
linear system, a measure of damping, expressed downstream point of the signal path; the value L in
(without sign) as the quotient of the greater by the the transform factor exp(Ls). See time, dead. (4)
lesser of a pair of consecutive swings of the output Derivative action gain. See gain, derivative action (rate
(in opposite directions) about an ultimate steady- gain).
state value. See Figure 1.3q. (8, Ref. 4) Derivative action time. See time, derivative action.
Derivative action time constant. See time constant, deriv-
ative action.
Derivative control. See control action, derivative (D).
Output Derivative control action. See control action, derivative.
Steady-State Derivative controller. See controller, derivative.
Value of Output
Design pressure. See pressure, design.
A D Desired value. See value, desired.
C Detector. See transducer. (11)
B Deviation. Any departure from a desired value or expected
value or pattern. (4, 8)
F A B
Deviation, steady-state. The system deviation after tran-
F Damping Factor = , , , ETC.
A B C sients have expired. (4, 8) See also offset.
A B Deviation, system. The instantaneous value of the directly
Subsidence Ratio = , , ETC.
C D
controlled variable minus the setpoint. (8, Ref. 4)
See also signal, actuating error.
Time
Deviation, transient. The instantaneous value of the
FIG. 1.3q directly controlled variable minus its steady-state
Underdamped response of system with second-order lag. value. (Ref. 4)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 59

10% Input Change 50% Input Change 100% Input Change

(a) (a) (a)

Output
(a) Hysteresis

Input

(b) (b)
(b) Dead Band (b)
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(c) (c)
(c)

(c) Hysteresis Plus

Dead Band

FIG. 1.3r
Hysteresis and dead band.

Device. An apparatus for performing a prescribed func- drift: The drift at mid-scale for ambient temperature
tion. (8) (70 2F) for a period of 48 h was within 0.1% of
Differential gap control. See control, differential gap. output span. (8) See test procedure.
Differential-mode interference. See interference, normal- Droop. See offset.
mode. (2, 8) Dynamic gain. See gain, dynamic.
Digital signal. See signal, digital. Dynamic response. See response, dynamic.
Direct acting controller. See controller, direct acting. Electromagnetic interference. See interference, electro-
Direct digital control. See control, direct digital. magnetic.
Directly controlled system. See system, directly controlled. Electrostatic field interference. See interference, electro-
Directly controlled variable. See variable, directly con- magnetic.
trolled. Element. A component of a device or system. (8)
Distance/velocity lag. A delay attributable to the trans- Element, final controlling. The forward controlling ele-
port of material or to the finite rate of propagation ment that directly changes the value of the manip-
of a signal. (Ref. 4, Ref. 17) ulated variable. (8, Ref. 4, controlling element,
Disturbance. An undesired change that takes place in a final)
process and that tends to affect adversely the value Element, primary. The system element that quantitatively
of a controlled variable. (8, Ref. 4) converts the measured variable energy into a form
Dither. A useful oscillation of small magnitude, intro- suitable for measurement. Note: For transmitters not
duced to overcome the effect of friction, hysteresis, used with external primary elements, the sensing
or recorder pen clogging. See also hunting. (Ref. 4) portion is the primary element. (Ref. 2, detecting
Drift. An undesired change in output over a period of means, Ref. 8)
time, the change being unrelated to the input, envi- Element, reference-input. The portion of the controlling
ronment, or load. (4) system that changes the reference-input signal in
Drift, point. The change in output over a specified period response to the setpoint. See Figure 1.3p. (8, Ref. 4)
of time for a constant input under specified reference Element, sensing. The element directly responsive to the
operating conditions. Note: Point drift is frequently value of the measured variable. Note: It may include
determined at more than one input, as, for example, the case protecting the sensitive portion. (Ref. 8)
at 0, 50, and 100% of range. Thus, any drift of zero Elements, feedback. Those elements in the controlling sys-
or span may be calculated. Typical expression of tem that act to change the feedback signal in response

2003 by Bla Liptk

 60 General Considerations

to the directly controlled variable. See Figure 1.3p. Excitation. The external supply applied to a device for its
(Ref. 4, Ref. 8) proper operation. Note: It is usually expressed as a
Elements, forward controlling. Those elements in the con- range of supply values. See also excitation, maximum.
trolling system that act to change a variable in response (Ref. 11)
to the actuating error signal. See Figure 1.3p. (Ref. 4, Excitation, maximum. The maximum value of excitation
Ref. 8) parameter that can be applied to a device at rated
Elevated range. See range, suppressed-zero. (4, Ref. 1, operating conditions without causing damage or per-
Range, suppressed-zero) formance degradation beyond specified tolerances.
Elevated span. See range, suppressed-zero. (Ref. 11)
Elevated-zero range. See range, elevated-zero. Feedback control. See control, feedback.
Elevation. See range, suppressed-zero. Feedback elements. See elements, feedback.
Environmental area. See area, environmental. Feedback loop. See loop, closed (feedback loop).
Environmental influence. See operating influence. Feedback signal. See signal, feedback.
Error. In process instrumentation, the algebraic difference Feedforward control. See control, feedforward.
between the indication and the ideal value of the Final controlling element. See element, final controlling.
measured signal. It is the quantity that, algebraically Floating control action. See control action, floating.
subtracted from the indication, gives the ideal value. Floating controller. See controller, floating.
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Note: A positive error denotes that the indication of Flowmeter. A device that measures the rate of flow or
the instrument is greater than the ideal value. See quantity of a moving fluid in an open or closed
correction. (Ref. 2, Ref. 8) conduit. It usually consists of both a primary and a
secondary device. Note: It is acceptable, in practice,
error = indication ideal value 1.3(7) to further identify the flowmeter by its applied the-
ory (such as differential pressure, velocity, area,
Error curve. See calibration curve. force, and so forth) or by its applied technology
Error, environmental. Error caused by a change in a spec- (such as orifice, turbine, vorex, ultrasonic, and so
ified operating condition from reference operating on). Examples include turbine flowmeter, magnetic
condition. See operating influence. (Ref. 8, oper- flowmeter, and the fluidic pressure flowmeter.
ating influence) Flowmeter primary device. The device mounted inter-
Error, frictional. Error of a device due to the resistance nally or externally to the fluid conduit that produces
to motion presented by contacting surfaces. a signal with a defined relationship to the fluid flow
Error, hysteresis. See hysteresis. in accordance with known physical laws relating the
Error, hysteretic. See hysteresis. interaction of the fluid to the presence of the primary
Error, inclination. The change in output caused solely by device. Note: The primary device may consist of one
an inclination of the device from its normal operat- or more elements required to produce the primary
ing position. (Ref. 1, influence, position) device signal.
Error, mounting strain. Error resulting from mechanical Flowmeter secondary device. The device that responds to
deformation of an instrument caused by mounting the signal from the primary device and converts it to
the instrument and making all connections. a display or to an output signal that can be translated
See also error, inclination. relative to flow rate or quantity. Note: The secondary
Error, position. The change in output resulting from device may consist of one or more elements as needed
mounting or setting an instrument in a position dif- to translate the primary device signal into standard-
ferent from the position at which it was calibrated. ized or nonstandardized display or transmitted units.
See also error, inclination. Forward controlling elements. See elements, forward con-
Error signal. See signal, error. trolling.
Error, span. The difference between the actual span and Frequency, damped. The apparent frequency of a damped
the ideal span. Note: It is usually expressed as a oscillatory time response of a system resulting from
percentage of ideal span. (8) a nonoscillatory stimulus. (4)
Error, systematic. An error that, in the course of a number Frequency, gain crossover. (1) On a Bode diagram if the
of measurements made under the same conditions transfer function of an element or system, the fre-
of the same value of a given quantity, either remains quency at which the gain becomes unity and its
constant in absolute value and sign or varies accord- decibel value zero. (2) Of integral control action,
ing to a definite law when the conditions change. the frequency at which the gain becomes unity. See
Error, zero. In process instrumentation, the error of a Figure 1.3f. (4)
device operating under specified conditions of use, Frequency, phase crossover. Of a loop transfer function,
when the input is at the lower range value. (Ref. 8) the frequency at which the phase angle reaches
Note: It is usually expressed as percent of ideal span. 180. (Ref. 4)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 61

Frequency response characteristic. In process instrumen- proportional amplification, often denoted K, which
tations, the frequency-dependent relation, in both is frequency independent and associated with a
amplitude and phase, between steady-state sinusoidal dimensioned scale factor relating to the units of
inputs and the resulting fundamental sinusoidal out- input and output; (2) a dimensionless factor, often
puts. Note: Frequency response is commonly plotted denoted G( j), which is frequency dependent. Fre-
on a Bode diagram. See Figure 1.3b. (8, Ref. 4, quency, conditions of operation, and conditions of
frequency-response characteristics) measurement must be specified. A loop gain char-
Frequency, undamped (frequency, natural). (1) Of a second- acteristic is a plot of log gain vs. log frequency. In
order linear system without damping, the frequency nonlinear systems, gains are often amplitude-
of free oscillation in radians or cycles per unit of time. dependent. (4, 8)
(2) Of any system whose transfer function contains Gain, open loop. See gain, loop.
the quadratic factor s 2 + 2 z n s + n2 the value n, Gain, proportional. The ratio of the change in output due
where to proportional control action to the change in input.
s = complex variable See proportional band. (4, 8)
z = constant Illustration: Y = PX
n = natural frequency in radians per second where
P = proportional gain
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X = input transform
(3) Of a closed-loop control system or controlled Y = output transform
system, a frequency at which continuous oscillation
(hunting) can occur without periodic stimuli. Note: Gain, static (zero-frequency gain). If gain of an element,
In linear systems, the undamped frequency is the or loop gain of a system, the value approached as a
phase crossover frequency. With proportional con- limit as frequency approaches zero. Note: Its value
trol action only, the undamped frequency of a linear is the ratio of change of steady-state output to a step
system may be obtained, in most cases, by raising change in input, provided the output does not satu-
the proportional gain until continuous oscillation rate. (4, Ref. 8)
occurs. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8) Gain, zero frequency. See gain, static (zero-frequency
Frictional error. See error, frictional. gain).
Gain, closed loop. In process instrumentation, the gain Hardware. Physical equipment directly involved in per-
of a closed loop system, expressed as the ratio of forming industrial process measuring and control-
the output change to the input change at a specified ling functions.
frequency. (8, Ref. 4) Hazardous (classified) location. See location, hazardous
Gain, crossover frequency. See frequency, gain cross- (classified).
over. High limiting control. See control, high limiting.
Gain, derivative action (rate gain). The ratio of maxi- Hunting. An undesirable oscillation of appreciable mag-
mum gain resulting from proportional plus deriva- nitude, prolonged after external stimuli disappear.
tive control action to the gain due to proportional Note: In a linear system, hunting is evidence of
control action alone. See Figures 1.3g and 1.3i. (4, 8) operation at or near the stability limit; nonlinearities
Gain, dynamic. The magnitude ratio of the steady-state may cause hunting of well-defined amplitude and
amplitude of the output signal from an element or frequency. See also dither. (4)
system to the amplitude of the input signal to that Hysteresis. That property of an element evidenced by the
element or system, for a sinusoidal signal. (8) dependence of the value of the output, for a given
Gain, loop. In process instrumentation, the ratio of the excursion of the input, on the history of prior excur-
absolute magnitude of the change in the feedback sions and the direction of the current traverse. Note 1:
signal to the change in its corresponding error sig- It is usually determined by subtracting the value of
nal at a specified frequency. Note: The gain of the the dead band from the maximum measured sepa-
loop elements is frequently measured by opening ration between upscale going and downscale going
the loop, with appropriate termination. The gain so indications of the measured variable (during a full
measured is often called the open loop gain. (8, range traverse, unless otherwise specified) after
Ref. 5) transients have decayed. This measurement is some-
Gain (magnitude ratio). For a linear system or element, times called hysteresis error or hysteretic error.
the ratio of the magnitude (amplitude) of a steady- See Figure 1.3r. Note 2: Some reversal of output
state sinusoidal output relative to the causal input; may be expected for any small reversal of input; this
the length of a phasor from the origin to a point of distinguishes hysteresis from dead band. See test
the transfer locus in a complex plane. Note: The procedure.
quantity may be separated into two factors: (1) a I controller. See controller, integral (reset) (I).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 62 General Considerations

Idealized system. See system, idealized. Insulation voltage breakdown. The voltage at which a
Ideal value. See value, ideal. disruptive discharge takes place through or over the
Impedance, input. Impedance presented by a device to the surface of the insulation. (3)
source. (3, 8) Integral action limiter. A device that limits the value of
Impedance, load. Impedance presented to the output of a the output signal due to integral control action to a
device by the load. (8, Ref. 3) predetermined value. (8)
Impedance, output. Impedance presented by a device to Integral action rate (reset rate). (1) Of proportional plus
the load. (8, Ref. 3) integral or proportional plus integral plus derivative
Impedance, source. Impedance presented to the input of control action devices; for a step input, the ratio of
a device by the source. (8, Ref. 3) the initial rate of change of output due to integral
Inclination error. See error, inclination. control action to the change in steady-state output
Independent conformity. See conformity, independent. due to proportional control action. Note: Integral
Independent linearity. See linearity, independent. action rate is often expressed as the number of
Indicating instrument. See instrument, indicating. repeats per minute, because it is equal to the number
Indicator travel. The length of the path described by the of times per minute that the proportional response
indicating means or the tip of the pointer in moving to a step input is repeated by the initial integral
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from one end of the scale to the other. Note 1: The response.
path may be an arc or a straight line. Note 2: In the (2) Of integral control action devices; for a step
case of knife-edge pointers and others extending input, the ratio of the initial rate of change of output
beyond the scale division marks, the pointer shall to the input change. (8, Ref. 4)
be considered as ending at the outer end of the Integral action time constant. See time constant, integral
shortest scale division marks. (2, 8) action.
Indirectly controlled system. See system, indirectly con- Integral control action. See control action, integral.
trolled. Integral controller. See controller, integral (reset).
Indirectly controlled variable. See variable, indirectly Interference, common-mode. A form of interference that
controlled. appears between measuring circuit terminals and
Inherent regulation. See self-regulation. ground. (3, 8)
Input impedance. See impedance, input. Interference, differential-mode. See interference, normal-
Input signal. See signal, input. mode.
Instrumentation. A collection of instruments or their Interference, electromagnetic. Any spurious effect pro-
application for the purpose of observation, measure- duced in the circuits or elements of a device by
ment, or control. external electromagnetic fields. Note: A special case
Instrument, computing. A device in which the output is of interference from radio transmitters is known as
related to the input or inputs by a mathematical radio frequency interference (RFI).
function such as addition, averaging, division, inte- Interference, electrostatic field. See interference, electro-
gration, lead/lag, signal limiting, squaring, square magnetic.
root extraction, or subtraction. Interference, longitudinal. See interference, common-
Instrument, indicating. A measuring instrument in which mode.
only the present value of the measured variable is Interference, magnetic field. See interference, electro-
visually indicated. (Ref. 8) magnetic.
Instrument, measuring. A device for ascertaining the Interference, normal-mode. A form of interference that
magnitude of a quantity or condition presented to appears between measuring circuit terminals. (2, 8)
it. (Ref. 8) Interference, transverse. See interference, normal-mode.
Instrument, recording. A measuring instrument in which Intermediate zone. See zone, intermediate.
the values of the measured variable are recor- Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring. Equipment and
ded. Note: The record may be either analog or wiring that are incapable of releasing sufficient elec-
digital and may or may not be visually indicated. trical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal
(Ref. 8) conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous
Insulation resistance. The resistance measured between atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignited con-
specified insulated portions of a device when a spec- centration. (14)
ified direct current voltage is applied, at reference Laplace transform, unilateral. Of a function f(t), the quan-
operating conditions unless otherwise stated. Note: tity obtained by performing the operation
The objective is to determine whether the leakage

current would be excessive under operating condi-
tions. (Ref. 11)
F( s) =


F(t )e st dt 1.3(8)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 63

where Output
F(s) = function of s
Actual Calibration Curve
s = complex variable, + j Upper
(Average of Upscale and
f(t) = function of t Downscale Readings) Range
t = time, seconds Value
= real part of the complex variable s
j = 1
= angular velocity, radians per second (8, Ref. 4)

Leak pressure. See pressure, leak.

Maximum
Linear system. See system, linear. Deviation
Linearity. The closeness to which a curve approximates
a straight line. Note 1: It is usually measured as a Terminal-Based
nonlinearity and expressed as linearity; e.g., a max- Straight Line
imum deviation between an average curve and a
straight line. The average curve is determined after Lower Range
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making two or more full range traverses in each Value

direction. The value of linearity is referred to the
output unless otherwise stated. Note 2: As a perfor- Input
mance specification, linearity should be expressed Span
as independent linearity, terminal based linearity, 0 100%
or zero-based linearity. When expressed simply as
FIG. 1.3t
linearity, it is assumed to be independent linearity.
Terminal-based linearity.
See conformity. (8, Ref. 4, Linearity of signal)
Linearity, independent. The maximum deviation of the
calibration curve (average of upscale and downscale Linearity, terminal-based. The maximum deviation of the
readings) from a straight line positioned so as to calibration curve (average of upscale and downscale
minimize the maximum deviation. See Figure 1.3s. readings) from a straight line coinciding with the
See test procedure. (Ref. 8) calibration curve at the upper and lower range val-
ues. See Figure 1.3t. See test procedure. (Ref. 8)
Linearity, zero-based. The maximum deviation of the
calibration curve (average of upscale and downscale
Output
readings) from a straight line positioned so as to
Independent coincide with the calibration curve at the lower
Straight Line range value and to minimize the maximum devia-
Actual Calibration Curve tion. See Figure 1.3u. See test procedure. (Ref. 8)
(Average of Upscale and
Downscale Readings) Live zone. See zone, live.
Load impedance. See impedance, load.
Load regulation. The change in output (usually speed or
voltage) from no-load to full-load (or other specified
load limits) conditions. See offset. Note: It may be
expressed as the percentage ratio of the change from
no-load to full-load conditions divided by the no-
load value. (8)
Location, hazardous (classified). That portion of a plant
where flammable or combustible liquids, vapors,
gases, or dusts may be present in the air in quantities
sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Maximum Deviations Are
Minimized and Equal (Ref. 9)
Longitudinal interference. See interference, common-mode.
Input
Loop, closed (feedback loop). A signal path that includes
Span a forward path, a feedback path, and a summing
0 100%
point, and forms a closed circuit. (4, 8)
FIG. 1.3s Loop, feedback. See loop, closed (feedback loop). (4, 8)
Independent linearity. Loop gain. See gain, loop.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 64 General Considerations

Output Modulation. The process, or result of the process, whereby

some characteristic of one wave is varied in accor-
dance with some characteristic of another wave. (4, 8)
Actual Calibration Curve
(Average of Upscale and Module. An assembly of interconnected components that
Downscale Readings) Zero-Based constitutes an identifiable device, instrument, or
Straight Line piece of equipment. A module can be disconnected,
removed as a unit, and replaced with a spare. It has
definable performance characteristics that permit it
to be tested as a unit. Note: A module could be a
card or other subassembly of a larger device, pro-
vided it meets the requirements of this definition.
Mounting position. The position of a device relative to
physical surroundings. (8)
Mounting strain error. See error, mounting strain.
Multi-element control system. See control system, multi-
Maximum Deviations are
Minimized and Equal element (multivariable).
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Multiposition controller. See controller, multiposition.

Lower Range Value Multispeed floating controller. See controller, multiple-
Input speed floating.
Span Multivariable control system. See control system, multi-
0 100% element (multivariable).
FIG. 1.3u
Natural frequency. See frequency, undamped.
Zero-based linearity. Neutral zone. See zone, neutral.
Noise. An unwanted component of a signal or variable.
Note: It may be expressed in units of the output or
in percentage of output span. See interference, elec-
Loop gain characteristics. In process control, of a closed tromagnetic. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8)
loop, the characteristic curve of the ratio of the Nonincendive equipment. Equipment that, in its normal
change in the return signal to the change in the cor- operating condition, would not ignite a specific haz-
responding error signal for all real frequencies. (8) ardous atmosphere in its most easily ignited con-
Loop, open. A signal path without feedback. (4, 8) centration. Note: The electrical circuits may include
Loop transfer function. Of a closed loop, the transfer sliding or make-and-break contacts releasing insuf-
function obtained by taking the ratio of the Laplace ficient energy to cause ignition. Wiring that, under
transform of the return signal to the Laplace trans- normal conditions, cannot release sufficient energy
form of its corresponding error signal. (4, 8) to ignite a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture
Lower range limit. See range limit, lower. by opening, shorting, or grounding shall be permit-
Lower range value. See range value, lower. ted using any of the methods suitable for wiring in
Low limiting control. See control, low limiting. ordinary locations.
Magnetic field interference. See interference, electro- Noninteracting control system. See control system, non-
magnetic. interacting.
Magnitude ratio. See gain (magnitude ratio). Normal-mode interference. See interference, normal-
Manipulated variable. See variable, manipulated. mode.
Maximum excitation. See excitation, maximum. Normal-mode rejection. The ability of a circuit to dis-
Maximum working pressure. See pressure, maximum criminate against a normal-mode voltage. Note: It
working (MWP). may be expressed as a dimensionless ratio, a scalar
Measurand. See variable, measured. ratio, or in decibels as 20 times the log10 of that ratio.
Measured accuracy. See accuracy, measured. Normal-mode voltage. See voltage, normal-mode.
Measured signal. See signal, measured. Normal operating conditions. See operating conditions,
Measured value. See value, measured. normal.
Measured variable. See variable, measured. Offset. The steady-state deviation when the setpoint is
Measuring instrument. See instrument, measuring. fixed. See also deviation, steady-state. Note: The
Mechanical shock. The momentary application of an offset resulting from a no-load to a full-load change
acceleration force to a device. Note: It is usually (or other specified limits) is often called droop or
expressed in units of acceleration of gravity (g). load regulation. See load regulation. (8, Ref. 4)
(Ref. 8) Onoff controller. See controller, onoff.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 65

Operating conditions. Conditions to which a device is operating condition. Example: Voltage influence on
subjected, not including the variable measured by accuracy may be expressed as 2% of span based on a
the device. Examples of operating conditions include change in voltage from reference value of 120 V to
ambient pressure, ambient temperature, electromag- value of 130 V.
netic fields, gravitational force, inclination, power 2. As a coefficient expressing the change in a performance
supply variation (voltage, frequency, harmonics), characteristic corresponding to unit change of the oper-
radiation, shock, and vibration. Both static and ating condition, from reference operating condition to
dynamic variations in these conditions should be another specified operating condition. Example: Volt-
considered. (Ref. 2, Ref. 8) age influence on accuracy may be expressed as
Operating conditions, normal. The range of operating
conditions within which a device is designed to 2% of span
= 0.2% of span per vol 1.3(9)
operate and for which operating influences are 130 V 120 V
stated. See Figure 1.3v. Note: In case of normally
open or normally closed switches, the normal posi- Note: If the relationship between operating influence and
tion is the unactuated position. change in operating condition is linear, one coefficient will
Operating conditions, reference. The range of operating suffice. If it is nonlinear, it may be desirable to state more
than one coefficient such as 0.05% per volt from 120 to 125
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conditions of a device within which operating influ-

ences are negligible. See Figure 1.3v. Note 1: The V, and 0.15% from 125 to 130 V. (8, Ref. 2)
range is usually narrow. Note 2: They are the con-
ditions under which reference is stated and the base Operating pressure. See pressure, operating.
from which the values of operating influences are Operative limits. The range of operating conditions to
determined. (8) which a device may be subjected without permanent
impairment of operating characteristics. See Figure
Operating influence. The change in a performance char-
1.3v. Note 1: In general, performance characteristics
acteristic caused by a change in a specified operat-
are not stated for the region between the limits of
ing condition from reference operating condition,
normal operating conditions and the operative lim-
all other conditions being held within the limits of
its. Note 2: Upon returning with the limits of normal
reference operating conditions. Note: The specified
operating conditions, a device may require adjust-
operating conditions are usually the limits of the
ments to restore normal performance. (Ref. 2,
normal operating conditions.
design limits, Ref. 8)
Operating influence may be stated in either of two ways: Optimizing control. See control, optimizing.
Outdoor area. See area, outdoor.
1. As the total change in performance characteristics Output impedance. See impedance, output.
from reference operating condition to another specified Output signal. See signal, output.
Overdamped. See damping.
Overrange. In process instrumentation, of a system or
Upper Limit-Transportation &
Storage Conditions element, any excess value of the input signal above
Upper Operative Limit its upper range value or below its lower range value.
(Reference Performance

Upper Limit-Normal Operating (8, Ref. 4)

Operating Conditions
Range of Reference

Conditions
Overrange limit. The maximum input that can be applied
Conditions (No Damage-No Performance
Statement-Adjustment May be Required)

Range of Normal Operating Conditions-

Range of Operative Limits (No Damage-

to a device without causing damage or permanent

Range of Transportation & Storage

(Performance Stated as "Operating

change in performance.
Adjustment May be Required)
No Performance Statement-

Stated)

Overshoot. See transient overshoot.

Parameter. A quantity or property that is treated as a
Influence")

Upper Limit-Reference Operating

Conditions constant but sometimes may vary or be adjusted. (6)
Nominal Reference
Operating Conditions P controller. See controller, proportional.
Lower Limit-Reference Operating
Conditions PD controller. See controller, proportional plus derivative.
Pen travel. The length of the path described by the pen
in moving from one end of the chart scale to the
other. The path may be an arc or a straight line. (8)
Lower Limit-Normal Operating
Conditions Phase crossover frequency. See frequency, phase cross-
Lower Operative Limit
over.
Lower Limit-Transportation & Phase shift. (1) Of a transfer function, a change of phase
Storage Conditions
angle with test frequency, as between points on a
FIG. 1.3v loop phase characteristic. (2) Of a signal, a change
Diagram of operating conditions. of phase angle with transmission. (4)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 66 General Considerations

PI controller. See controller, proportional plus integral. Pressure, maximum working (MWP). The maximum total
PID controller. See controller, proportional plus integral pressure permissible in a device under any circum-
plus derivative. stances during operation, at a specified temperature.
Pneumatic delivery capability. The rate at which a pneu- It is the highest pressure to which it will be subjected
matic device can deliver air (or gas) relative to a in the process. It is a designed safe limit for regular
specified output pressure change. Note: It is usually use. Note: MWP can be arrived at by two methods:
determined, at a specified level of input signal, by (1) designed, by adequate design analysis, with a
measuring the output flow rate for a specified change safety factor and (2) tested, by rupture testing of
in output pressure. The results are expressed in cubic typical samples. See pressure, design.
3
feet per minute (ft /min) or cubic meters per hour Pressure, operating. The actual pressure at which a device
3
(m /h), corrected to standard (normal) conditions of operates under normal conditions. This pressure may
pressure and temperature. be positive or negative with respect to atmospheric
Pneumatic exhaust capability. The rate at which a pneu- pressure.
matic device can exhaust air (or gas) relative to a Pressure, process. The pressure at a specified point in the
specified output pressure change. Note: It is usually process medium. (Ref. 8)
determined, at a specified level of input signal, by Pressure, rupture. The pressure, determined by test, at
measuring the output flow rate for a specified change which a device will burst. Note: This is an alternative
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in output pressure. The results are expressed in cubic to the design procedure for establishing maximum
3
feet per minute (ft /min) or cubic meters per hour working pressure (MWP). The rupture pressure test
3
(m /h), corrected to standard (normal) conditions of consists of causing the device to burst.
pressure and temperature. Pressure, static. The steady-state pressure applied to a
Point drift. See drift, point. device; in the case of a differential-pressure device, the
Position. Of a multiposition controller, a discrete value of process pressure applied equally to both connections.
the output signal. See Figure 1.3l. Pressure, supply. The pressure at the supply port of a
Position error. See error, position. device. (8)
Power consumption, electrical. The maximum power used Pressure, surge. Operating pressure plus the increment
by a device within its operating range during steady- above operating pressure to which a device may be
state signal condition. Note 1: For a power factor subjected for a very short time during pump starts,
other than unity, power consumption shall be stated valve closings, and so on.
as maximum volt-amperes used under the above- Primary element. See element, primary.
stated condition. Note 2: For a device operating Process. Physical or chemical change of matter or con-
outside of its operating range, the maximum power version of energy; e.g., change in pressure, temper-
might exceed what is experienced within the operating ature, speed, electrical potential, and so on.
range. (Ref. 8, Power consumption) Process control. The regulation or manipulation of vari-
Power factor. The ratio of total watts to the total root-mean- ables influencing the conduct of a process so as to
square (rms) volt-amperes. obtain a product of desired quality and quantity in
an efficient manner.
watts per phase active power Process measurement. The acquisition of information
Fp = =
rms volt - amperes per phase apparent power that establishes the magnitude of process quantities.
1.3(10) Process pressure. See pressure, process.
Process temperature. See temperature, process.
Note: If the voltages have the same waveform as the Program controller. See controller, program.
corresponding currents, power factor becomes the same as Proportional band. The change in input required to pro-
phasor power factor. If the voltages and currents are sinuso- duce a full range change in output due to propor-
idal and for polyphase circuits, from symmetrical sets, Fp = tional control action. Note 1: It is reciprocally
cos( ). (3) related to proportional gain. Note 2: It may be stated
in input units or as a percentage of the input span
Pressure, ambient. The pressure of the medium surround- (usually the indicated or recorded input span). The
ing a device. preferred term is proportional gain. See gain, pro-
Pressure, design. The pressure used in the design of a portional. (8)
vessel or device for the purpose of determining the Proportional control action. See control action, propor-
minimum permissible thickness or physical charac- tional.
teristics of the parts for a given maximum working Proportional controller. See controller, proportional.
pressure (MWP) at a given temperature. Proportional gain. See gain, proportional.
Pressure, leak. The pressure at which some discernible Proportional plus derivative control action. See control
leakage first occurs in a device. action, proportional plus derivative.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 67

Proportional plus derivative controller. See controller, pro- value, or above the upper range value. Note 2: Terms
portional plus derivative. suppression, suppressed range, or suppressed span
Proportional plus integral control action. See controller, are frequently used to express the condition in which
proportional plus integral. the zero of the measured variable is greater than the
Proportional plus integral controller. See controller, pro- lower range value. The term elevated-zero range
portional plus integral. is preferred. (Ref. 8)
Proportional plus integral plus derivative control action. Range limit, lower. The lowest value of the measured
See control action, proportional plus integral plus variable that a device can be adjusted to measure.
derivative. Note: The following compound terms are used with
Proportional plus integral plus derivative controller. See suitable modifications to the units: measured vari-
controller, proportional plus integral plus derivative. able lower range limit, measured signal lower range
Proportional plus rate control action. See controller, pro- limit, and so on. See Tables 1.3w and 1.3x. (Ref. 8)
portional plus derivative. Range limit, upper. The highest value of the measured
Proportional plus rate controller. See controller, propor- variable that a device can be adjusted to measure.
tional plus derivative. Note: The following compound terms are used with
Proportional plus reset control action. See control action, suitable modifications to the units: measured vari-
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proportional plus integral plus derivative. able upper range limit, measured signal upper range
Proportional plus reset controller. See controller, propor- limit, and so on. See Tables 1.3w and 1.3x. (Ref. 8)
tional plus integral plus derivative. Range, suppressed-zero. A range in which the zero value
Proportional speed floating controller. See controller, of the measured variable is less than the lower
integral. range value. (Zero does not appear on the scale.)
Ramp response. See response, ramp. See Table 1.3w. Note 1: For example: 20 to 100.
Ramp response time. See time, ramp response. Note 2: Terms elevation, elevated range, or elevated
Range. The region between the limits within which a quan- span are frequently used to express the condition in
tity is measured, received, or transmitted, expressed which the zero of the measured variable is less than
by stating the lower and upper range values. Note 1: the lower range value. The term suppressed-zero
For example, (a) 0 to 150F, (b) 20 to +200F, and range is preferred. (Ref. 2, Ref. 8)
(b) 20 to 150C. Note 2: Unless otherwise modified, Range value, lower. The lowest value of the measured
input range is implied. Note 3: The following com- variable that a device is adjusted to measure. Note:
pound terms are used with suitable modifications in Several compound terms are used with suitable
the units: measured variable range, measured signal modifications to the units, including measured vari-
range, indicating scale range, chart scale range, and able lower range value, measured signal lower range
so on. See Tables 1.3w and 1.3x. Note 4: For mul- value, and others. See Tables 1.3w and 1.3x. (Ref. 8)
tirange devices, this definition applies to the partic- Range value, upper. The highest value of the measured
ular range that the device is set to measure. (3, 8) variable that a device is adjusted to measure. Note:
Range, elevated-zero. A range in which the zero value of Several compound terms are used with suitable mod-
the measured variable, measured signal, or other ifications to the units, including measured variable
quantity is greater than the lower range value. See upper range value, measured signal upper range
Table 1.3w. Note 1: The zero may be between the value, and others. See Tables 1.3w and 1.3x. (Ref. 8)
lower and upper range values, at the upper range Rate. See control action, derivative.

TABLE 1.3w
Illustrations of the Use of Range and Span Terminology
Supplementary
Typical Ranges Name Range Lower Range Value Upper Range Value Span Data
0 +100
0 to 100 0 +100 100
Suppression
20 +100
Suppressed zero range 20 to 100 20 +100 80 Ratio = 0.25

25 0 +100
Elevated zero range 25 to +100 25 +100 125

100 0
Elevated zero range 100 to 0 100 0 100

100 20
Elevated zero range 100 to 20 100 20 80

2003 by Bla Liptk

 68 General Considerations

TABLE 1.3x
USA Domestic Units: Illustrations of the Use of the Terms Measured Variable and Measured Signal
Typical Ranges Type of Range Range Lower Range Value Upper Range Value Span
(1) Thermocouple
0 2000F
Type K T/C Measured variable 0 to 2000F 0F 2000F 2000F

0.68 +44.91 mV
Measured signal 0.68 to +44.91 mV 0.68 mV +44.91 mV 45.59 mV
0 20
100 = F Scale and/or chart 0 to 2000F 0F 2000F 2000F
(2) Flowmeter
0 10 000 lb/h
Measured variable 0 to 10 000 lb/h 0 lb/h 10 000 lb/h 10 000 lb/h

0 100 in H2O
Measured signal 0 to 100 in H2O 0 in H2O 100 in H2O 100 in H2O
0 10
1000 = lb/h Scale and/or chart 0 to 10 000 lb/h 0 lb/h 10 000 lb/h 10 000 lb/h
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(3) Tachometer
0 500 rpm
Measured variable 0 to 500 rpm 0 rpm 500 rpm 500 rpm

0 5V
Measured signal 0 to 5 V 0V 5V 5V
0 80 ft/s
Scale and/or chart 0 to 80 ft/s 0 ft/s 80 ft/s 80 ft/s

Rate control action. See control action, derivative. Output

Rate gain. See gain, derivative action.
Ratio controller. See controller, ratio.
Recording instrument. See instrument, recording.
Reference accuracy. See accuracy rating.
Reference-input element. See element, reference-input. Maximum
Reference-input signal. See signal, reference-input. Repeatability
Reference junction. The thermocouple junction that is at Downscale
a known or reference temperature. Note: The refer- Calibration Repeatability
ence junction is physically the point at which the Curves
thermocouple or thermocouple extension wires are
connected to a device or where the thermocouple is
connected to a pair of lead wires, usually copper.
(Ref. 7)
Upscale
Reference junction compensation. A means of counter- Calibration
acting the effect of temperature variations of the Curves
reference junction when allowed to vary within
specified limits.
Reference operating conditions. See operating conditions, Input
reference.
Full Range Traverse
Reference performance. Performance attained under ref- 0 100%
erence operating conditions. Note: Performance
includes such things as accuracy, dead band, hyster- FIG. 1.3y
esis, linearity, repeatability, etc. (8) Repeatability.
Regulator. See controller, self-operated (regulator).
Relative damping. See damping, relative. the same value of the input under the same operating
Reliability. The probability that a device will perform its conditions, approaching from the same direction, for
objective adequately, for the period of time specified, full range traverses. See Figure 1.3y. Note: It is usually
under the operating conditions specified. (Ref. 4) measured as nonrepeatability and expressed as
Repeatability. The closeness of agreement among a num- repeatability in percent of span. It does not include
ber of consecutive measurements of the output for hysteresis. See test procedure. (8, Ref. 2)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 69

Reproducibility. In process instrumentation, the closeness Output

of agreement among repeated measurements of the Time Response Curve
Transient
output for the same value of input made under the Overshoot of Actual Value
same operating conditions over a period of time,
approaching from both directions. Note 1: It is usu- Final Steady
State Value
ally measured as nonreproducibility and expressed as Specified Band
reproducibility in percent of span for a specified time (for Settling Time)
period. Normally, this implies a long period of time,
but, under certain conditions, the period may be a Specified
short time during which drift may not be included. Percentages
of Final Value
Note 2: Reproducibility includes hysteresis, dead
band, drift, and repeatability. Note 3: Between
Dead
repeated measurements, the input may vary over the Time Rise
range and operating conditions may vary within nor- Time
mal operating conditions. See test procedures. (8) Initial Value
Reset control action. See control action, integral (reset). Time
Step Response
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Reset rate. See integral action rate. Time Settling Time

Resolution. The least interval between two adjacent dis- 0 100%
crete details that can be used to distinguish one from
the other. (4) FIG. 1.3z
Resonance. Of a system or element, a condition evi- Typical time response of a system to a step increase of input.
denced by large oscillatory amplitude, which results
when a small amplitude of periodic input has a
frequency approaching one of the natural frequen- Self-heating. Internal heating resulting from electrical
cies of the driven system. (4, 8) energy dissipated with a device. (Ref. 11)
Response, dynamic. The behavior of the output of a Self-operated controller. See controller, self-operated
device as a function of the input, both with respect (regulator).
to time. (8, Ref. 2) Self-regulation (inherent regulation). The property of a
process or machine that permits attainment of equi-
Response, ramp. The total (transient plus steady-state)
librium, after a disturbance, without the intervention
time response resulting from a sudden increase in
of a controller. (4)
the rate of change from zero to some finite value of
Sensing element. See element, sensing.
the input stimulus. (Ref. 4, response, ramp-forced)
Sensing element elevation. The difference in elevation
Response, step. The total (transient plus steady-state)
between the sensing element and the instrument.
time response resulting from a sudden change from
Note: The elevation is considered positive when the
one constant level of input to another. (4, response,
sensing element is above the instrument. (8)
stepforced)
Sensitivity. The ratio of the change in output magnitude
Response, time. An output expressed as a function of
to the change of the input that causes it after the
time, resulting from the application of a specified
steady-state has been reached. Note 1: It is expressed
input under specified operating conditions. See as a ratio with the units of measurement of the two
Figure 1.3z. (4, 8) quantities stated. (The ratio is constant over the
Return signal. See signal, return. range of a linear device. For a nonlinear device, the
Reverse action controller. See controller, reverse acting. applicable input level must be stated.) Note 2: Sen-
Rise time. See time, rise. sitivity has frequently been used to denote the dead
rms value. See value, rms. band. However, its usage in this sense is deprecated,
Rupture pressure. See pressure, rupture. since it is not in accordance with accepted standard
Sampling controller. See controller, sampling. definitions of the term. (8, Ref. 4)
Sampling period. The time interval between observations Sensor. See transducer. (11)
in a periodic sampling control system. (4, 8) Servomechanism. An automatic feedback control device
Scale factor. The factor by which the number of scale in which the controlled variable is mechanical posi-
divisions indicated or recorded by an instrument tion or any of its time derivatives. (Ref. 4)
should be multiplied to compute the value of the Setpoint. An input variable that sets the desired value of
measured variable. (Ref. 8) Note: Deflection factor the controlled variable. Note 1: The input variable may
is a more general term than scale factor in that the be manually set, automatically set, or programmed.
instrument response may be expressed alternatively Note 2: It is expressed in the same units as the
in units other than scale divisions. (Ref. 3) controlled variable. (8, Ref. 4, command)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 70 General Considerations

Settling time. See time, settling. Signal, input. A signal applied to a device, element, or
Shared time control. See control, shared time. system. (8, Ref. 4)
Sheltered area. See area, sheltered. Signal, measured. The electrical, mechanical, pneumatic,
Signal. In process control, a physical variable, one or or other variable applied to the input of a device. It
more parameters of which carry information about is the analog of the measured variable produced by
another variable (which the signal represents). (17) a transducer (when such is used).
Signal, actuating error. In process instrumentation, the
reference-input signal minus the feedback signal. Example 1: In a thermocouple thermometer, the measured
See Figure 1.3p. See also deviation, system. (8, signal is an electromotive force (emf), which is the electrical
Ref. 4, signal, actuating) analog of the temperature applied to the thermocouple.
Signal amplitude sequencing (split ranging). Action in Example 2: In a flowmeter, the measured signal may be
which two or more signals are generated or two or a differential pressure, which is the analog of the rate of flow
more final controlling elements are actuated by an through the orifice.
input signal, each one responding consecutively, Example 3: In an electric tachometer system, the mea-
with or without overlap, to the magnitude of that sured signal may be a voltage, which is the electrical analog
input signal. See Figure 1.3aa. (8) of the speed of rotation of the part coupled to the tachometer
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Signal, analog. A signal representing a variable that may generator.

be continuously observed and continuously repre-
sented. See variable, measured. (8, Ref. 2)
Signal converter. See signal transducer. Signal, output. A signal delivered by a device, element,
Signal, digital. Representation of information by a set of or system. (8, Ref. 4)
discrete values in accordance with a prescribed law. Signal, reference-input. One external to a control loop,
These values are represented by numbers. serving as the standard of comparison for the
Signal, error. In a closed loop, the signal resulting from directly controlled variable. See Figure 1.3p. (4, 8)
subtracting a particular return signal from its corre- Signal, return. In a closed loop, the signal resulting from
sponding input signal. See also signal, actuating a particular input signal and transmitted by the loop
error. (4, 8) and to be subtracted from the input signal. See also
Signal, feedback. In process instrumentation, the return signal, feedback. (4, 8)
signal that results from a measurement of the directly Signal selector. A device that automatically selects either
controlled variable. See Figure 1.3p. (8. Ref. 4) the highest or lowest input signal from among two
Signal, feedforward. See control, feedforward. or more input signals. Note: This device is sometimes
referred to as a signal auctioneer. (Ref. 8, auction-
eering device)
100 Signal-to-noise ratio. Ratio of signal amplitude to noise
amplitude. Note: For sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal
Out
signals, amplitude may be peak or rms and should
be so specified. (Ref. 8)
0 In 100 Signal transducer (signal converter). A transducer that
converts one standardized transmission signal to
Sequencing another. (Ref. 8)
Output
Device
Single-speed floating controller. See controller, single-
speed floating.
Input
Source impedance. See impedance, source.
Span. The algebraic difference between the upper and
lower range values. Note 1: For example, (a) range
Sequencing
Device Output 0 to 150F, span 150F, (b) range 20 to 200F,
span 220F, and (c) range 20 to 150C, span 130C.
100 Note 2: The following compound terms are used
with suitable modifications to the units, e.g., mea-
Out sured variable span, and measured signal span.
Note 3: For multirange devices, this definition
applies to the particular range that the device is set
0 In 100
to measure. See Tables 1.3w and 1.3x. (8, Ref. 3)
FIG. 1.3aa Span adjustment. See adjustment, span.
Signal amplitude sequencing. Span error. See error, span.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 71

example: range 20 to 100, suppression ratio = 20/80

Span Shift = 0.25. See Table 1.3w. (8, Ref. 2)
Zero Shift Surge pressure. See pressure, surge.
100 Switching point. A point in the input span of a multipo-
sition controller at which the output signal changes

e
rv
Cu
from one position to another. See Figure 1.3l. (8)

e
rv
n
tio

Cu
Systematic error. See error, systematic.
% Output

ra

tic
lib

ris System, control. See control system.

Ca

te
ac
al

System, controlled. The collective functions performed in

ar
tu

Ch
Ac

and by the equipment in which the variable(s) is (are)

ed
ifi
ec

to be controlled. Note: Equipment as embodied in

Sp

0
this definition should be understood not to include
0 100
any automatic control equipment. (Ref. 8, process)
% Input System, controlling. (1) Of a feedback control system, the
portion that compares functions of a directly con-
FIG. 1.3bb
trolled variable and a setpoint and adjusts a manip-
Shift, span, and zero.
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ulated variable as a function of the difference. It

Span shift. Any change in slope of the inputoutput curve. includes the reference-input elements; summing point;
See Figure 1.3bb. forward and final controlling elements; and feedback
Split ranging. See signal amplitude sequencing (split elements (including sensing element). (2) Of a con-
ranging). trol system without feedback, the portion that manip-
Static friction. See stiction. ulates the controlled system. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8)
Static gain. See gain, static. System deviation. See deviation, system.
Static pressure. See pressure, static. System, directly controlled. The body, process, or machine
Steady state. A characteristic of a condition, such as value, directly guided or restrained by the final controlling
rate, periodicity, or amplitude, exhibiting only negli- element to achieve a prescribed value of the directly
gible change over an arbitrarily long period of time. controlled variable. (4, 8)
Note: It may describe a condition in which some char- System, idealized. An imaginary system whose ultimately
acteristics are static and others are dynamic. (8, Ref. 4) controlled variable has a stipulated relationship to a
Steady-state deviation. See deviation, steady-state. specified setpoint. Note: It is a basis for performance
Step response. See response, step. standards. (8, Ref. 4)
Step response time. See time, step response. System, indirectly controlled. The portion of the con-
Stiction (static friction). Resistance to the start of motion, trolled system in which the indirectly controlled
usually measured as the difference between the driv- variable is changed in response to changes in the
ing values required to overcome static friction directly controlled variable. See Figure 1.3p. (Ref. 4,
upscale and downscale. (4) Ref. 8)
Stiffness. In process control, the ratio of change of force System, linear. One of which the time response to several
(or torque) to the resulting change in deflection of simultaneous inputs is the sum of their independent
a spring-like element. Note: Stiffness is the opposite time responses. Note: It is represented by a linear
of compliance. differential equation and has a transfer function,
Subsidence. See damping, also subsidence ratio. which is constant for any value of input within a
Subsidence ratio. In process instrumentation, the ratio of specified range. A system not meeting these condi-
the peak amplitudes of two successive oscillations tions is described as nonlinear. (Ref. 4)
of the same sign, the numerator representing the first Tapping. See dither.
oscillation in time. See Figure 1.3q. (Ref. 16) Temperature, ambient. The temperature of the medium
Summing point. Any point at which signals are added surrounding a device. Note 1: For devices that do
algebraically. See Figure 1.3p. (4, 8) not generate heat, this temperature is the same as
Supervisory control. See control, supervisory. the temperature of the medium at the point of device
Supply pressure. See pressure, supply. location when the device is not present. Note 2: For
Suppressed range. See range, elevated-zero. devices that do generate heat, this temperature is the
Suppressed span. See range, elevated-zero. temperature of the medium surrounding the device
Suppressed-zero range. See range, suppressed-zero. when it is present and dissipating heat. Note 3:
Suppression. See range, elevated-zero. Allowable ambient temperature limits are based on
Suppression ratio (of a suppressed zero range). The ratio the assumption that the device in question is not
of the lower range value to the span. Note: For exposed to significant radiant energy sources. (8)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 72 General Considerations

Temperature, process. The temperature of the process Time response. See response, time.
medium at the sensing element. (8) Time, rise. The time required for the output of a system
Terminal-based conformity. See conformity, terminal- (other than a first-order one) to change from a small
based. specified percentage (often 5 or 10) of the steady-
Terminal-based linearity. See linearity, terminal-based. state increment to a large specified percentage (often
Terminal shock. An abrupt temperature change applied to 90 to 95), either before or in the absence of over-
a device. (8) shoot. See Figure 1.3z. Note: If the term is unqual-
Three-position controller. See controller, three-position. ified, response to a unit step stimulus is understood;
Time constant. In process instrumentation, the value T in otherwise, the pattern and magnitude of the stimulus
an exponential response term A exp(t/ T) or in one should be specified. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8)
of the transform factors Time schedule controller. See controller, time schedule.
Time, setting. The time required, following the initiation
1 + sT, 1 + j T, 1/(1 + sT ), 1/(1 + j T ) 1.3(11)
of a specified stimulus to a system, for the output
where to enter and remain within a specified narrow band
s= complex variable centered on its steady-state value. See Figure 1.3z.
t= time, seconds Note: The stimulus may be a step impulse, ramp,
T= time constant parabola, or sinusoid. For a step or impulse, the band
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j= 1 is often specified as 2%. For nonlinear behavior,

= angular velocity, radians per second both magnitude and pattern of the stimulus should
be specified. (8, Ref. 4)
Note: For the output of a first-order system forced by a Time, step response. Of a system or an element, the time
step or an impulse, T is the time required to complete 63.2% required for an output to change from an initial value
of the total rise or decay; at any instant during the process, to a large specified percentage of the final steady-
T is the quotient of the instantaneous rate of change divided state value either before or in the absence of over-
into the change still to be completed. In higher-order systems, shoot, as a result of a step change to the input. See
there is a time constant for each of the first-order components Figure 1.3z. Note: Usually stated for 90, 95, or 99%
of the process. In a Bode diagram, break points occur at = change. See time constant for use of 63.2% value.
1/T. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8) (Ref. 4, time response, Ref. 8)
Transducer. An element or device that receives informa-
Time constant, derivative action. Of proportional plus tion in the form of one quantity and converts it to
derivative control action, a parameter the value of information in the form of the same or another quan-
which is equal to 1/2 fd where fd is the frequency (in tity. Note: This is a general term and definition and,
hertz) on a Bode diagram of the lowest frequency gain as used here, applies to specific classes of devices
corner resulting from derivative control action. (4, 8) such as primary element, signal transducer, and
Time constant, integral action. (1) Of proportional plus transmitter. See primary element, signal transducer,
integral control action, a parameter whose value is and transmitter. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8)
equal to 1/2 fi where fi is the frequency (in hertz) Transfer function. A mathematical, graphical, or tabular
on a Bode diagram of the highest frequency gain statement of the influence that a system or element
corner resulting from integral control action. (2) It has on a signal or action compared at input and at
is the reciprocal of integral action rate. Note: The output terminals. (4, 8)
use of integral action rate is preferred. (8, Ref. 4) Transient. In process instrumentation, the behavior of a vari-
Time, correction. See time, settling. able during transition between two steady states. (17)
Time, dead. The interval of time between initiation of an Transient deviation. See deviation, transient.
input change or stimulus and the start of the resulting Transient overshoot. The maximum excursion beyond
observable response. See Figure 1.3z. (Ref. 4, Ref. 8) the final steady-state value of output as the result of
Time, derivative action. In proportional plus derivative an input change. (Ref. 8)
control action, for a unit ramp signal input, the Transient overvoltage. A momentary excursion in voltage
advance in time of the output signal (after transients occurring in a signal or supply line of a device that
have subsided) caused by derivative control action, exceeds the maximum rated conditions specified for
as compared to the output signal due to proportional that device.
control action only. (Ref. 5, Ref. 8) Transmitter. A transducer that responds to a measured
Time proportioning control. See control, time propor- variable by means of a sensing element and converts
tioning. it to a standardized transmission signal that is a
Time, ramp response. The time interval by which an out- function only of the measured variable. (Ref. 8)
put lags an input when both are varying at a constant Transportation and storage conditions. The conditions to
rate. (4, Ref. 3, response time, ramp-forced) which a device may be subjected between the time

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 73

of construction and the time of installation. Also Variable, ultimately controlled. The variable whose con-
included are the conditions that may exist during trol is the end purpose of the automatic control
shutdown. See Figure 1.3v. Note: No permanent system.
physical damage or impairment of operating char- Velocity limit. A limit that the rate of change of a specified
acteristics shall take place under these conditions, variable may not exceed. (Ref. 8)
but minor adjustments may be needed to restore Velocity limiting control. See control, velocity limiting.
performance to normal. (8) Vibration. A periodic motion or oscillation of an element,
Transverse interference. See interference, normal-mode. device, or system. Note 1: Vibration is caused by
Two-position controller. See controller, two-position. any excitation that displaces some or all of a partic-
Ultimately controlled variable. See variable, ultimately ular mass from its position of equilibrium. The
controlled. resulting vibration is the attempt of the forces, acting
Undamped frequency. See frequency, undamped. on and within the mass, to equalize. Note 2: The
Underdamped. See damping. amplitude and duration of any vibration is depen-
Upper range limit. See range limit, upper. dent on the period and amplitude of the excitation
Upper range value. See range value, upper. and is limited by the amount of damping present.
Value, desired. In process instrumentation, the value of Voltage, common-mode. A voltage of the same polarity
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

the controlled variable wanted or chosen. Note: The on both sides of a differential input relative to
desired value equals the ideal value in an idealized ground. See Figure 1.3cc.
system. (8) Voltage, normal-mode. A voltage induced across the
Value, ideal. In process instrumentation, the value of the input terminals of a device. See Figure 1.3dd.
indication, output, or ultimately controlled variable Warm-up period. The time required after energizing a
of an idealized device or system. Note: It is assumed device before its rated performance characteristics
that an ideal value can always be defined even apply. (8)
though it may be impossible to achieve. (8) Zero adjustment. See adjustment, zero.
Value, measured. The numerical quantity resulting, at the Zero-based conformity. See conformity, zero-based.
instant under consideration, from the information Zero-based linearity. See linearity, zero-based.
obtained by a measuring device. (Ref. 16) Zero-elevation. For an elevated-zero range, the amount
Value, rms (root-mean-square value). The square root of by which the measured variable zero exceeds the
the average of the squares of the instantaneous val-
ues. Note:
+
12
1 to + T

rms value =
T
to
x 2 dt

1.3(12)
Input Device

where
x is the instantaneous value +
to is any value of time CMV
T is the observation period (4)

Variable, directly controlled. In a control loop, the vari-
able whose value is sensed to originate a feedback
signal. (4, 8) FIG. 1.3cc
Common mode voltage.
Variable, indirectly controlled. A variable that does not
originate a feedback signal but is related to and
influenced by the directly controlled variable. (4, 8) +
Variable, manipulated. A quantity or condition that is
varied as a function of the actuating error signal so +
as to change the value of the directly controlled
Input NMV Device
variable. (4, 8)
Variable, measured. A quantity, property, or condition

that is measured. Note 1: It is sometimes referred
to as the measurand. Note 2: Common measured
variables are temperature, pressure, rate of flow, FIG. 1.3dd
thickness, speed, and others. (Ref. 8) Normal mode voltage.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 74 General Considerations

accuracy, measured
dead band
drift, point
hysteresis
linearity, independent
Output

linearity, terminal-based
linearity, zero-based
repeatability
Dead Zone reproducibility

Tests described are for determination of static, not

Input
dynamic, performance characteristics. When relating perfor-
Fig. 1.3ee mance characteristics such as values of accuracy to values
Dead zone. of other terms such as linearity, hysteresis, dead band, and
repeatability, equivalent units must be used.
The accuracy rating of reference measuring means as
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

lower range value. It may be expressed either in related to the characteristics being tested shall, preferably, be
units of measured variable or in percent of span. (8) no greater than one-tenth the tolerance allowed on the test
device, but in any case not greater than one-third the allowed
Zero error. See error, zero.
tolerance.
Zero frequency gain. See gain, zero frequency.
Zero shift. Any parallel shift of the inputoutput curve.
Example: dead band
See Figure 1.3bb.
Test device, allowed dead band 0.2%
Zero suppression. For a suppressed-zero range, the amount
Measuring device, preferred dead band 0.02%
by which measured variable zero falls below the
Measuring device, allowed dead band 0.06%
lower range value. It may be expressed either in units
of the measured variable or in percent of span. (8)
When the accuracy rating of the reference measuring
Zone. On a multiposition controller, the range of input
means is one-tenth or less than that of the device under test,
values between selected switching points or any
the accuracy rating of the reference measuring means may
switching point and range limit. See Figure 1.3l. (8)
be ignored. When the accuracy rating of the reference mea-
Zone, dead. (1) For a multiposition controller, a zone of
suring means is one-third or less but greater than one-tenth
input in which no value of the output exists. It is
that of the device under test, the accuracy rating of the
usually intentional and adjustable. See Figure 1.3m.
reference measuring means shall be taken into account.
(Ref. 8) (2) A predetermined range of input through
The device under test and the associated test equipment
which the output remains unchanged, irrespective
shall be allowed to stabilize under steady-state operating
of the direction of change of the input signal. See
conditions. All testing shall be done under these conditions.
Figure 1.3ee. The notes apply to definition (2) only.
The operating conditions that would influence the test shall
Note 1: There is but one input-output relationship,
be observed and recorded. If the performance characteristic
as shown in Figure 1.3ee. Note 2: Dead zone pro-
being determined requires reference operating conditions, the
duces no phase lag between input and output.
conditions of test shall be maintained at reference operating
Zone, intermediate. Any zone not bounded by a range
conditions.
limit. (8)
The number of test points to determine the desired
Zone, live. A zone in which a value of the output exists. (8)
performance characteristic of a device should be distributed
Zone, neutral. A predetermined range of input values in
over the range. They should include points at or near (within
which the previously existing output value is not
10%) the lower and upper range values. There should not
changed. See Figure 1.3o. (Ref. 4)
be less than five points, and preferably more. The number
and location of these test points should be consistent with
the degree of exactness desired and the characteristics being
TEST PROCEDURES evaluated.
Before recording observations, the device under test shall
The purpose of the test procedures, as described herein, is to be exercised by a number of full range traverses in each
illustrate and clarify accuracy-related terms. It is intended direction.
only that the procedures indicate a generalized method of At each point being observed, the input shall be held
test. The test procedures that follow are for the following steady until the device under test becomes stabilized at its
terms: apparent final value.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 75

Tapping or vibrating the device under test is not allowed number of calibration cycles. It is the greatest pos-
unless the performance characteristic under study requires itive and negative deviation of the recorded values
such action. (from both an upscale and a downscale output
traverse) from the reference or zero deviation line.
Calibration Cycle Measured accuracy may be expressed as a plus and
minus percentage of ideal output span. Example:
Maintain test conditions and precondition the test device as
The measured accuracy is +0.26% to 0.32% of
indicated above in the introduction. Observe and record out-
output span.
put values for each desired input value for one full-range
Dead band. Maintain test conditions and precondition the
traverse in each direction starting near the mid-range value.
test device as indicated in the introduction and pro-
The final input must be approached from the same direction
ceed as follows:
as the initial input. Apply the input in such a way as to not
overshoot each input value. 1. Slowly vary (increase or decrease) the input to
the device being tested until a detectable output
Calibration Curve change is observed.
2. Observe the input value.
For the purpose of the following test procedures, the calibra- 3. Slowly vary the input in the opposite direction
tion curve will be prepared as a deviation plot. Determine
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(decrease or increase) until a detectable output

the difference between each observed output value and its change is observed.
corresponding ideal output value. This difference is the devi- 4. Observe the input value.
ation and may be expressed as a percent of ideal output span.
The deviation is plotted vs. input or ideal output. Figure 1.3ff
The increment through which the input signal is varied
illustrates percent deviation plotted vs. percent input. A pos-
(difference between steps 2 and 4) is the dead band. It is
itive deviation denotes that the observed output value is
determined from a number of cycles (steps 1 through 4).
greater than the ideal output value.
The maximum value is reported. The dead band should be
Test Procedures determined at a number of points to make certain that the
maximum dead band has been observed. Dead band may
Accuracy, measured. Measured accuracy may be deter- be expressed as a percent of input span.
mined from the deviation values (Table 1.3gg) of a Example: The dead band is 0.10% of input span.

0.4
1 Independent Linearity = 0.18%

0.3 2 Terminal Based Linearity = 0.28%

Downscale Average 3 Zero Based Linearity = 0.21%

0.2
Deviation, Percent of True Output Span

Average

Terminal Based
Straight Line
0.1 3 1

0 1

Zero Based 2 3
Straight Line 1
0.1
Independent
Upscale Straight Line
Average
0.2

0.3
Finish Cycle Start Cycle

0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Input

FIG. 1.3ff
Calibration curve (of data from Table 1.3gg).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 76 General Considerations

TABLE 1.3gg
Calibration Report (see Fig. 1.3ff)
ERROR
Input Up Down Up Down Up Down Up Up Down Up Average
Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Average Average Average Error
% % % % % % % % % % % %
0 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.05
10 +0.14 +0.04 +0.15 +0.05 +0.16 +0.06 +0.15 +0.05 +0.10
20 +0.23 +0.08 +0.26 +0.09 +0.26 +0.13 +0.25 +0.10 +0.175
30 +0.24 +0.09 +0.25 +0.10 +0.26 +0.11 +0.25 +0.10 +0.175
40 +0.13 0.07 +0.15 0.04 +0.17 0.04 +0.15 0.05 +0.05
50 0.18 0.02 0.16 +0.01 0.13 +0.01 0.13 0.15 0 0.15 0.075
60 0.27 0.12 0.25 0.10 0.23 0.08 0.25 0.10 0.175
70 0.32 0.17 0.30 0.16 0.28 0.12 0.30 0.15 0.225
80 0.27 0.17 0.26 0.15 0.22 0.13 0.25 0.15 0.20
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90 0.16 0.06 0.15 0.05 0.14 0.04 0.15 0.05 0.10

100 +0.09 +0.11 +0.10 +0.10 +0.10

Measured Accuracy = +0.26%

0.32% Note: Accuracy of reference measuring means was not
Hysteresis plus Dead Band = +0.22% considered in the determination of the average error.
Repeatability = 0.05%

Drift, point. Maintain test conditions and precondition as a percentage of ideal output span. Example: The
the test device as indicated in the introduction and hysteresis is 0.12% of output span.
proceed as follows: Linearity, independent. Independent linearity may be
1. Adjust the input to the desired value without over- determined directly from the calibration curve
shoot and record the output value. Note: The test (Figure 1.3ff) using the following procedure:
device should be permitted to warm up (if 1. Plot a deviation curve, which is the average of
required) before recording the initial output value. the corresponding upscale and downscale output
2. Maintain a fixed input signal and fixed operating readings.
conditions for the duration of the test. 2. Draw a straight line through the average devia-
3. At the end of the specified time interval, observe tion curve so as to minimize the maximum devi-
and record the output value. ation. It is not necessary that the straight line be
horizontal or pass through the end points of the
In evaluating the results of this test, it is presumed that
average deviation curve.
the dead band is either negligible or of such a nature that it
will not affect the value of drift. Independent linearity is the maximum deviation between
Point drift is the maximum change in recorded output the average deviation curve and the straight line. It is deter-
value observed during the test period. It is expressed as a mined from the deviation plots of a number of calibration
percentage of ideal output span for a specified time period. cycles. It is measured in terms of independent nonlinearity
Example: The point drift is 0.1% of output span for a 24-h as a plus or minus percentage of ideal output span. Example:
test. The ideal independent linearity is 0.18% of output span.
Hysteresis. Hysteresis results from the inelastic quality of Note: The average deviation curve is based on the average
an element or device. Its effect is combined with the of corresponding upscale and downscale readings. This per-
effect of dead band. The sum of the two effects may mits observation of independent linearity independent of
be determined directly from the deviation values dead band or hysteresis. This concept assumes that, if no
(Table 1.3gg) of a number of test cycles and is the hysteresis or dead band were present, the deviation curve
maximum difference between corresponding upscale would be a single line midway between upscale and down-
and downscale outputs for any single test cycle. Hys- scale curves.
teresis then is determined by subtracting the value of
dead band from the corresponding value of hysteresis Linearity, terminal-based. Terminal-based linearity may
plus dead band for a given input. The maximum dif- be determined directly from the calibration curve
ference is reported. The difference may be expressed (Figure 1.3ff) using the following procedure:

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 77

1. Plot a deviation curve, which is the average of Reproducibility.

corresponding upscale and downscale output
readings. 1. Perform a number of calibration cycles as described
2. Draw a straight line such that it coincides with under Calibration Cycle.
the average deviation curve at the upper range 2. Prepare a calibration curve based on the maximum dif-
value and the lower range value. ference between all upscale and downscale readings for
each input observed. The deviation values are deter-
Terminal-based linearity is the maximum deviation between mined from the number of calibration cycles performed
the average deviation curve and the straight line. It is deter- for step 1 above. See section titled Calibration Curve.
mined from the deviation plots of a number of calibration 3. Maintain the test device in its regular operating con-
cycles. It is measured in terms of terminal-based nonlinearity dition, energized and with an input signal applied.
as a plus or minus percentage of ideal output span. Example: 4. At the end of the specified time, repeat steps 1 and 2.
The terminal-based linearity is 0.28% of output span. Note:
The average deviation curve is based on the average of cor- The test operating conditions may vary over the time
responding upscale and downscale readings. This permits interval between measurements if they stay within the normal
observation of terminal-based linearity independent of dead operating conditions of the test device. Tests under step 4
band or hysteresis. This concept assumes that, if no hysteresis above must be performed under the same operating condi-
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

or dead band were present, the deviation curve would be a tions that existed for the initial tests.
single line midway between upscale and downscale readings. Reproducibility is the maximum difference between re-
corded output values (both upscale and downscale) for a
Linearity, zero-based. Zero-based linearity may be deter-
given input value. Considering all input values observed, the
mined directly from the calibration curve (Figure
1.3ff) using the following procedure: maximum difference is reported. The difference is expressed
1. Plot a deviation curve, which is the average of as a percentage of output span per specified time interval.
corresponding upscale and downscale output Example: The reproducibility is 0.2% of output span for a
readings. 30-day test.
2. Draw a straight line such that it coincides with the
average deviation curve at the lower range value References
(zero) and minimizes the maximum deviation.
1. American National Standard C39.21964, Direct-Acting Electrical
Zero-based linearity is the maximum deviation between Recording Instruments (Switchboard and Portable Types).
the average deviation curve and the straight line. It is deter- 2. American National Standard C39.41966, Specifications for Automatic
mined from the deviation plots of a number of calibration Null-Balancing Electrical Measuring Instruments.
cycles. It is measured in terms of zero-based linearity as a 3. American National Standard C42.1001972, Dictionary of Electrical
plus or minus percentage of the ideal output span. Example: and Electronics Terms.
4. American National Standard C85.11963, Terminology for Automatic
The zero-based linearity is 0.21% of output span. Note: The
Control.
average deviation curve is based on the average of corre- 5. American National Standard C85.1a-1966, C85.11963, Automatic
sponding upscale and downscale readings. This permits Control Terminology (suppl.).
observation of zero-based linearity independent of dead band 6. American National Standard C85.lb-1966, C85.11963, Automatic
or hysteresis. This concept assumes that, if no hysteresis or Control Terminology (suppl.).
dead band were present, the deviation curve would be a single 7. American National Standard MC96.11975, Temperature Measure-
line midway between upscale and downscale readings. ment Thermocouples.
8. Scientific Apparatus Makers Association Standard PMC20.11973,
Repeatability. Repeatability may be determined directly Process Measurement and Control Terminology.
from the deviation values (Table 1.3gg) of a number 9. ISA-RP12.11960, Electrical Instruments in Hazardous Atmospheres.
10. ISA-RP12.21965, Intrinsically Safe and Non-Incendive Electrical
of calibration cycles. It is the closeness of agreement Instruments.
among a number of consecutive measurements of 11. ISA-S37.11969, Electrical Transducer Nomenclature and Terminology.
the output for the same value of input approached 12. ISA-S60.71975 (draft standard), Control Center Construction.
from the same direction. Fixed operation conditions 13. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, IEEE 279.
must be maintained. 14. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 493.
15. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 501.
Observe the maximum difference in percentage deviation 16. International Electrotechnical Commission, International Electrotech-
for all values of output considering upscale and downscale nical Vocabulary Publication 50(37)-1966, Automatic Controlling and
curves separately. The maximum value from either upscale Regulating Systems.
17. International Electrotechnical Commission, International Electrotech-
or downscale curve is reported.
nical Vocabulary Draft Chapter 351 (1037)-1972, Automatic Control
Repeatability is the maximum difference in percentage and Regulation-Servomechanisms.
deviation observed above and is expressed as a percent of output 18. International Electrotechnical Commission Technical Committee 65-
span. Example: The repeatability is 0.05% of output span. Working Group 2 (IEC/TC65/WG2), Service Conditions.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.4 System Accuracy*
B. G. LIPTK (1982, 1995, 2003)

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS Reproducibility (ISA). In process instrumentation, the

closeness of agreement among repeated measure-
Accuracy (Webster). Freedom from error or the absence of ments of the output for the same value of input
error. Syn. precision, correctness, exactness. (In this made under the same operating conditions over a
sense, the term is a qualitative, not quantitative, concept.) period of time, approaching from both directions.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Accuracy (ISA). In process instrumentation, degree of con- Reproducibility (NIST). Closeness of agreement between
formity of an indicated value to a recognized accepted the results of measurements of the same measurand
standard value, or ideal value. carried out under changed conditions of measurement.
Accuracy, measured (ISA). The maximum positive and Uncertainty (Webster). A feeling of unsureness about
negative deviation observed in testing a device under something.
specified conditions and by a specified procedure. Uncertainty (IEH Section 1.5). Measurement uncertainty is
Accuracy of measurement (NIST). Closeness of the expressed to a confidence level of 95%, and it is the
agreement between the result of a measurement and limit to which an error may extend.
the value of the measurand. Because accuracy is
a quantitative concept, one should not use it quan- Language, Terminology, and Reality
titatively or associate numbers with it. (NIST also
The guide titled International Vocabulary of Basic and Gen-
advises that neither precision nor inaccuracy should
eral Terms in Metrology (commonly referred to as VIM ) was
be used in place of accuracy.) published by ISO in the name of seven organizations and
Error (ISA). In process instrumentation, the algebraic dif- contains the VIM definitions of 24 terms relevant to measure-
ference between the indication and the ideal value ment and accuracy. So, from a theoretical point of view, we
of the measured signal. It is the quantity that, alge- do have standards and internationally agreed upon definitions.
braically subtracted from the indication, gives the But the reality in the average industrial plant is different,
ideal value. and this Instrument Engineers Handbook is written for the
Range (ISA). The region between the limits within which average instrumentation and control (I&C) engineer in those
a quantity is measured, received, or transmitted, plants. Therefore, when we quantify an error herein, which
expressed by stating the lower and upper range values. one should expect when making a measurement with a par-
Rangeability (recommended by IEH). Rangeability of a ticular instrument, we will not (yet) use terms such as uncer-
sensor is the measurement range over which the error tainty but will try to stay on familiar grounds. On the other
statement, in the units of a percentage of actual read- hand, we will try to take a step in the right direction by
ing, is guaranteed. improving the clarity of our language.
Repeatability (ISA). The closeness of agreement among a When an instrument is specified to have 1% accuracy,
number of consecutive measurements of the output people do not expect it to have 99% error! The intended mean-
for the same value of the input under the same oper- ing of that statement is 1% inaccuracy or a 1% error relative
ating conditions, approaching from the same direc- to some reference standard. It is important to emphasize the
tion, for full-range traverses. role of a reference standard in all measurements, as we humans
Repeatability (NIST). Closeness of agreement between are incapable of measuring anything in the absolute. All we
the results of successive measurements of the same can do is compare an unknown quantity to a known one and
measurand carried out under the same conditions of determine which is larger or smaller and by how much. The
measurement .... Repeatability may be expressed presence of a reference also means that a measurement can be
quantitatively in terms of the dispersion character- in error not only because the sensor is inaccurate but also
istics of the results. because the reference has drifted or was inaccurate to start with.

* Used with permission of the Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society.

78
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.4 System Accuracy 79

CLARIFYING THE ACCURACY STATEMENT

Bias

In a volume dealing with process measurement, no subject

is more deserving of in-depth evaluation than the error that 50% of Area 0.67 True Value

is inherent in all measurement. Good control is possible only

68.3% of Area 1
if the controlled variable is precisely measured. Yet the term
accuracy (or, more precisely, inaccuracy or uncertainty)
itself is poorly defined, frequently misunderstood, and often
used as a sales gimmick. Consequently, use of this term cries
Precision 95% of Area 2
out for international standardization and, as was noted above,
ISO has already prepared such standards. The need for clar- 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
ity of language and standardization exists for the following 0.67 0.67
Total Uncertainty
reasons:
FIG. 1.4a
1. When the error or inaccuracy of an instrument is stated In any measurement, the total uncertainty (total error) is the sum of
to be 1%, one would assume that this statement refers the sensors random error (precision) and its systematic error (bias).
to the actual measurementthe actual reading. One
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would assume that, if this particular instrument hap-

4. Yet another source of confusion is the fact that, when
pens to read 100, the true value of that measurement
the error of 100 sensors is tested, the results fall onto
must fall between 99 and 101, but this frequently is
a bell curve (Figure 1.4a). It would be desirable to
not the case. Some manufacturers express their error
reach international agreement so that all error state-
statements (inaccuracy percentages) on the basis of
ments would always be based on the performance of at
percent of actual span, while others might base it on
least 95% of the units tested. In addition, an error state-
percent of full scale, percent of range, or percent
ment should always state if it is based on self-evaluation
of upper range value, and so on. This inconsistency
performed by the supplier or on an evaluation by an
is undesirable, because it is confusing. It would be
independent testing laboratory and, in the latter case, if
better if all measurement error statements always
the test report is available for review.
referred to the actual measurement.
2. To make error statements expressed as percentages of
If the above four recommendations were universally
the actual measurement truly meaningful, the state-
accepted, the subject of sensor error and inaccuracy would
ment should also specify the measurement range over
be much less confusing. While this is not likely to occur soon,
which the statement holds true. This would be a simple
a better understanding of the factors that cause the present
matter if all manufacturers agreed to define rangeabil-
state of confusion should be helpful, because it can speed
ity as the measurement range over which their error
the development of universal standards for sensor error and
statement (as a percentage of actual reading units) is
performance.
guaranteed. This approach would allow all sensor inac-
curacies to be stated on the same basis and therefore
would eliminate the confusion. If all detector inaccura-
cies were stated as x% of actual reading throughout TERMINOLOGY OF INACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
the range of y, users could be comparing apples with
apples when comparing bids, and the room for cre- The purpose of all measurement is to obtain the true value
ative specmanship would at least be reduced. of the quantity being measured, and error is thought of as
3. Further confusion occurs because different manufactur- the difference between the measured and the true quantity.
ers include different factors in their error statements. Because it is impossible to measure a value without some
Most suppliers include only linearity, rangeability, and uncertainty, it is equally impossible to know the exact size
hysteresis errors in their total error statement; they list of the error. What is possible is to state the limits within
the error contributions caused by drift, temperature which the true value of a measurement will fall.
effects, overrange, power supply, humidity, RFI, and The accuracy-related terminology used in the process
vibration separately. Actually, some manufacturers control industry can be illustrated by an example of target
claim an apparent increase in accuracy not by improving shooting (Figure 1.4b). The spread of the nine shots fired into
precision but by considering fewer and fewer effects in the upper right-hand corner of the target in a tight pattern
the total error statement. Naturally, to reverse this trend, represents the random error of the shooter. Looking at the
international agreement is needed with regard to the penetration of the bullets, one can say that his shooting is
amount of variation (in ambient temperature, power repeatable and precise, but precision alone does not guarantee
supply, and others) that the manufacturers error state- accuracy; it is only the measure of the ability of the shooter,
ments must include. which is called random error.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 80 General Considerations

THE ACCURACY STATEMENT

Repeatability
Random Error
The accuracy of a product category (sensors, transmitters,
(Precision)
and so on) is established on the basis of testing large numbers
Systematic of these products. For the more important sensors, the accu-
Error 1
racy statements should also include information on testing.
(Bias)
An example of such a statement is quoted below from a
National Bureau of Standards Calibration Certificate for a
turbine flowmeter:

The results given are the arithmetic mean of ten separate

observations, taken in groups of five successive runs on
two different days. The reported values have an estimated
overall uncertainty of 0.13%, based on a standard error
of 0.01% and an allowance of 0.1% for possible sys-
tematic error.
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Total
Illegitimate Error Figure 1.4a illustrates the results of such a test. In that test,
Error (Inaccuracy) the precision (half of repeatability) of 68% of the devices tested
has been found to be 1% of the true value, while, for 95%
FIG. 1.4b
Accuracy terminology. of the devices, it fell within 2%, and, for all 100% of the
devices, it amounted to 3%. The total error (total uncertainty)
is the sum of precision plus bias, which is the systematic error
of the bell curve itself. Because the bias can be reduced by
The distance between the mean impact of the nine bullets calibration and rezeroing, but the precision (or repeatability)
and the bulls-eye of the target is the systematic error. This cannot, it would be desirable if manufacturers identified both
error (caused by the wind or by the faulty adjustments of the of these values. Manufacturers should also state if the basis of
sights) is repeatable and can be eliminated (in case of sensors, this data is 68, 95, or 100% of the devices tested. To allow the
by calibration or by rezeroing; in case of the shooter, by I&C profession to mature, manufacturers should eliminate
waiting until the wind stops or by readjusting the sights). This specmanship from their sales literature, so that users can
error is not related to the shooters inability to duplicate his compare apples with apples when making a selection.
shots. Systematic error is also referred to as bias, which is the
systematic displacement of the measured value from the true
one. It can be reduced by recalibrating the sensor against a
reference standard, such as a calibrated (standard) thermal FLOW MEASUREMENT EXAMPLE
element, a known composition analytical sample, or dead
weights. Figure 1.4c illustrates three flow sensors installed in series
The shot in the lower left-hand corner of the target is an in the same process pipe, with each measurement signal being
illegitimate error, which is caused by blunders and can be totalized. All three flow sensors are sized for the same full
totally eliminated. range of 100 GPM (380 l/min) flow rate. The goal of this
The total error in a measurement can thus be defined as example is to illustrate how the total system error is determined
the sum of the random error and the systematic error or bias. at the flow rates of 20 GPM (76 l/min) and 80 GPM (304
If the purpose of an installation is to maintain the process l/min) in two different cases. In Case 1, the basic assumption
conditions at previously experienced levels, and there is no is that the component errors are additive. In Case 2, the assump-
interest in their true values, then the goal is to reduce the tion is that the total system error will be the error of the least
random error, without paying much attention to the remaining precise component in the system. Errors introduced by counter-
bias. In many industrial installations, such a repeatable (but totalizers, which is usually one count, will be neglected.
inaccurate) measurement is sufficient. For the purposes of the example of Figure 1.4c, the mag-
Conversely, if the interest is in determining the true value netic flowmeter, transmitters, and integrators will all have
of the measurement, because the installation serves such 0.5% full-scale (FS) error. The orifice plate will be assumed
absolute purposes as accounting or quality control, the repeat- to have an inaccuracy of 0.5% of rate and the error of the
able measurement is insufficient, and attention must be con- turbine flowmeter will be assumed to have an inaccuracy of
centrated on absolute (total) accuracy. This can be obtained 0.25%. (The orientation table in Chapter 2 [Table 2.1b]
only through the reduction of both the random and the sys- provides complete data for all flow sensors, including their
tematic errors, which is usually achieved by recalibration. performance characteristics.)

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.4 System Accuracy 81

Scaler Flow Sensor

FQI FQI FQI
and
The
Output
Totalizer Totalizer (GPM or %)
Inaccuracy
of These
FQ FQ Devices is 100
I Count
The
Inaccuracy Integrators
of These FY 80
Inaccuracy is
Expressed
xpresssed as Actual
As 0.5% of FT
% of Actual
Full Scale 60
Measurement
Range FT

Ideal
40
Flow
FEM
(0100 GPM)

Linear Nonlinear Linear 20

Analog Analog Digital
System System System Actual Flow
(Magnetic (Orifice (Turbine 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 (GPM or %)
Flowmeter) Plate) Flowmeter)
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FIG. 1.4c FIG. 1.4d

Errors of the components of three different flow totalization loops. Performance of a linear analog flow sensor, such as a magnetic
flowmeter.

In the more detailed discussion that follows, it will be shown Flow Sensor Error
that the overall system error can be much greater than the com- Based on Full Scale
ponent errors. It will be shown that, at 20% of full-scale flow, (GPM or %)
the error of a turbine flowmeter will be around 0.25% of actual
flow, the error of a magnetic flowmeter might range from 3% 1.5
+
to 9% of actual flow, and the measurement error of an orifice-
based measurement error will range from 5 to 12% of actual rate. 1.0
Limit of Error
The 0.5% maximum inaccuracy (some based on actual
readings, others on full-scale readings) was selected to reflect 0.5
the typical installations in the existing plants. Today, when
Actual
smart transmitters and improved sensors are available, one 0
can select more accurate system components, some with max-
imum errors of 0.1% of actual span. Here, we will assume Ideal
0.5
that the maximum error of any of the system components is
Limit of Error
0.5% and, based on that assumption, we will determine the
1.0
resulting total system error. The performance of analog and dig-
ital, linear and nonlinear devices will be discussed separately.
1.5 Actual Flow
20 40 60 80 100 (GPM or %)

Analog and Linear DevicesTraditional FIG. 1.4e

Magnetic Flowmeters Error plot for a percentage of full-scale flow sensor.
The performance of a linear analog flow sensor, such as a
magnetic flowmeter, is shown in Figure 1.4d. The line It should be noted that the performance described here
marked actual represents the relationship between the is representative of the older designs of magnetic flowmeters,
actual flow and the output signal generated by the flow sensor. which continuously maintained their magnetic fields. In the
Figure 1.4e illustrates this error as a percentage of full scale newer designs, the field is cycled on and off, and the sensor
(FS), with the error limits being 0.5% FS. can be automatically rezeroed, so the measurement error can
In Figure 1.4f, the same 0.5% FS sensor performance be reduced. Therefore, the inaccuracy of these newer mag-
is illustrated, but against a vertical coordinate that is a per- netic flowmeters can approach 0.5% of actual flow.
centage of actual flow units (instead of full scale). The spe-
cific detector performance is likely to be better at most points Analog, NonlinearOrifice Plates
of its range than what these error limits would imply. The
main message is that, for sensor with percent-FS perfor- The orifice plate itself is rather accurate and is a percent-of-
mance, the measurement error increases as the flow rate actual-flow sensor, having an error limit of 0.5% of actual
drops, as shown in Figure 1.4g. flow rate, as shown in Figure 1.4h.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 82 General Considerations

Flow Sensor Error Inaccuracy Based on

Based on % of Actual Actual Reading
Flow Rate Reading (%) ( %)

1.5 5
+ Limit of Error

1.0 4

0.5 3
Actual

0 2

Ideal
0.5 1
0.50 % of Measurement

0 Actual Flow
1.0 (GPM or %)
0 20 40 60 80 100

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Limit of Error
1.5 Actual Flow
(GPM or %) FIG. 1.4h
20 40 60 80 100
The error contribution of the orifice plate alone.
FIG. 1.4f
The error of a linear flow sensor shown in units of percentage of
full-scale flow.
Desired Measurement,
Flow (%)
Inaccuracy Based on Actual
Flow Rate Reading 100
( %)
Actual
80
5
Ideal
60
4

40
3

20 Actual
2 Measurement,
Orifice
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 Pressure
1
Drop (%)
Actual Flow
0 FIG. 1.4i
0 20 40 60 80 100 (GPM or %)
Performance of an orifice type nonlinear analog flow sensor.

FIG. 1.4g
The error of a linear flow sensor shown in units of percentage of
actual flow. the error contribution (the gain effect) of this extraction
must also be recognized. Figure 1.4j illustrates that this
extraction of the square root improves the accuracy at the
The pressure drop through an orifice relates to the square higher flow rates but degrades it as the flow rate is reduced.
of the flowing velocity or volumetric flow rate through the
orifice plate. Figure 1.4i illustrates both, i.e., this ideal non-
Digital LinearTurbine Flowmeter
linear (square root) relationship and the actual performance
of a specific differential-pressure (d/p) cell used in an orifice The calibration of a turbine meter in terms of the K factor,
type, nonlinear flow sensor. given in units of pulses per gallon, is rather similar to the
To the error contribution of the orifice plate shown in calibration curve of an orifice plate (Figure 1.4k). The inaccu-
Figure 1.4h (0.5% of actual flow rate), one must add the error racy of a turbine meter is also in units of percentage of the
of the differential-pressure transmitter shown in Figure 1.4i actual flow and is rather constant over a fairly wide range of
(0.5% FS). In addition, when the square root must be flows. Turbine flowmeter inaccuracy can be improved by
extracted before the signal can be integrated (Figure 1.4c), reducing the rangeability requirement of the unit (Figure 1.4l).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.4 System Accuracy 83

Inaccuracy Based on Inaccuracy Based

Actual Reading on Actual Reading
( %) ( %)

5 2.5

4 2.0

3 1.5
Nonlinear

2 1.0

Linear 0.5% at 30:1 Rangeability

1 0.5
0.25% at 10:1 Rangeability
Actual Flow
0 Actual Flow 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 (GPM or %)
0 20 40 60 80 100 (GPM or %)
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FIG. 1.4j FIG. 1.4l

Comparing the inaccuracies of linear and a nonlinear flowmeter. Turbine flowmeter inaccuracy as a function of rangeability.

Turbine Meter TABLE 1.4m

K Factor System Inaccuracy (Total Loop Error) in Units of Percentage
(Pulses/Gallon) of Actual Readings

Assumption Used to
Basis 1 Basis 2
Estimate Accumulated
System Inaccuracy Operating Flow Rate (GPM)
Limit of Error Type of flow
detection loop 20 80 20 80

Mean K Analog, linear 9.0% 1.5% 3.0% 0.5%

(magnetic flowmeter)
Analog, nonlinear 12.0% 2.0% 5.0% 0.5%
(orifice flowmeter)
Limit of Error
Actual Digital, linear 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25%
Actual Flow (turbine flowmeter)
5 10 20 50 100 (GPM or %)

FIG. 1.4k the error is reduced by the square root of the number of sensors
Turbine flowmeter calibration curve. in parallel. So, if two sensor outputs (each having a 1% error)
are averaged, the error will be reduced to 1/ 2 = 0.7% (and
with three outputs, to 0.58%, with four outputs, to 0.5%, and
Combined System Accuracy
so on).
Having reviewed the inaccuracies of the three flow sensors Without actual system calibration, the evaluation of the
and the various loop components shown in Figure 1.4c, the overall loop accuracy must be based on some assumptions.
next step is to evaluate the resulting total loop errors. There Table 1.4m summarizes the system inaccuracies for the three
is no proven basis for determining the accumulative effect of loops in Figure 1.4c at 20 and 80% of flow rate and by evaluat-
component inaccuracies, and only an actual system calibra- ing the accumulated effect of component inaccuracies on the
tion can reliably establish the total loop inaccuracy. basis of one of two assumptions:
Still, we have learned the following from experience. We
know that, the fewer the number of components in an analog Basis 1 Here, it is assumed that the inaccuracy of each
measurement loop, the better the loops performance. In dig- component is additive, and therefore the total loop inaccuracy
ital systems, no additional error seems to be introduced by is the sum of component inaccuracies (a very conservative
the addition of functional modules. basis).
It has also been reported that the averaging of the outputs
of several sensors that are detecting the same process variable Basis 2 Here, the assumption is that the system inaccuracy
will reduce the measurement error. These reports suggest that is the same as the inaccuracy of the least accurate component

2003 by Bla Liptk

 84 General Considerations

and therefore other inaccuracies can be neglected (a very TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS
optimistic assumption).
If Basis 1 is accepted for evaluating the total system error, If a sensor such as a d/p cell has been tested at temperatures
an orifice-type installation operating at 20% of full-scale flow and pressures that differ from the operating temperature and
will have an error of 12% of the reading, although the inac- pressure, this will affect the total error. The total error includes
curacy of any component in the loop does not exceed 0.5% FS. the d/p cell error (E), which is determined under atmospheric
The data in Table 1.4m is based on the performance of ambient conditions. Therefore, E reflects the linearity, repeat-
conventional d/p transmitters and on conventional magnetic ability, and hysteresis errors of the sensor.
flowmeters. With the newer, pulsed DC magnetic flowmeters, For the purposes of this example, it is assumed that E =
the error can be reduced to 0.5% of actual flow over a 10:1 0.2% of actual span. Other factors that affect the total error
range. Similarly, if the intelligent, multiple-range d/p cells include the zero (Tz) and span shifts (Ts) that might occur as
are used, orifice measurement error can be reduced to 1% a result of temperature variations. For a temperature variation
2
of actual flow over a 10:1 range. To achieve this level of of 100F (55C), Tz is assumed to be 0.5% of maximum
performance, it is necessary to automatically switch the d/p range, while Ts is assumed to be 0.5% of actual reading.
cell span from its high to its low setting, based on the The effect of changes in static pressure on the zero and
actual flow measurement. span are noted by Pz and Ps. They are evaluated as the con-
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If the conventional magnetic flowmeters and d/p cells are sequence of the physical distortion caused by 2000 psig (138
considered, and if they are evaluated on a basis that is slightly bars) of operating pressure. For the purposes of this example,
more conservative than Basis 2 but less conservative than it will be assumed that Pz = 0.25% of maximum range, and
Basis 1, the resulting loop errors are as shown in Figure 1.4n. Ps = 0.5% of actual reading.
From the data in Table 1.4m and Figure 1.4n, it can be For the purposes of this example, assume a d/p cell with a
concluded that neither error nor inaccuracy is by any means maximum range of 0 to 750 in (0 to 19 m) H2O and an actual
a clearly defined single number and that the required range- span of 0 to 100 in (0 to 2.54 m) H2O. It is further assumed that
ability of the measurement has a substantial impact on perfor- the actual operating temperature of the d/p cell is within 50F
mance. Therefore, a meaningful accuracy statement should (18C) of the temperature at which the unit was calibrated and
answer the following questions: (1) What portion of the total that the actual operating pressure is 1000 psig (69 bars). When
error is the precision (random error) of the sensor? (2) Is the the process measurement is 100 in. (2.54 m) H2O, the above
sensor error based on full scale (FS) or on actual reading assumptions will result in the following error components:
(AR)? (3) Over what range of measurement values is the
error statement applicable? E =
0.2%
Tz =
0.5 (750 in./100 in.) (50F/100F) = 1.875%
Ts =
0.5 (50F/100F) = 0.25%
Pz =
0.25 (1000 psig/2000 psig) (750 in./100 in.) =
System Inaccuracy Based 0.9375%
on Actual Reading Ps = 0.5 (1000 psig/2000 psig) = 0.25%
( %)

5.0
If we calculate the total error (Et) as being the square
root of the sum of the square of the individual errors, the
result is:
4.0

3.0 Et = (0.22 + 1.8752 + 0.252 + 0.93752 + 0.252 ) = 2.13%

Nonlinear
1.4(1)
2.0

Linear From the above example, one might note that the largest
1.0 contributions to the total error are the zero shifts caused by
Digital
the pressure and temperature differences between the cali-
Actual Flow
bration and the operating conditions. These errors can be
(GPM or %)
0 20 40 60 80 100 reduced by selecting a d/p cell with a maximum range that
is closer to the actual reading. One might also note that the
FIG. 1.4n
total error (Et) would have been even higher if the actual
Total loop inaccuracies as a function of sensor type and flow rate,
calculated on the basis of equation 1.4(1), where the total loop error measurement did not correspond to 100% of the actual span
is obtained by taking the square root of the sum of the component (100 in H2O), but only some fraction of it.
errors squared. (Accuracy in simple flow measurement. TI-1-30a. It should also be noted that the above Et value is not
The Foxboro Company.) the total measurement error of the loop but only the error

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.4 System Accuracy 85

contribution of the d/p cell. Finally, one should note that more accurate than the system being calibrated. (c) Peri-
one advantage of the smart transmitters is their ability to odic recalibration is a prerequisite to good control.
reduce the pressure and temperature effects on the span and 5. Instrumentation worth installing should also be worth
zero. Therefore, if E is 0.1% in an intelligent transmitter, keeping in good condition. The performance of all sen-
the total error Et can be kept within about 0.3%. sors is affected by corrosion, plugging, coating, and
process property variations. Therefore, scheduled main-
tenance is required to guarantee reliable operation.
REPEATABILITY VS. TOTAL ERROR In summary, (a) inaccuracy should be stated as a function
of rangeability, (b) multicomponent systems require system
Based on the information presented above, the following calibration, and (c) maintaining good performance requires
qualitative conclusions can be drawn: periodic recalibration and scheduled maintenance.
1. Inaccuracy is likely to be improved by reducing the
number of components in a measurement loop. References
2. Inaccuracy statements are meaningful only when given
in combination with rangeability. The wider the range- 1. Kemp, R. E., Accuracy for Engineers, Instrumentation Technology,
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

ability required (expected load variations), the more Inc., Painesville, Ohio.
inaccurate the measurement is likely to be. Furthermore, 2. Rudbck, S., Optimization of orifice plates, venturies and nozzles,
the rangeability effect on digital systems is the least; it Meas. Control, June 1991.
increases when linear analog system are used, and it is
the highest in case of nonlinear analog systems.
Bibliography
3. On nonaccounting systems, the interest is focused on
repeatability (random error) and not on total inaccu- Applicable standards: DIN/IEC Standard #770 and ASME PTC19.1.
racy. The repeatability of most measurement loops is Englund, D. R., Loading Effects in Measurement Systems, Instrument and
several-fold better than their total error. Control Syst., February 1970, 6368.
4. Instrumentation worth installing is usually also worth Shinskey, F. G., Estimating System Accuracy, Foxboro Publication #4135,
calibrating. In this regard, several points should be Invensys Systems, Inc., Foxboro, MA.
Taylor, B. N. and Kuyatt, C. E., Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing
made: (a) The accuracy of a multicomponent system the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results, NIST Technical Note
is unknown unless it is calibrated as a system. (b) The 1297, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.
calibration equipment used must be at least three times Vom Berg, H., What is accuracy? Meas. Control, April 1991.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.5 Uncertainty Calculations
R. H. DIECK (2003)

The purpose of this section is to outline the fundamental meth- error with some confidence. That is, the average, plus or minus
ods of measurement uncertainty analysis for use as an objective 2 divided by the square root of the number of data points,
estimator of data quality. These methods apply to all test, eval- would contain the true average, , 95% of the time.
uation, and process data secured by a measurement instrument However, in test measurements, one typically cannot sam-
or system. Some examples are given to clarify the application ple the entire population and must make do with a sample of
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

of the principles presented. data points. The sample standard deviation, SX, is then used
to estimate X. For a large data set (defined as having 30 or
1
more degrees of freedom ) 2SX divided by the square root
UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR of the number of data point e reported average contains the
true average, , 95% of the time. That SX divided by the square
Measurements are made so that the resulting data may be root of the number of data points in the reported average, M,
used for decision-making. In fact, the most fundamental def- is called the standard deviation of the average (sometimes
inition of good data is data that are applicable, or useful, also called the random uncertainty) and is written as
for drawing conclusions or making decisions. Because of
this, no test or evaluation data should be presented or used N

without including its measurement uncertainty. It is a prop-

erly evaluated measurement uncertainty that provides the infor-
(X X )
i =1
i
2

SX = M = SX / M 1.5(2)
mation needed to properly assess the usefulness of data. For N 1
data to be useful, it is necessary that their measurement errors
where
be small in comparison to the changes or effect under eval-
SX = standard deviation of the average; the sample standard
uation. The actual measurement error is unknown and unknow-
deviation of the data divided by the square root of M
able. Measurement uncertainty estimates its limits with some
SX = sample standard deviation
confidence.
Therefore, measurement uncertainty may be defined as X = sample average, that is,
the limits to which a specific error or system error may extend
M

( X /N )
with some confidence. The most commonly used confidence
in uncertainty analysis is 95%, but other confidences may be X= i 1.5(3)
i =1
employed where appropriate. In this section, all examples
will be at 95% confidence.
Xi = ith data point used to calculate the sample
Error is most often defined as the difference between the standard deviation and the average
measured value of one data point and the true value of the N = number of data points used to calculate the
measurand. That is: sample standard deviation
E = (measured) (true) 1.5(1) (N 1) = degrees of freedom of SX and SX
M = the number of data points in the reported
where average test result
E = measurement error
measured = value obtained by a measurement Note in Equation 1.5(3) that, usually, N = M. This is not
true = true value of the measurand a requirement, however. N does not necessarily equal M. It is
possible to obtain SX from historical data with many degrees
It is possible to estimate only the expected limits to an of freedom ((N 1) greater than 30) and to take only M data
error at some confidence. The most common method for points in a specific test. The test result, or average, would
1
estimating those limits is to use the normal distribution. therefore be based on M measurements, and the standard devi-
For an infinite population (N = ), the standard deviation, ation of the average could still be calculated with Equation
, would be used to estimate the expected limits of a particular 1.5(3). In that case, there would be two averages. One average

86
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.5 Uncertainty Calculations 87

would be from the historical data used to calculate the sample where
standard deviation, and the other would be the average test U Ai = standard deviation (based on data) of the average
result for M measurements. for uncertainty source i of Type A each with its own
In summary, the error for any particular error source is degrees of freedom (UA is in units of the test or
unknown and unknowable. To use data for decisions, it is measurement result. It is an SX ).
necessary to estimate the limits to which a particular error may NA = number of parameters of Type A uncertainty
extend with some confidence. This estimate is called the uncer- i = sensitivity (or influence coefficient) of the test or
tainty. Many are familiar with the term accuracy. However, measurement result, R, to the ith Type A uncertainty
accuracy is sometimes ambiguous. For example, if an exper-
imenter needed an instrument with twice the accuracy of 1%, The uncertainty of each error source is in units of that
would that be 0.5% or 2%? For this reason, this section will source. When multiplied by the sensitivity for that source, it
use the term uncertainty throughout to describe the quality of is converted to that uncertainty in result units. The effects of
test data. several error sources may be estimated by root-sum-squaring
their uncertainties, as they are now all in the same units. The
sensitivities, i, are obtained for a measurement result, R,
CLASSIFYING ERROR SOURCES AND THEIR which is a function of several parameters, Pi. The equations
UNCERTAINTIES follow.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

When estimating the limits of errors, their sources may be R = the measurement result where
grouped into classifications to ease their understanding. The R = f(P1, P2, P3...PN)
most common error source and uncertainty classifications P = a measurement parameter used to calculate the
now utilized are the International Standards Organization result, R
2
(ISO) classifications and the United States/American Soci- R
3
ety of Mechanical Engineers (US/ASME) classifications. i =
Pi
The first groups error sources and their uncertainties by a
type designation depending on whether there are data avail- Obtaining the i is often called error propagation or uncer-
able to calculate the sample standard. The second classifica- tainty propagation.
tion groups errors and their uncertainties by their effects on
the experiment or test data. That is, the US/ASME classifi- ISO Type B Uncertainties and Errors For Type B, where
cation groups error sources and uncertainties by random and there are no data to calculate a standard deviation,
systematic types with subscripts used to denote whether there
are data to calculate a standard deviation. For this reason, 1/ 2
NB

( U )
2
the US/ASME, or engineering, classification system groups UB = 1.5(5)
i Bi
usually are more useful and recommended for engineering i =1
applications.
where
U Bi = standard deviation of the average for uncertainty
The ISO Classification of Errors and Uncertainties source i of Type B. (UB is in units of the test or
measurement result, R. It is an SX . This standard
The ISO error and uncertainty classification system is not deviation of the average is an estimate and not based
recommended in this section. However, the total uncertainty on data.)
it yields is in complete agreement with the recommended NB = number of parameters with a Type B uncertainty
classification system, the engineering classification system. i = sensitivity of the test or measurement result to the
In this system, errors and uncertainties are classified as Type ith Type B uncertainty R
A if there are data to calculate a sample standard deviation
2
and Type B if there are not. For these uncertainties, it is assumed that the U Bi represent
The impact of multiple sources of error is estimated by one standard deviation of the average for one uncertainty source
root-sum-squaring their corresponding uncertainties. The with an assumed normal distribution of errors. Here, the degrees
equations follow. of freedom associated with this standard deviation (also stan-
dard deviation of the average) is assumed to be infinity.
ISO Type A Uncertainties and Errors For Type A, where Note that i, the sensitivity of the test or measurement result
data exist for the calculation of a standard deviation, to the ith Type B uncertainty, is actually the change in the result,
R, that would result from a change of the size of the Type B
1/ 2
NA
uncertainty in the ith input parameter used to calculate that result.
( U )
2
UA = i Ai 1.5(4) The degrees of freedom from both the U Ai and the U Bi are
i =1 needed to compute the degrees of freedom of the combined

2003 by Bla Liptk

 88 General Considerations

total uncertainty. The degrees of freedom for this total uncer-

tainty are needed to select a proper Students t for the con- TABLE 1.5a
Students t Statistic for 95% Confidence, t95, Degrees of Freedom,
fidence of interest, usually 95%. Those degrees of freedom
. This is Frequently Written as t95,
are calculated with the WelchSatterthwaite approximation.
4
The general formula for degrees of freedom is t95 t95 t95

1 12.706 11 2.201 21 2.080

2 2 4.303 12 2.179 22 2.074
N 2


( )
SX
i

3 3.182 13 2.160 23 2.069

dfR = R = i =1 1.5(6) 4 2.776 14 2.145 24 2.064

N
( )
4
SX 5 2.571 15 2.131 25 2.060


i =1
i

( i )

6 2.447 16 2.120 26 2.056
7 2.365 17 2.110 27 2.052

8 2.306 18 2.101 28 2.048
9 2.262 19 2.093 29 2.045
where
10 2.228 20 2.086 30 2.000
dfR = R = degrees of freedom for the result
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i = the degrees of freedom of the ith standard deviation

of the average related. That is, if it were possible to know the error in a
measurement from one source, one could calculate or predict
For the ISO model, Equation 1.5(6) becomes an error magnitude and direction from the other nonindepen-
dent error source. These are sometimes called dependent
error sources. Their degree of dependence may be estimated
2
NA NB
with the linear correlation coefficient. If there are some non-
( ) + ( )
2 2
iU Ai iUBi independent errors, whether Type A or Type B, Equation
i =1 i =1 1.5(8) becomes
6
dfR, ISO = R, ISO = 1.5(7)
( )+ ( )
NA U iUBi
4 4
NB


i Ai
(i ) ( i ) B Ni . T
N j ,T

1/ 2

i =1

i =1
U R, ISO = t95 (iUi,T )2 + i jU(i,T ),( j ,T ) (1 i, j )
T = A
i =1 j =1
The degrees of freedom calculated with Equation 1.5(7) 1.5(9)
is often a fraction. The U.S. National Standard on Test
5
Uncertainty recommends that this be truncated to the next
where
lower whole number to be conservative.
Ui,T = ith elemental uncertainty of Type T (can be
In computing a total uncertainty, the uncertainties noted
Type A or B)
by Equations 1.5(5) and 1.5(6) are combined. For the ISO
3 UR,ISO = total uncertainty of the measurement or test
model, this is calculated as
result
i = sensitivity of the test or measurement result to
[ ] the ith Type T uncertainty
1/ 2
U R, ISO = t95 (U A )2 + (UB )2 1.5(8)
j = sensitivity of the test or measurement result to
the jth Type T uncertainty
where t95 = Students t for R degrees of freedom U(i,T ),( j,T ) = covariance of Ui,T on Uj,T
K

Students t may be obtained from Table 1.5a. = U

l =1
i ,T (l )U j ,T (l ) 1.5(10)
Note that alternative confidences are permissible; 95% is
5
recommended by the ASME, but 99% or 99.7% (or any other = sum of the products of the elemental systematic
confidence) is obtained by choosing the appropriate Students uncertainties that arise from a common source
t. However, 95% confidence is recommended for uncertainty (l)
analysis.
5 l = an index or counter for common uncertainty
In all of the above, the errors were assumed to be inde- sources
pendent. Independent sources of error are those for which an K = number of common source pairs of uncertain-
error in a measurement in one source cannot be used to ties
predict the magnitude or direction of an error from the other, i,j = Kronecker delta (i,j = 1 if i = j, and i,j = 0
6
independent, error source. Nonindependent error sources are otherwise )

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.5 Uncertainty Calculations 89

This ISO equation will yield the same total uncertainty where
as the engineering equation, but the ISO classification does Bi,T = ith parameter elemental systematic uncertainty
not provide insight into how to improve an experiments or of Type T
tests uncertaintythat is, whether to possibly take more data BR = systematic uncertainty of the measurement or
because the random uncertainties are too high or calibrate test result
better because the systematic uncertainties are too large. N = total number of systematic uncertainties
The engineering classification presented next is therefore the i = sensitivity of the test or measurement result to
recommended approach. the ith systematic uncertainty
j = sensitivity of the test or measurement result to
the jth systematic uncertainty
Engineering Classification of Errors and Uncertainties
B(i,T ),( j,T) = covariance of Bi on Bj
The engineering classification recognizes that experiments and M

tests have two major types: systematic and random. Their cor-
responding estimates of the limits of those errors are the sys-
= B
l =1
i ,T (l ) Bj ,T (l ) 1.5(13)

tematic uncertainties and random uncertainties, respectively. = sum of the products of the elemental system-
atic uncertainties that arise from a common
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Random Errors and Uncertainties The general expression source (l)

for random uncertainty is the (1 SX ) standard deviation of the l = an index or counter for common uncertainty
9
average sources
i,j = Kronecker delta (i,j = 1 if i = j, and i,j = 0
1/ 2 6
B Ni ,T
B Ni ,T
otherwise )
( S )
2 2
SX , R = S = Mi,T
T = A i Xi ,T
T = A
i Xi ,T
i =1 i =1 Here, each Bi,T and Bj,T are estimated as 2 SX for an assumed
1.5(11) normal distribution of errors at 95% confidence with infinite
degrees of freedom. If there are less than an infinite number
where of degrees of freedom, the appendix of Reference 5 details
SXi ,T = sample standard deviation of the ith random error that analysis.
source of Type T The random uncertainty, Equation 1.5(11), and the sys-
SX = random uncertainty (standard deviation of the aver- tematic uncertainty, Equation 1.5(12), must be combined to
i ,T
age) of the ith parameter random error source of obtain a total uncertainty,
Type T
SX , R = random uncertainty of the measurement or test
[ ]
1/ 2
result U R,ENG = t95 ( BR /2)2 + ( SX , R )2 1.5(14)
Ni,T = total number of random uncertainties, Types A and
B, combined
Note that BR is in units of the test or measurement result,
Mi, = number of data points averaged for the ith error
as was SX , R .
source, Type A or B i
The degrees of freedom will need to be determined for
the engineering system total uncertainty. It is done with the
Note that SX , R is in units of the test or measurement result
WelchSatterthwaite approximation, the general form of
as a result of the use of the sensitivities, i. Here, the elemental
which is Equation 1.5(10). The specific formulation here is
random uncertainties have been root-sum-squared with due
consideration for their sensitivities, or influence coefficients.
Since these are all random uncertainties, there is, by definition, B NSXi ,T N B ,T 2

( )
j Bj ,T
2 i
SX ,T +
no correlation in their corresponding error data, so these can
always be treated as independent uncertainty sources. T = A i =1
i 2
j 1
df R = R =
B
4

( )
4
Systematic Errors and Uncertainties The systematic uncer- B NSXi ,T S 2
N B ,T j j ,T

i

tainty of the result, BR, is the root-sum-square of the elemental


Xi ,T
+
systematic uncertainties with due consideration for those that T = A i =1 i,T j 1
j
6
are correlated. The general equation is

1/ 2
1.5(15)
B NT
NT


BR =
T = A
( i Bi,T ) 2 +
i j B(i,T ),( j ,T ) (1 i, j )

where
N S = number of random uncertainties of Type T
i =1 j =1 Xi ,T
1.5(12) NBj,T = number of systematic uncertainties of Type T

2003 by Bla Liptk

 90 General Considerations

, = degrees of freedom for the ith uncertainty of The number of degrees of freedom needed to define Stu-
Type T dents t for Equations 1.5(16) through 1.5(19) is calculated
, = infinity for all systematic uncertainties with the WelchSatterthwaite approximation, Equation 1.5(7)
for the ISO system and Equation 1.5(15) for the engineering
system.
TOTAL UNCERTAINTY It usually may be assumed that the degrees of freedom
equal 30 or higher. In these cases, the equations for uncertainty
ISO Total Uncertainty simplify further by setting t95 equal to 2.000. This approach is
recommended for a first-time user of uncertainty analysis pro-
The ISO total uncertainty, which ISO refers to as the
cedures, as it is a fast way to get to an approximation of the
expanded uncertainty, for independent uncertainty sources
measurement uncertainty.
(the most common) is [from Equation 1.5(8)]

[ ]
1/ 2
U ISO = K (U A ) 2 + (U B ) 2 1.5(16)

The ISO uncertainty with some non-independent uncer- CALCULATION EXAMPLE

tainty sources is [from Equation 1.5(9)]
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In the following calculation example, all the uncertainties are

1/ 2 independent, and are all in the units of the test result, tem-
B Ni ,T
N j ,T


U R, ISO =
T = A i =1
(iUi,T )2 +


j =1
i jU( t ,T ),( j ,T ) (1 i, j )


perature. More detailed examples are given in many of the
references cited. Their review may be needed to assure a
more comprehensive understanding of uncertainty analysis.
1.5(17)
Of particular importance is the concept of uncertainty prop-
agation. This is needed when the uncertainties are for param-
Engineering Total Uncertainty
eters that contribute to a calculated result.
7
The engineering equation for total uncertainty for inde- It has been shown that there is often little difference
pendent uncertainty sources (the most common) is [from among the uncertainties calculated with the different models.
8
Equation 1.5(14)] The data from Table 1.5b will be used to calculate measure-
ment uncertainty with these two models. This data are all in
[ ]
1/ 2
U R,ENG = t95 ( BR /2) 2 + ( SX , R ) 2 1.5(18) temperature units, so the influence coefficients, or sensitivi-
ties, are all unity.
Here, just the first term of Equation 1.5(17) is needed, as all Note the use of subscripts A and B to denote where
the systematic uncertainty sources are independent. data exist to calculate a standard deviation. Also note that,
The engineering equation for uncertainty for nonindepen- in this example, all errors (and therefore uncertainties) are
dent uncertainty sources (those with correlated systematic independent and that all degrees of freedom for the system-
uncertainties) is also Equation 1.5(18), but it is necessary to atic uncertainties are infinity except for the reference junc-
also to use the full expression for BR [Equation 1.5(12)] tion, whose degrees of freedom are 12. Also note that BR is
calculated as
1/ 2
B NT
NT


BR =
T = A
( i Bi,T ) 2 +
i j B(i,T ),( j ,T ) (1 i, j )
0.06 2 0.07 2 0.1 2
1/ 2

BR = 2
i =1 j =1
+ + = 0.13 1.5(20)
1.5(19) 2 2.18 2

TABLE 1.5b
Test Measurement Uncertainties, F
Systematic Degrees of Standard Number Random Degrees
Defined Measurement Uncertainty, Freedom for Deviation, of Data Uncertainty, of Freedom
Process Bi Bi SX,i Points, Ni S X ,i for S X ,i

Calibration of thermocouple 0.06A 0.3A 10 0.095A 9

Reference junction 0.07B 12 0.1A 5 0.045A 4
Data acquisition 0.10A 0.6A 12 0.73A 11
RSS BR = 0.13 N/A N/A N/A S X , R = 0.20 N/A

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.5 Uncertainty Calculations 91

Notice that the 0.07 is not divided by t but by its appropriate t95 is therefore 2.07. UR,ISO is then
Students t for 12 degrees of freedom. The use of 2 for
Students t is only appropriate for all degrees of freedom of 30 2 2 1/2
UR,ISO = 2.07[(0.21) + (0.058) ] = 0.45
5
or more. for 95% confidence 1.5(25)
Each uncertainty model will now be used to derive a
measurement uncertainty.
Engineering Uncertainty Calculation Example

ISO Uncertainty Calculation Example For the engineering System, UR,ENG, model [Equation 1.5(18)],
we have the following expression:
For the UISO model we have, from Equation 1.5(13), the
following expressions: 2
UR,ENG = t95[(0.13/2) +(0.20) ]
2 1/2
1.5(26)

1/ 2 Here, the (0.13/2) is the BR/2, and the 0.20 is (as before) the
0.07
2
U A = (0.095) + (0.045) + (0.173) +
2 2 2
= 0.21 random component. To obtain the proper t95, the degrees of
2.18
freedom need to be calculated just as in Equation 1.5(24).
1.5(21) There, the degrees of freedom were 22, and t95 = 2.07. UR,ENG
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

1/ 2
is then
0.06 2 0.10 2
U B = + = 0.058
2
1.5(22)
2
2 2 1/2
UR,ENG = 2.07[(0.13/2) +(0.20) ] = 0.44
2 2 1/2 2 2 1/2
for 95% confidence. 1.5(27)
UR,ISO = K[(UA) + (UB) ] = K[(0.21) + (0.058) ]
1.5(23) This is essentially identical to UR,ISO [Equation 1.5(25)]
within round-off errors and degrees of freedom approxima-
tions, as predicted.
Here, remember that the 0.21 is the root sum square of the
1 SX Type A uncertainties in Table 1.5b, and 0.058 is that
for the 1 SX Type B uncertainties. Also note that, in most
cases, the Type B uncertainties have infinite degrees of free- SUMMARY
dom and represent an equivalent 2 SX . That is why they are
divided by 2 to get an equivalent 1 SX . Where there are less Although these formulae for uncertainty calculations will not
than 30 degrees of freedom, one needs to divide by the
handle every situation, they will provide a useful estimate of
appropriate Students t that gave the 95% confidence interval.
test or measurement uncertainty in most cases. For a more
For the reference junction systematic uncertainty above, that
detailed treatment or specific applications of these principles,
was 2.18.
consult the references and bibliography.
If K is taken as Students t95, the degrees of freedom must
first be calculated. Remember that all the systematic compo-
nents of Type B have infinite degrees of freedom except for
the 0.07, which has 12 degrees of freedom. Also, all the Bi References
in Table 1.5a represent an equivalent 2 SX except for 0.07,
which represents 2.18 SX , as its degrees of freedom are 12 1. Doebelin, E. O., Measurement Systems, Application and Design, 4th
and not infinity. To use their data here, divide all of them ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990, 38ff.
2. ANSI/ASME PTC 19.11985, Instruments and Apparatus, Part 1,
except the 0.07 by 2, and divide the 0.07 by 2.18; they all
Measurement Uncertainty, ANSI, New York, 1985, 64.
now represent 1 SX as do the random components. All Type 3. Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement, International
A uncertainties, whether systematic or random in Table 1.5a, Standards Organization, Geneva, 1993, 23.
have degrees of freedom as noted in the table. The degrees 4. Dieck, R. H., Measurement Uncertainty, Methods and Applications,
of freedom for UISO is then 2nd ed., ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1996, 45.
5. ANSI/ASME PTC 19.11998, Instruments and Apparatus, Part 1,
Measurement Uncertainty, ANSI, New York, 1998.
6. Brown, K. K., Coleman H. W., Steele, W. G., and Taylor, R. P.,
dfR = R Evaluation of correlated bias approximations in experimental uncer-
tainty analysis, in Proc. 32nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting & Exhibit,
2 Reno, NV, AIAA paper no. 940772, Jan. 1013, 1996.
[( 0.095) + ( 0.045) + ( 0.173) + ( 0.06/2 ) + ( 0.07/2.18) + ( 0.10/2 ) ]
2 2 2 2 2 2

= 7. Strike, W. T. III and Dieck, R. H., Rocket impulse uncertainty; an

( 0.095)
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
( 0.045) ( 0.173) ( 0.06/2 ) ( 0.07/2 ( 0.07/2.18) ) ( 0.10/2 ) uncertainty model comparison, in Proc. 41st Int. Instrum. Symp.,
+ + + + +
9 4 11 12 Denver, CO, May 1995.
8. Dieck, R. H., Measurement uncertainty models, in Proc. 42nd Int.
= 22.51 22 1.5(24) Instrum. Symp., San Diego, CA, May 1996.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 92 General Considerations

Bibliography Dieck, R. H., Measurement Uncertainty, Methods and Applications, 3rd ed.,
ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2002.
Steele, W. G., Ferguson, R. A. and Taylor, R. P., Comparison of ANSI/ASME
Abernethy, R. B. et al., Handbook of Uncertainty in Gas Turbine Measure-
and ISO models for calculation of uncertainty, in Proc. 40th Int.
ment, USAF AEDC-TR-73-5, U.S. Air Force, 1973 (adopted by ISA
Instrum. Symp., 1994, 410438.
as its Measurement Uncertainty Handbook).
Strike, W. T., III and Dieck, R. H., Rocket impulse uncertainty; an uncer-
Abernethy, R. B. and Ringhiser, B., The history and statistical development
tainty model comparison, in Proc. 41st Int. Instrum. Symp., Denver,
of the new ASME-SAE-AIAA-ISO measurement uncertainty method-
CO, May 1995.
ology, in Proc. AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASME 21st Joint Propulsion Conf.,
Webster, J. G., The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook,
Monterey, CA, July 810, 1985.
Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices
J. BERGE (2003)

DESIGN FEATURE RECOMMENDATIONS Together, the universal and common-practice commands cover
most functions needed in a device. This enables a host to per-
Use permanently connected communications infra- form most device functions without access to the DD. Essen-
structure. tially, all devices also have a number of specific commands to

For the HART Field Communications Protocol, use access unique functionality. Either a DD or a special driver is
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

a handheld with large, user-friendly screen. required to communicate the special commands.
Use device configuration templates. For FOUNDATION fieldbus device configuration parameters
Use a fieldbus tool that requires no proprietary files are arranged in a resource block and in transducer blocks.
from the host manufacturer. There are also function blocks, but these are used for control
Be mindful of revisions when configuring fieldbus strategy building rather than device configuration. This distinc-
devices. tion makes it easy to draw the line between device and strategy
configuration. The block parameters are accessed using sophis-
ticated communication services. A host needs to be loaded with
COSTS the DD to be able to communicate with a device. In addition,
to allow configuration of the device off-line, in advance, the
A HART handheld, such as Smar Internationals HPC301, capabilities file (CF) is required.
costs approximately U.S. $1000. Range setting is perhaps the most important setting of a
A FOUNDATION fieldbus host, such as the SYSTEM302, device based on a 4- to 20-mA signal such as used by a HART
starts at U.S. $4000. instrument. Range sets the scale for the 4- to 20-mA signal.
Because FOUNDATION fieldbus devices communicate in floating-
point mode and engineering units, there usually is no need to
INTRODUCTION set a range. Calibration shall not be confused with range set-
ting, since they are in fact different operations. For example,
Intelligent devices include smart instruments that have both for a transmitter range setting means configuring the measured
an analog 4- to 20-mA signal with simultaneous digital com- values at which the output shall be 4 and 20 mA, respectively.
munication, such as HART (Volume 3, Section 4.11), and field- Calibration, on the other hand, means adjusting the reading
bus devices that are completely digital, such as FOUNDATION from the sensor to match the correct value from a standard
fieldbus (Volume 3, Section 4.12). Intelligence in these devices, (Section 1.8). Range setting does not correct the sensor read-
along with networking and the right tools, can also be put to ing; it only affects the output scale.
good use to improve maintenance practices. To calibrate a transmitter, you must always apply a known
Both FOUNDATION fieldbus and HART protocols are specif- input. Therefore, calibration cannot be done remotely. The
ically designed for the configuration of field instruments and expression remote calibration is often used erroneously to
are therefore the most commonly used in the process industries. mean remote range setting. Some confusion exists in the mar-
They both have special parameters for the specific purpose of ketplace as to what calibration is. This is a legacy from the
device configuration, and both use the concept of device era of analog devices in which calibration and range setting
description (DD) files to inform a host device how to commu- was done at the same time using the same set of potentiom-
nicate these parameters with the device. This is a unique char- eters. For the HART protocol, calibration is usually called
acteristic of these protocols that makes them highly suitable for trim to distinguish it from range setting. FOUNDATION fieldbus
instrumentation and control. avoids this confusion by calling range setting scaling. Still
In the HART protocol, device parameter configuration is it is quite common in HART devices to change the range
based on commands for reading and writing. There are three instead of calibrating the device when the sensor reading is
classes of commands: universal, common-practice, and spe- wrong. The result is a correct 4- to 20-mA output, but any
cific. All HART devices support the universal commands, and digital reading in the display or host will be wrong, which
most also support several common-practice commands. may lead to confusion.

93
2003 by Bla Liptk
 94 General Considerations

CONFIGURATION TOOLS Operation Engineering Maintenance Business

FOUNDATION fieldbus devices are permanently connected via

a network to a host in a convenient central location. HART Router
devices, on the other hand, normally operate only using 4 to HSE Fieldbus
20 mA, and a hand-held HART communicator is connected
and communicates only when required. A FOUNDATION field-
bus host is therefore predominantly a stationary desktop com-
puter, whereas a HART communicator is usually a portable
device. However, portable interfaces for laptops exist for both
HART and FOUNDATION fieldbus operation.
The handheld can be connected at any convenient point H1 Fieldbus H1 Fieldbus
Devices Devices
along the 4- to 20-mA wire as long as it is on the instrument
side of the stipulated resistor (see Figure 1.6a). This connec-
tion is often done at the device itself, giving on-line access
to information, configuration, remote monitoring, calibration FIG. 1.6c
FOUNDATION fieldbus system architecture.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

and range setting, diagnostics, and maintenance.

The handheld can be either a dedicated text-based HART
device or a HART interface for an organizer with a graphical
user interface (GUI). Rapid development in the area of per-
sonal organizers has brought about tools that incorporate
displays larger than three inches across and are capable of
sophisticated graphics with a Windows-like appearance. They
are also are very fast (see Figure 1.6b).
Fieldbus instruments are connected on the H1 field-level
nework that ties in with a linking device on the HSE host-
level network where the host computers with the configura-
tion tool is (Figure 1.6c). This is a permanent connection
where the network used for control, monitoring, and opera-
tion is also used for configuration and diagnostics, etc.

Power Handheld
Supply Al Resistor
Terminal

FIG. 1.6d
FOUNDATION fieldbus linking device. (Courtesy of Smar Interna-
FIG. 1.6a
tional.)
HART handheld connection.

Linking device is typically one of many functions inte-

grated in a single device. Usually the same device is respon-
sible for powering the field instruments, etc. A linking device
typically has several H1 ports and can be connected in a
redundant scheme for high availability (Figure 1.6d).
For FOUNDATION fieldbus interoperability with the host is
achieved through DD. By installing the device support files
for a device, the host computer has the information required
to communicate with the device and to allow the user to prepare
a configuration in advance, even without being connected to
the device. The files usually can be obtained from the man-
ufacturers site on the Internet. To guarantee interoperability,
an open host uses only standard files to support any device.
However, some tools may require proprietary files for each
FIG. 1.6b device to work, in which case a short list of approved devices
HART pocket Configurator. (Courtesy of Smar International.) applies.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices 95

DEVICE CONFIGURATION measurements. Square root extraction is often done in the

central control system, but it is in fact better to do it in the
HART devices are typically configured on line only, using a transmitter, as this results in less A/D and D/A conversion error.
handheld unit communicating directly with the device. How- Fail-safe mode can be set as upscale or downscale as per
ever, some handhelds also support off-line configuration for the NAMUR NE-43 standard. Downscale means that the
later download. output current will be set to 3.6 mA in case the internal
Although HART transmitters can operate in a purely diagnostics detect a fault. Upscale means the output will be
digital mode, the 4- to 20-mA output is almost always used set to 21 mA. Ideally, the receiving controller should have
to deliver the process variable to the central controller. Setting an input module that can interpret the failure signal and use
the range of the transmitter is therefore required. The primary this to shut down the control loop.
variable output settings are the most important part of the It is also possible to review the write protection status of
configuration. The lower range value (LRV) is the measured the deviceif the device has been write protected using a
value at which the transmitter output will be 4 mA, and the jumper or other solution.
upper range value (URV) is the input value at which the When performing range setting or calibration, the user needs
output will be 20 mA; i.e., 0 and 100% of range, respectively. to know the sensor limits and is therefore usually prompted with
Although LRV and URV are the proper terms, most call them this information, which typically can be reviewed at any time
zero and span instead. But span is really the difference (see Figure 1.6f). HART device information includes lower
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

between the URV and the LRV. The engineering unit can also range limit (LRL), upper range limit (URL), and the minimum
be selected. span. The minimum span is the smallest permitted absolute
Range setting can be accomplished from the handheld difference between the URL and LRL for the sensor.
by simply keying in the desired range values, regardless of Many configuration options are device specific in HART
input. This can even be done remotely and stored as an off- devices. For example, for a temperature transmitter, the sen-
line configuration. Another method is to apply an input and sor type and wiring has to be configured (see Figure 1.6g).
(by pressing a button on the handheld or on the transmitter For a valve positioner, the actuator type has to be configured.
itself) informing the device that the applied input is to be the In most FOUNDATION system installations, the device con-
LRV or URV, thus setting the range (see Figure 1.6e). The figuration is created off-line for all devices in advance and
latter method is often used for pressure transmitters that are downloaded after installation. Moreover, the device configu-
installed with impulse lines that add hydrostatic pressure. ration is typically accomplished with the network and control
Pressing the button elevates or suppresses the zero, ensuring
that the output is 4 mA when appropriate. If the transmitter
has a noninteractive zero and span, the URV will be pushed
by the equivalent amount, leaving the span unaffected. For
example, if the range of a pressure transmitter in a level
application starts off as 0 to 5.48 kPa, and applied rerange is
done with 1.86 kPa input, the new range becomes 1.86 to
7.34 kPa. However, when a rerange is applied for the URV,
this does not affect the zero; i.e., the span is changed instead.
The damping is a first-order lag filter time constant.
The transfer function is used to select linear or square root
extraction for differential-pressure flowmeters, and possibly
for other options such as a freely configurable lookup table or FIG. 1.6f
square root of third or fifth power for open-channel flow HART transmitter sensor limits.

FIG. 1.6e FIG. 1.6g

HART transmitter range setting. Sensor and wiring selection is device specific.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 96 General Considerations

important dates, and model numbers. The user can configure

some of these parameters to be pertinent to the application.
These parameters do not affect the operation of the device.
In addition to the sensor information such as range limits,
HART device data such as sensor serial number, final assem-
bly number, message, device tag, descriptor, date, manufac-
turer, device type, software and hardware revisions, and cir-
cuit board serial number are provided. For HART devices,
the tag can use up to eight characters. The descriptor and
FIG. 1.6h message are 16 and 32 characters in length and can be con-
Pay attention to revisions when creating device configurations. figured as annotations describing the application and remind
technicians of special precautions when servicing a device
strategy configuration, all in the same tool. Thus, when con- (see Figure 1.6i).
figuring devices in a FOUNDATION system, the first step is to The date has no specific purpose but may be used to store
create the devices on the networks and give the devices a when calibration or maintenance was last performed or is
physical device tag (PD_TAG). Fieldbus devices are develop- scheduled. Manufacturer, model, and version information can
ing very rapidly. New versions are constantly being released, also be accessed (see Figure 1.6j).
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

and many users already have several versions around the plant HART devices such as pressure transmitters usually pro-
and in the store, this on top of a variety of brands of the same vide additional information about the materials of construction
kind of device. When inserting new devices, it is important to for the parts wetted by the process, e.g., the sensor isolating
specify the revisions to be used (see Figure 1.6h). Usually, the diaphragm, O-ring, flange and remote seal parts, and so on.
latest revision is the default. There is a risk that you will The resource block found in any FOUNDATION fieldbus device
accidentally download a device configuration to the wrong contains, among other things, identification information for the
model or wrong version device. A good tool prevents this device. The tag descriptor parameter may be used to describe
and thus avoids the many headaches that could result. the application of the device. Manufacturer, model, and version
Fieldbus devices do not require any range, because all information can also be accessed (see Figure 1.6k).
values are communicated as floating-point values in engi-
neering units. Ranges are typically used only in PID function
blocks, or possibly in AI function blocks, to cater for con-
versions in inferred measurements, such as converting differ-
ential pressure to flow within specified ranges. That is, scal-
ing is done as part of the control strategy configuration, not
as part of the device configuration.
Every fieldbus device, H1 as well as HSE, needs to have
one resource block. Really, the only parameter that must be
configured is the mode. The MODE_BLK parameter target
shall be set to automatic.
A fieldbus transducer block is required, in conjunction
with every sensor and actuator, to act as an interface between
the device and the control strategy. By parameterizing the
transducer blocks, the device can be set up for the proper sensor FIG. 1.6i
or actuator type, such as HART devices. Similarly the trans- Application information from a HART device.
ducer block also contains information about sensor limits.
Indeed, there is a transducer scale range indication in the
transducer block, but it is essentially a reflection of a setting
done in the associated I/O function block. The MODE_BLK
parameter target shall be set to automatic.

IDENTIFICATION

Information for identifying the device is very helpful during

commissioning and maintenance. During the commissioning
stage, it is useful for further assurance that connection has
been made to the correct device. During maintenance, it is FIG. 1.6j
helpful for retrieving serial numbers, special instructions, Detail attributes of a HART device.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices 97

FIG. 1.6k FIG. 1.6m

Fieldbus device identification from resource block. Zero calibration of HART transmitter.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

FIG. 1.6l
Pressure transmitter materials of construction.
FIG. 1.6n
Loop current calibration.
Fieldbus devices such as pressure transmitters usually pro-
vide additional information about the materials of construction
for the parts wetted by the process, e.g., the sensor isolating comparing the actual output against a standard. The actual
diaphragm, O-ring, flange and remote seal parts, and so on reading is entered into the device that makes the necessary
(see Figure 1.6l). correction. Control valve positioners usually calibrate their
If any changes are ever made to the device parts, it is position-sensing sensor themselves by automatically stroking
important to update this information. the valve over its entire travel.
Since HART devices rely on 4 to 20 mA, this current loop
can also be calibrated. However, it is rarely done because,
being totally electronic, this part of the device rarely experi-
CALIBRATION ences any drift at all. For a HART transmitter, this means that
a fixed output current is generated. The technician checks the
When the sensor reading differs from the actual applied input, current against a standard and keys it into a device that makes
the sensor has to be calibrated. The correct reading is entered the necessary correction (see Figure 1.6n). For HART output
from the maintenance tool, and the device then performs the devices, a signal is injected, and the device is informed of the
necessary adjustment. A special case of sensor calibration is true current.
zeroing, which by definition is done with a zero value applied. Sensor or actuation calibration for FOUNDATION fieldbus
This is accomplished, for example, by venting in the case of devices is done from the associated transducer block. The
a pressure transmitter; hence, no value has to be entered (see standard transducer block also includes several parameters for
Figure 1.6.m). storing information about the last calibration. This includes
Nonzero calibration is usually done with a precision source two parameters for keeping the values of the two calibration
applied. Calibration is usually done in two points, known as points. This is useful when determining if a device has been
the low and high calibration points, respectively. For most calibrated at points that are suitable for the operating range.
transmitters, calibration of these two points is noninteractive. Additional information that can be stored includes calibration
There is a limit to how close the two calibration points can be, date, location, the method used, and who performed the cali-
and the distance is referred to as the minimum span. Output bration. It is good practice to update this information at each
converters also need to be calibrated. This is usually done by calibration and to display it along with useful sensor limit
first forcing an output at one end of the scale and then information (Figure 1.6o).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 98 General Considerations

FIG. 1.6q
Using loop test to simulate process variable from a handheld.
FIG. 1.6o
Calibration-related information.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

FIG. 1.6r
Basic HART diagnostics.
FIG. 1.6p
input (see Figure 1.6q). Generally, the handheld allows the
Monitoring of dynamic transmitter variables from a HART tool.
current to be set slightly above and below the 4- to 20-mA
range to simulate fault conditions.
Simulation is primarily used to test the control strategy.
MONITORING
Therefore, simulation for FOUNDATION fieldbus devices is
done from the input and output function blocks.
Configuration tools for HART and FOUNDATION fieldbus sys-
tems are generally designed in different ways, not only in terms
of the way they look, but also the way they work. In HART DIAGNOSTICS
tools, menus are usually arranged according to the function
performed, whereas device configuration in fieldbus tools is Many device diagnostics can be performed from a configu-
arranged according to the resource and transducer blocks. Thus, ration tool, but only if communication is established. If there
in a HART device, there generally is a screen on which the is no functional communication, troubleshooting has to rely
transmitter variables can be monitored on line (see Figure 1.6p). on traditional means. When it comes to diagnostics, one of
the major differences in the application of HART and FOUN-
DATION fieldbus becomes most evident. While fieldbus devices
SIMULATION are constantly communicating, making it possible to monitor
device conditions continuously and instantly detect faults,
At the time of commissioning, it is common to check that communication with HART devices is typically carried out
all indicators, recorders, and computer screens show the cor- to confirm a problem only after the failure has already been
rect values, that alarm trips are working properly, and so on. detected. Although applications with continuous HART com-
This is particularly important for HART devices, because munications do exist, they are rare. To fully benefit from
there is a chance that the range set in the device does not intelligence in field devices, the engineering tool should con-
match that set in the central controller, and any difference tinuously communicate with the instruments.
would result in operational problems. To verify that all ranges Generic diagnostic information is communicated in every
are consistent, it is helpful to use the simulation function exchanged HART message, giving the device the opportunity
found in HART and fieldbus devices. to inform the user of any failure. Such error message includes
When performing simulation in a HART transmitter, the general malfunction, exceeded limits, and a message that
output current is manipulated independently of the applied more detailed status report is available (see Figure 1.6r).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices 99

FIG. 1.6t
Abnormal status and actual mode are useful for tracing problems.
FIG. 1.6s
Advanced diagnostic self-test.

For some devices, a more thorough diagnostic self-test Diagnostic information for sensors and actuators is kept
routine can be invoked (see Figure 1.6s). in their respective transducer blocks. The primary source for
Every FOUNDATION block, including function blocks, con- this information is the transducer error parameter that dis-
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

tains a block error parameter with some basic condition for plays a single error at the time. Transducer blocks are always
the block itself, including configuration errors, I/O or memory customized and typically contain extensive manufacturer-
failure, and others. In addition, the block mode parameter is specific parameters related to diagnostics.
useful for spotting problems, which often results in the actual
mode being different from the target mode. Yet another good
source of diagnostic information is the status associated with Reference
the function block inputs and outputs, and also with some of
the parameters contained in transducer blocks and function 1. Berge, J., Fieldbuses for Process Control Engineering, Operation and
blocks (see Figure 1.6t). Maintenance, ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2002.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.7 Instrument Installation
I. H. GIBSON (2003)

COST Physical vs. Schematic Documents

On the order of 40 to 50% of the capital cost of the The physical or scalar documents are the location plans (often
equipmentextremely variable. sectional plans), cable/conduit routing plans, and the room lay-
A full set of PIP Process Control Practices documents out drawings. These are based on the mechanical or piping
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

cost U.S. $6500 in 2002. layouts, commonly with the instrument information available
as an overlay. The instrument tapping locations will be defined
For process measurements to achieve the targets of safety, accu- on the vessels and piping, and the final location for the various
racy, reliability, and economy, more than measuring equipment instruments becomes a matter for negotiation between the var-
is involved. The entire systemfrom the process fluid charac- ious groups to balance the requirements for operability with
teristics, the ambient conditions, legal and regulatory require- accessibility for maintenance. Traditionally, the instrument
ments, and operations/maintenance requirementsmust be installation details have been essentially schematic, being used
coordinated to ensure that the equipment can be installed, cal- largely for material take-off. But with the growing use of three-
ibrated, operated, recalibrated, maintained, and, if necessary, dimensional CAD techniques, there is a tendency to produce
rebuilt or replaced while meeting the above primary criteria. approximately scale models for the common details to ensure
This section attempts to provide guidance to persons who that access requirements are addressed. Connection diagrams
are unfamiliar with current industrial practice; it does not (electronic, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and process) are
attempt to cover all industries and all measurements. Specif- purely schematic. These are now largely automated, with a
ically, it cannot cover the multitude of legal and regulatory minimal amount of input data being fed to a database loaded
requirements mandated by bodies such as the Occupational with connection rules for the various types of equipment.
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
SAFETY IN DESIGN
INSTALLATION DOCUMENTATION
The instrument connections to the process are commonly the
The primary installation document is commonly called the least mechanically secure components in the system. Consider
instrument index (see Figure 1.7a). This tabulates all the the relative strength of a 1/2NS (DN15) Sch. 160 pipe as used
tagged physical devices and commonly also includes tagged by the piping designer to the usual 0.5-inch (12.7-mm) OD
software devices. Each of the physical devices is then refer- seamless 316L tube with 0.049-inch (1.24-mm) wall used for
enced to the associated installation drawings, such as the equivalent duty by the instrument designer. Yet this material has
physical location plans, installation details (mechanical sup- in fact an adequate strength for most applications within the
port, piping and wiring), cable ladder and conduit routing range of Class 600 piping, provided that it is adequately pro-
diagrams, and the connection diagrams. The instrument index tected and supported. Supported not only when the equipment
is usually one of many documents from a large database, is in service, but when any components are removed for main-
which also keeps track of calculations, specifications, and tenance. Many installations can be found with long runs of tube
procurement documents and may also interface with a three- run to an absent transmitter, with the tube supported at best by
dimensional CAD model of the plant. a rope or wire. Not only are long tubing runs a significant source
In a plant being designed with three-dimensional model- of measurement error, the lack of support is inherently hazard-
ing, many of the dimensional drawings that otherwise would ous. Modern installation details will anchor the tubing runs by
have been made previously are generated on demand by selec- supporting the instrument manifold, which remains in place if
tion from the model. This enhances the quality of the design the transmitter is removed, and minimize any hazard from the
by flagging and eliminating clashes between equipment, piping temptation to use tubing runs as a hand (or foot) support.
and electrical/instrumentation space requirements and permits The first valve off the process (known as the root valve)
virtual walk-through reviews for operations and maintenance has traditionally been the province of the piping designer.
personnel. More recently, the selection of this valve has become a joint

100
2003 by Bla Liptk
 Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Tag Number Instrument Type I/O Type Status Service Location Equipment Manufacturer Model Price
101-FE -100 D/P TYPE FLOW ELEMENT N Feed from V-8 Field FISHER-PORTER $110
101-FT -100 D/P TYPE FLOW TRANSMITTER AI N Feed from V-8 Field ROSEMOUNT 1151DP4E22S2B1M2 $1095
101-FY -100 I/P TRANSDUCER AO N Feed from V-8 Field FISHER 461 $580
101-FV -100 CONTROL VALVE N Feed from V-8 Field FISHER ES $3250

2003 by Bla Liptk

101-PI -100 PRESSURE GAUGE N Heat exchanger inlet Field ASHCROFT MGS-136 $65
101-PI -102 PRESSURE GAUGE N Heat exchanger outlet Field ASHCROFT MGS-136 $65
101-HY -101 I/P TRANSDUCER AO N C-101 Bypass Field C-101 FISHER 461 $580
101-HV -101 CONTROL VALVE N C-101 Bypass Field FISHER ET $2100
101-FE -102 D/P TYPE FLOW ELEMENT N Feed from C-1 Field $120
101-FT -102 D/P TYPE FLOW TRANSMITTER AI N Feed from C-1 Field ROSEMOUNT 1151DP4E22S2B1M2 $1095
101-PI -101 PRESSURE GAUGE N F-102 Stripper inlet Field ASHCROFT MGS-136 $65
101-TW -203 THERMOWELL N F-102 Overhead Field
101-TI -203 BI-METAL THERMOMETER N F-102 Overhead Field ASHCROFT EVERY-ANGLE-13/02 $45
101-PSH -208 HIGH-PRESSURE SWITCH DI N F-102 Overhead Field ASCO 8351B23 $720
101-PT -201 PRESSURE TRANSMITTER AI N F-102 TOP Field F-102 ROSEMOUNT 3051S1256 $1095
101-LT -201 DISPLACER TYPE LEVEL AI N F-102 Middle section Field F-102 MASONEILAN 9600 $1095
101-LY -201 I/P TRANSDUCER AO N F-102 Middle section Field FISHER 461 $580
101-LV -201 CONTROL VALVE N F-102 Middle section Field FISHER ED $1340
101-TW -202 THERMOWELL N F-102 Top Field F-102 $45
101-TE -202 THERMOCOUPLE N F-102 Top Field F-102 ASHFORD TE-11-34/13 $22
101-TT -202 TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER AI N F-102 Top Field F-102 ROSEMOUNT 3051S1256 $650
101-TY -202 I/P TRANSDUCER AO N F-102 Top Field FISHER 461 $580
101-TV -202 CONTROL VALVE N F-102 Top Field FISHER V500 $2300
101-TW -201 THERMOWELL N F-102 Top Field F-102 $51
101-TI -201 BI-METAL THERMOMETER N F-102 Top Field F-102 ASHCROFT EVERY-ANGLE-13/02 $45
101-FT -201 D/P TYPE FLOW TRANSMITTER AI N Stripping Steam to F-102 Field ROSEMOUNT 1151DP4E22S2B1M2 $1095

DEFAULT STYLE Report

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
Filter: None
Sort: None
Plant name: New Refinery
Area name: Crude Area
Unit name: Crude unit 1 Sheet 1 of 3
Horizontal Section 1 of 1
Domain:FDMELB Last Revision:
No. By Date Chk App Revision Client Dwg. Name:

FIG. 1.7a
1.7 Instrument Installation

Typical instrument index report (extracted from Intools database).

101
 102 General Considerations
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FIG. 1.7b
Current generation instrument isolation and process DBB valves. (Courtesy of Oliver Valve Ltd.)

temperature any chance of a leak should be obviated. DBB

provides this by providing two isolation valves between the
technician and the process, with the space between vented to
a safe place. The definition of where DBB is required is
normally part of the operating companys standards, but Class
600 (and higher) piping should always be covered by it. Toxic
materials call for more stringent techniques, with tubed vents
and designed-in decontamination methods.

Pipe and Tube Material

Current minimum design practice is to use a stainless steel

meeting both 316 and 316L for tubing and fittings for both
pneumatic and process connections. The pneumatic tubing
may be 0.25 inch (6.35 mm) or 0.375 inch (9.53 mm) OD,
while process connections are usually 0.375 or 0.5 inch (9.53
or 12.7 mm). The wall thickness of pneumatic tube is com-
monly 0.035 inch, while process tubing is a minimum of
0.048 inch, with heavier (0.064 inch) used for pressures
above about 1000 psi (6800 kPa). This is the heaviest wall
FIG. 1.7c
Fiscal orifice metering installation using direct-mounting technique. tube that can conveniently be bent and fitted off without using
(Courtesy of Tyco/Anderson Greenwood.) hydraulic benders and setters.
Plants using metric standards may use either metric or
responsibility, with process-rated instrument valves being inch series tube but mixing the two in the same plant should
available which give double-block and bleed (DBB) capa- be avoided, as accidents can be caused by mismatching.
bility in the envelope of a 1NS (DN40) blind flange (Figures 12 mm OD tube will fit in a half-inch compression fitting but
1.7b and c). The ability to close couple a transmitter to the will rapidly disassemble itself under test. Always use seam-
line in this manner can reduce potential leak points and less drawn tube for compression fitting installations, as elec-
weight significantly for offshore installations at similar cost tric-resistance-welded (ERW) tube has a small flat on the
to older designs. outside that makes for difficulty in achieving a leaktight
The point of DBB deserves comment. For a technician to connection.
work on a transmitter or gauge, the process must be securely 316 stainless is a good general-purpose material, but it is
isolated. If the process fluid is flammable or at high or low prone to chloride attack at temperatures above 140F (60C).

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.7 Instrument Installation 103

This can be significant both internally and externallytropical closing, as IEC design practices are becoming accepted in
marine installations can easily achieve such temperature in parallel with NEC in North America, though there are still a

sunlight. Monel (cupronickel) and duplex stainless are both few standards where features mandated by IEC are prohibited
widely used in such locations; duplex offers higher tensile by NEC. The best advice is to determine the statutory and
strength and pressure rating. Ensure that the tube wall thickness regulatory rules for the site, and try to avoid any violation of
chosen meets the most stringent pressure and temperature com- them. Try may be the operative word in many cases, where
bination likely to be found. considerable negotiating might be required with the regula-
If possible, avoid using or having tube with identical diam- tory inspectors if state-of-the-art equipment is required, and
eter but different wall thicknesses and materials in the same the approval certification is not quite ready for your site.
plant, even at the expense of using more costly material,
because the probability of getting under-rated material installed Physical Support
during maintenance or modification is severely increased. If it
is necessary, ensure that the installations with higher-grade The traditional support for field instruments is 2NS (DN50)
material are permanently flagged on drawings and in the field pipe. Most non-inline field instruments are provided with
(Table 1.7d). mounting brackets designed to attach to vertical or horizontal
pipe, and also to flat plate. Traditionally, these supports have
been fabricated from carbon steel pipe and plate and been
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Electrical Installations in Potentially Explosive Locations

hot-dip galvanized after fabrication. Some design details
While the practices for piping/tubing installations are similar endeavour to weld zinc plated material, but this practice is
around the world, there is a split between North American difficult in achieving good welds and the zinc fume from
and European practices (commonly described as NEC v. IEC the welding is toxic. Therefore, one should generally avoid
practices) in wiring methods. Fortunately this divide is now the use of zinc coatings. Also, there have been a number of

TABLE 1.7d
Instrument Tubing Properties
198 C < T < 37 C 254 C < T < 37 C 29 C < T < 37 C
325 F < T < 100 F 425 F < T < 100 F 20 F < T < 100 F
Outside Diameter Wall Thickness Bore Max. WP 316/316L Max. WP 304 Max. WP Alloy400
inch mm inch mm inch mm psi kPa psi kPa psi kPa

0.125 3.18 0.036 0.91 0.053 1.35 11416 78729 10651 73454 10651 73454
0.1875 4.76 0.036 0.91 0.1155 2.93 7039 48545 6567 45292 6567 45292
0.250 6.35 0.036 0.91 0.178 4.52 5088 35091 4747 32740 4747 32740
0.048 1.22 0.154 3.91 7039 48545 6567 45292 6567 45292
0.064 1.63 0.122 3.10 9880 68137 9218 63572 9218 63572
0.375 9.53 0.036 0.91 0.303 7.70 3274 22577 3054 21065 3054 21065
0.048 1.22 0.279 7.09 4469 30821 4170 28756 4170 28756
0.064 1.63 0.247 6.27 6154 42443 5742 39599 5742 39599
0.500 12.70 0.036 0.91 0.428 10.87 2413 16642 2251 15527 2251 15527
0.048 1.22 0.404 10.26 3274 22577 3054 21065 3054 21065
0.064 1.63 0.372 9.45 4469 30821 4170 28756 4170 28756

Notes:
Max. working pressure based on the ASME B31.3 formula P = 2tSE/(D 2tY), allowing a factor of 4 safety factor
t taken as 0.85 of the nominal wall thickness, according to ASTM A-269 manufacturing tolerance.
316/316L is a dual-graded cold-drawn seamless tube to ASTM A269/A213, max hardness Rb80.
Ultimate tensile strength 75000 70000 70000 psi
Temperature Correction at other
temperatures at nominal temperature
(above) 1 1 1
200F 93C 1 1 0.88
400F 204C 0.96 0.93 0.79
600F 316C 0.85 0.82 0.79
800F 427C 0.79 0.76 0.76
1000F 538C 0.76 0.76

2003 by Bla Liptk

 104 General Considerations

ITEM QTY UM DESCRIPTION

1 1 EA 3-Valve Manifold
(Note 4)
2 4 EA Male conn 1/2"T 1/2"P
9 4 3 A/R FT Steam traced tube bundle w/two 1/2" O.D. tubes
and one 1/4" O.D. copper tracer
5 ) 4 1 EA See enclosure detail
10 ote
8 (N ply 5 2 EA End seal kit
sup 6 2 EA Male conn 1/4"T 3/8"P
am
Ste 7 1 EA Steam heater coil w/brackets
8 2 EA 1/2" Pipe tee 3000# thrd
9 2 EA 1/2" Hex head pipe plug thrd
es 10 2 EA 1/2" Pipe nipple - sch 80 minimum
alv
ot v g 2
Ro pipin
by 5 H
L
1

2
5

6 7
6
3)
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

ote
(N (Note 2)
3
To trap
assembly

Notes:
1. All instrument piping and piping components to be per instrument material Process Industry Practices
specification PIP PCSIP001 unless otherwise noted. Installation Details
2. Mounting support, brackets, and electrical considerations to be as indicated
in the instrument index. Differential Pressure Transmitter Practice Ref. PCIDP000
3. Horizontal tube run slope to be 1" per foot (minimum) down toward the transmitter. Steam Service/Steam Traced Tube Bundle Page 1 of 1
4. All penetrations to be per enclosure manufacturer. Drawing date 4/99
1/2" Connections,
5. Pipe tees should be at the same elevation (+/ 1/8").
3/8" Impulse

FIG. 1.7e
Typical PIP transmitter installation detail.

significant failures of stainless and high alloy piping when In an effort to minimize the cost of process industry facil-
minor fires melted the zinc from galvanized walkways, etc. ities, these Practices have been prepared from the technical
If molten zinc comes in contact with an austenitic alloy, it requirements in the existing standards of major industrial
penetrates its grain structure within seconds and the strength users, contractors, or standards organisations. By harmonis-
of the alloy vanishes. To protect from this effect and to avoid ing these technical requirements into a single set of Practices,
corrosion, a number of sites are now using stainless steel administrative, application, and engineering costs to both the
strut supports. purchaser and the manufacturer should be reduced. While
these Practices are expected to incorporate the majority of
requirements of most users, individual applications may
PROCESS INDUSTRIES PRACTICES involve requirements that will be appended to and take pre-
cedence over individual Practices. Determinations concern-
A consortium of the major petroleum, chemical, and related ing fitness for purpose and particular matters or application
manufacturers, together with major engineer-constructors have of the Practice to particular project or engineering situations
joined to form the Process Industry Practices (PIP) division of should not be made solely on information contained in these
the Construction Industry Institute, an organization associ- materials.
ated with The University of Texas at Austin. The PIP offices The tabulation of PIP installation documents (Table 1.7h)
are located to 3925 West Braker Lane (R4500), Austin, TX is not exhaustive, and they are frequently edited and extended.
78759.
PIP (website http://www.pip.org) has generated a wide-
ranging series of standard practices in a variety of engineer-
ing fields. Among the 20 Practices for Process Control are
some 9 sets covering instrument installation. These are avail- Bibliography
able to members of the consortium and subscribers for their
direct use, and can be purchased by other organizations Process Industry Practices (see Table 1.7h) issued by Process Industry Prac-
Figures 1.7e, f, and g). tices, 3925 West Braker Lane (R4500), Austin, TX 78759, USA.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.7 Instrument Installation 105

Tap orientation
End view
(Note 1) 4)
,&
s 2, 3
(N ote

Flo
w ing
pip L
By instr.
By H
To
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

t ran
sm
itte
r

Notes: Process Industry Practices

1. Tap orientation is shown for orifice flange taps. Orientation may be used with
other taps (e.g., pipe taps, radius taps) and venturimeters, flow nozzles, etc. Installation Details
2. Slope down (minimum 1 inch per foot) from process taps to equalizing manifold.
3. Refer to installation details in PIP PCIDPOOO for materials. Practice Ref. PCIFL000
4. If required, locate optional tee pressure transmitter connection in high pressure side
Head meter with remote transmitter Page 1 of 1
of flow measurement in close proximity to equalizing manifold. below for liquid and steam service Drawing date 5/99
5. Refer to piping connection details in PIP PNF0200. horizontal run - horizontal side taps

FIG. 1.7f
Typical PIP element installation detail.

ITEM QTY UM DESCRIPTION

1 FT 1/4" O.D. Tubing. See note 1
Instrument 2 4 EA 1/4"T 1/4"P Male tube connector. See note 1
air supply
as required

Pneumatic
transmitter

Note 2 1

Instrument Instrument
air supply 1 air supply
as required as required

2 2
2
1 1

Pneumatic Final element

controller

Notes:
1. All instrument piping and tubing components to be as specified in the instrument Process Industry Practices
index per material specifications from PIP PCSIP001, instrument piping and tubing
Installation Detail
specifications, unless otherwise noted.
2. Routing, installation and support to be per PIP PCCIP001, instrument piping and Practice Ref. PCIIA000
tubing systems criteria. Instrument Signal Page 1 of 1
Pneumatic Loop Drawing date 4/99

FIG. 1.7g
Typical PIP pneumatic installation detail.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 106 General Considerations

TABLE 1.7h
Listing of Process Industry Practices for Instrument Installation
Differential Pressure
PCIDP000 Differential Pressure Installation Details Date: 07-01 (revised)
Native DGN PCIDP000_dgn.exe 5265 KB Native DWG PCIDP000_dwg.exe 9651 KB Native Text PCIDP000.doc 89 KB
PDF PCIDP000.pdf 4415 KB File

Electrical
PCFEL000 Instrumentation Electrical Fabrication Details Date: 12-99
Native DGN PCFEL000.dgn 97 KB File Native DWG PCFEL000.dwg 96 KB File Native Text PCFEL000.doc 50 KB File
PDF PCFEL000.pdf 122 KB File
PCIEL000 Instrumentation Electrical Installation Details Date: 02-00
Native DGN PCIEL000_DNG.ZIP 2293 KB Native DWG PCIEL000_DWG.ZIP 3485 KB Native Text PCIEL000.doc 119 KB
PDF PCIEL000.pdf 3040 KB

Flow
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

PCFFL000 Flow Measurement Fabrication Details Date: 01-01

Native DGN PCFFL000_DGN.EXE 1294 KB Native DWG PCFFL000_DWG.ZIP 1334 KB Native Text PCFFL000.doc 74 KB
PDF PCFFL000.pdf 238 KB
PCIFL000 Flow Measurement Installation Details Date: 04-01
Native DGN PCIFL000_DGN.exe 2573 KB Native DWG PCIFL000_DWG.exe 3532 KB Native Text PCIFL000.doc 76 KB
PDF PCIFL000.pdf 594 KB

General
PCCGN001 General Instrumentation Design Checklist Date: 07-01
Native PCCGN001.doc 893 KB
PDF PCCGN001.pdf 157 KB
PCCGN002 General Instrument Installation Criteria Date: 10-01
Native PCCGN002.doc 104 KB
PDF PCCGN002.pdf 44 KB
PCFGN000 Instrument Pipe Support Fabrication Details Date: 06-00
Native DGN PCFGN000_DGN.EXE 204 KB Native DWG PCFGN000_DWG.ZIP 248 KB Native Text PCFGN000.doc 93 KB
PDF PCFGN000.pdf 314 KB
PCIGN000 Instrument Pipe Support Installation Date: 06-00
Native DGN PCIGN000_DGN.ZIP 329 KB Native DWG PCIGN000_DWG.ZIP 475 KB Native Text PCIGN000.doc 68 KB
PDF PCIGN000.pdf 341 KB
PCIGN001 General Instrument Purge Details Date: 09-01
Native DGN PCIGN001_DGN.ZIP 860 KB Native DWG PCIGN001_DWG.ZIP 697 KB Native Text PCIGN001.doc 68 KB
PDF PCIGN001.pdf 234 KB

Instrument Air
PCIIA000 Instrument Air Installation Details Date: 07-01
Native DGN PCIIA000_DGN.ZIP 274 KB Native DWG PCIIA000_DWG.ZIP 1175 KB Native Text PCIIA000.doc 62 KB
PDF PCIIA000.pdf 482 KB

Instrument Piping
PCCIP001 Instrument Piping and Tubing Systems Criteria Date: 07-98
Native Text PCCIP001.doc 88 KB
PDF PCCIP001.pdf 30 KB
PCSIP001 Instrument Piping and Tubing Systems Specifications Date: 07-98
Native Text PCSIP001.doc 121 KB
PDF PCSIP001.pdf 103 KB

Process Analyzers
PCIPA001 Process Analyzer System Field Installation Date: 10-01
Native Text PCIPA001.doc 110 KB
PDF PCIPA001.pdf 39 KB

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.7 Instrument Installation 107

TABLE 1.7h Continued

Listing of Process Industry Practices for Instrument Installation
Pressure
PCIPR000 Pressure Installation Details Date: 04-99
Native DGN PCIPR000_dgn.exe 3912 KB Native DWG PCIPR000_dwg.exe 3137 KB Native Text PCIPR000.doc 154 KB
PDF PCIPR000.pdf 8314 KB

Temperature
PCFTE000 Temperature Measurement Fabrication Details Date: 04-00
Native DGN PCFTE000_DGN.ZIP 242 KB Native DWG PCFTE000_DWG.ZIP 393 KB Native Text PCFTE000.doc 73 KB
PDF PCFTE000.pdf 632 KB
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.8 Instrument Calibration
H. M. HASHEMIAN (2003)

INTRODUCTION
Span Shift
The performance of a process instrument such as a temper- Zero Shift
ature or pressure sensor normally depends on its accuracy 100
and response time. Accuracy is a qualitative term that de-

e
rv
Cu
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

scribes how well the instrument may measure the process

e
rv
n
tio

Cu
parameter (see Section 1.4 for an in-depth discussion), and

% Output y

ra

tic
lib
response time specifies the speed by which the instrument

ris
Ca

te
ac
al
can detect any significant change in the value of a process

ar
tu

Ch
Ac
parameter. Accuracy and response time are largely indepen-

ed
ifi
dent and are therefore identified through separate procedures.

ec
b

Sp
The accuracy of a process instrument is established m
0
through its calibration, and the response time is determined by
0 % Input x 100
exposing the instrument to a dynamic input and measuring its
Span
response time from the transient output. Response time is
discussed in more detail in Section 1.9. Calibration is done by
FIG. 1.8a
providing the instrument with a number of known and stable
Illustration of zero and span. b = zero elevation; m = gain of a
inputs to ensure that the output accurately represents the input. linear transmitter; span = the change in input (x) as it travels from
Two terms are important in instrument calibration. These 0100%; range = the change in output (y) corresponding to 0100%
terms are zero and span, as illustrated in Figure 1.8a. In this span; output @ input = 0 is called lower range value; output @
figure, the calibration of a linear transmitter is approximated input = 100% is called upper range value.
with a straight line, represented by the equation y = mx + b,
where y is the output, x is the input, m is the slope of the +Zero
line, and b is the intercept. The calibration of an instrument Shift
may change due to a change in zero, a change in span, or a Zero
change in both zero and span. A change in zero is also Shift
referred to as a bias error, DC offset, or zero shift. A zero
shift results in a change in instrument reading (either positive
Output

or negative) at all points along its range (Figure 1.8b). A zero

shift can result from several causes, such as a change in
ambient temperature affecting the calibration. For example,
if an instrument is calibrated at room temperature and used
at a different temperature, its output may include a bias error
(or zero shift) due to the temperature difference.
The change in span is also referred to as a gain error or Input

span shift. A span shift means an increase or a decrease in the FIG. 1.8b
slope of the instrument output line for the same input (see Illustration of a zero shift in an instrument calibration.
Figure 1.8c). Typically, calibration errors involving span shift
alone are less common than calibration errors due to both zero Calibration of Pressure Sensors
and span shifts. In Figure 1.8c, both cases are shown: span shift
without zero shift and span shift with zero shift. In pressure Calibration of pressure sensors (including both absolute and
transmitters, about 40% of the calibration changes are caused differential-pressure sensors) involves using a constant pres-
by zero shift, about 30% by span shift, and only about 20% by sure source such as a deadweight tester (see Figure 1.8d).
1
span shift alone. As for the remaining 10%, the calibration With a deadweight tester, constant pressure is produced for
changes are due to other effects, such as nonlinearity. the sensor while the sensor output is monitored and adjusted

108
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.8 Instrument Calibration 109

a pressure that corresponds to 100% of the span is applied

by the deadweight tester, and the sensor output is adjusted
to 20 mA. These adjustments to the output are made by
setting two potentiometers provided in the pressure sensor.
These adjustment devices are referred to as the zero and span
Output

potentiometers. The next step in the calibration of a pressure

Span Shift without transmitter is to apply known pressures between 0 and 100%
Zero Shift
of span to verify the linearity of the transmitter and to make
any necessary adjustments to obtain accurate mA outputs for
all inputs.
The zero and span adjustments of a pressure sensor inter-
Input act, meaning that changing one will cause the other to change,
and vice versa. Thus, in calibrating a pressure sensor, the
zero and span are often both adjusted to produce the most
accurate output that can be achieved for each input pressure.
Because of the nonlinearities in some pressure sensors, the
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

input/output relationships cannot be exactly matched, no

matter how well the span and zero adjustments are tuned
together. For that reason, in most pressure sensors, a linearity
Output

Span Shift adjustment is also provided (in addition to the zero and span
+ Zero Shift
potentiometers) to help achieve the best agreement between
the input pressure and the output current.
In lieu of a deadweight tester, one can also use a stable
pressure source and a precision pressure gauge as the input.
Precision pressure gauges are available in a variety of ranges
Input from a number of manufacturers (see Section 5.11). Highly
accurate digital pressure indicators can also be used for cal-
FIG. 1.8c ibration. As will be seen later, automated pressure sensor
Illustration of span shifts. calibration equipment is also available that uses digital tech-
nology to offer both accuracy and convenience.

Pressure Gauge As-Found and As-Left Data

Weights
40 50 60
The calibration of an instrument can change with time. There-
30 70 Piston fore, instruments are recalibrated periodically. The periodic
20 80 calibration procedure typically involves two steps: (1) deter-
10 90 mine if calibration is needed, and (2) calibrate if needed.
0 100
In the first step, known input signals (e.g., 0, 25, 50, 75, and
100% of span) are applied to the instrument, and its output
is recorded on a data sheet. The data thus generated is referred
Plunger
to as the as-found calibration data (see Table 1.8e). If the as-
found data show that the instruments calibration is still accept-
Oil
able, no calibration is needed. Otherwise, the instrument is

TABLE 1.8e
FIG. 1.8d Example of an Instrument Calibration Data
Schematic of a typical deadweight tester.
Input Signal Desired Output As-Found Data As-Left Data
(% of Span) (mA) (mA) (mA)
to make the electrical output proportional to the applied pres- 0 4.00 3.93 3.99
sure. For example, a pressure sensor may be calibrated to 25 8.00 8.03 8.01
produce an output in the range of 4 to 20 mA for pressure
50 12.00 11.92 12.04
inputs covering the whole span of the sensor (0 to 100%).
75 16.00 16.09 15.96
For most pressure sensors, with no pressure applied, the
transmitter output is adjusted to produce a 4-mA signal. Next, 100 20.00 20.12 19.97

2003 by Bla Liptk

 110 General Considerations

calibrated by systematically applying a series of input signals sensor may be calibrated using input signals in this sequence:
and making zero and span adjustments as necessary to bring 0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 75, 50, 25, and 0% of span.
the sensor within acceptance limits or criteria. The input/out- Normally, a manufacturers specification of an instru-
put data after this calibration is referred to as the as-left data, ments accuracy is arrived at considering hysteresis, linearity,
and the difference between the as-found and as-left data is repeatability, and other factors that can affect the instruments
often termed the calibration drift or calibration shift. input/output relationship (see Section 1.3 for the definitions
The acceptance criterion for calibration is normally of these terms).
established by the user, based on the accuracy requirements
for the instrument and/or on the manufacturers specification. Calibration Traceability
Typically, manufacturers state the inaccuracy (the error or
To be valid and acceptable, all calibrations should be traceable
uncertainty) of an instrument in terms of a percentage of span
to a national standard or to a known physical phenomenon.
throughout the range of the instrument. For example, pressure
In the United States, equipment calibrations are expected to
sensor errors can be as low as about 0.05% of span in high-
be traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Tech-
precision sensors or as high as about 1% of span in sensors
nology (NIST), in Gaithersburg, MD. Each country has its
for general applications.
own standard calibration laboratory for a variety of parameters
The high-precision performance can only be obtained if
such as pressure, temperature, voltage, resistance, weight, time,
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

the sensor is properly calibrated, because overall accuracy

and so on. The national standards laboratories are normally
depends as much on the quality of the calibration process as
charged with calibration of primary standards. A primary stan-
it does on the ability of the sensor to provide a particular
dard is an instrument that is calibrated at the national standard
accuracy. Reliable calibration requires the availability of
laboratory like the NIST and used to calibrate other equipment.
trained personnel, written procedures, and accurate calibra- For example, the primary standard for calibration of resistance
tion equipment. Obviously, the accuracy of the calibration temperature detectors (RTDs) is a precision RTD that is
equipment must be much better than the equipment being referred to as a standard platinum resistance thermometer or
calibrated, and the calibration personnel must understand the SPRT. Each RTD calibration laboratory has one or more SPRTs
calibration process and exercise care in performing the cali- that are sent to NIST periodically to be calibrated.
bration task, reading the calibration data, and documenting To be calibrated by a national standard laboratory such
the results. If an instrument is not properly calibrated, it will as NIST, a primary standard must be in good working con-
not produce accurate and reliable measurements, even if the dition and meet certain requirements. Otherwise, NIST may
quality of the instrument itself is high. not calibrate it. National standards laboratories are charged
with helping to maintain primary standards and therefore do
Hysteresis not calibrate common-purpose equipment, nor do they repair
equipment that is not in good working order.
Hysteresis is a phenomenon that causes an instruments output To protect the primary standard equipment, a secondary
to vary, depending on the direction of the applied input signals, standard (also called transfer standard) may be used. In this
i.e., whether it is increasing or decreasing (see Figures 1.3b case, the primary standard is used to calibrate the secondary
and 1.8f). To account for hysteresis, instruments are some- standard, which is then used for calibration of other instru-
times calibrated using both increasing and decreasing input ments. The advantage of this approach is that it preserves the
signals, and the results are averaged. For example, a pressure integrity as well as the accuracy of the primary standard by
minimizing its handling and use. The disadvantage is that,
every time an instrument is calibrated, the accuracy that can
be claimed is below the accuracy of the standard that is used
in its calibration. Therefore, in going from a primary standard
to a secondary standard, a loss of accuracy results.
A common rule is that an instrument shall be calibrated
using a standard that is at least four times more accurate than
the instrument being calibrated. This requirement is some-
Output

times difficult to meet, as instruments have become so accu-

rate in recent years that one may not find a standard that can
be four times more accurate.

Linearity and Damping Adjustments

As was mentioned before, in addition to zero and span, some

Input
instruments also have a linearity adjustment that is used to
FIG. 1.8f produce the most linear input/output relationship through-
Illustration of hysteresis. out the span. A damping adjustment is also available in

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.8 Instrument Calibration 111

some instruments. This adjustment does not affect the cali-

bration of an instrument, but it affects its response time. The
purpose of the damping adjustment is to reduce the noise in
the output signal of the instrument when the process is very
noisy. This is accomplished by increasing the damping, which
slows the dynamic response of the instrument so that it is not
sensitive to high-frequency or noisy inputs.

Automated Calibration Equipment

Recent advancements in electronics and computer technolo-

gies have resulted in the development of a variety of auto-
mated test equipment and computer-aided calibrations. For
example, Figure 1.8g illustrates the components of an auto-
mated pressure sensor calibration system. It consists of a
programmable pressure source that is controlled by a com-
FIG. 1.8h
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

puter and produces known pressure inputs that are applied to

Calibration results from automated calibration.
the sensor being calibrated. The output of the sensor is
recorded by the same computer and produces the record of
the as-found data. The sensor is calibrated using both increas-
primary and secondary temperature standards, melting- or
ing and decreasing input signals as shown in Figure 1.8h, and
freezing-point cells are used. These cells are made of such
a hysteresis curve is also produced. Next, the software com-
material as tin, zinc, silver, and gold whose melting or freez-
pares the as-found data against the acceptance criteria and
ing temperatures are set by nature and are accurately known.
automatically determines if the sensor needs to be recali-
These cells are referred to as intrinsic standards. These fixed-
brated. If so, the system provides the necessary input signals
point cells are expensive, difficult to maintain, and normally
to the sensor under calibration and holds the input value are used only in standard laboratories.
constant until zero and span adjustments are made manually.
For the calibration of average temperature sensors, the
After the calibration, the software produces a report and
fixed-point cells are seldom used. The more likely choice for
stores the calibration data for trending, incipient failure detec- a reference cell is an ice bath, an oil bath, or an electric furnace-
tion, and other purposes. controlled bath. As shown in Figure 1.8i, the sensor to be
calibrated is installed in a temperature bath along with a stan-
Calibration of Temperature Sensors dard reference sensor. The reference sensor is used to measure
the bath temperature. A data table is then made of the bath
Temperature sensors such as RTDs and thermocouples are temperature vs. the output of the sensor being calibrated. This
calibrated using a constant-temperature bath and a standard procedure is repeated for a number of widely spaced temper-
thermometer. The type of calibration bath used depends on atures covering the temperature range of the sensor.
the temperature range, the accuracy requirements, and the Each pair of measurements is referred to as a calibration
application of the sensor. For example, for the calibration of point. The number of calibration points depends on the type
of sensor and the temperature range. For RTDs, three cali-
bration points may be sufficient, whereas thermocouples
Hydraulic or Pneumatic Line
normally require a larger number. This is because the tem-
perature vs. resistance relationship of RTDs is quadratic, but
the thermocouple output relates to temperature by a higher-
order polynomial. The calibration data is then fit to an inter-
Programmable Pressure
Pressure Source Sensor polation equation, and the constants of the equation are
identified and used to produce a calibration table for the
sensor. The calibration table should not be extrapolated
much beyond the calibration end points. A good rule of
thumb is to extrapolate the calibration table above the high-
est calibration point or below the lowest calibration point
2
by no more than 20%.
Computer Automated equipment is often used in the calibration of
temperature sensors. These systems automatically control
FIG. 1.8g and change the bath temperature, record the reading of both
Principle of an automated pressure sensor calibration system. the reference sensor and the sensor(s) being calibrated, fit the

2003 by Bla Liptk

 112 General Considerations

RTD SPRT drift randomly within a certain band. Typically, the band is
the largest at the beginning of the life cycle of the instrument,
then it narrows and remains stable for a long period before
it widens again as the instrument ages.

Calibration of Smart Instruments

Smart instruments such as smart pressure sensors often can

be calibrated remotely and without the need for manual zero
Bath
or span adjustment at the sensor location. The zero is adjusted
by adding or subtracting a bias signal at the output of the sensor
as necessary to offset the zero shift. The span is adjusted by
changing the gain of the sensor output as necessary to make
up for changes in sensor span.
The main advantage of the remote calibration of smart
instruments is time conservation. For example, to calibrate a
conventional pressure sensor, its cover must be removed to
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

T R access the zero and span potentiometers. This can be a dif-

ficult and time-consuming task when the pressure sensor is
installed in a harsh industrial environment.

Assessment of Accuracy

The accuracy of an instrument is determined from its calibra-

tion accuracy, environmental effects on calibration, and instru-
ment drift rate. Right after calibration, the accuracy of an instru-
ment is derived from the accuracy of the calibration standard
and the calibration process. Next, the effects of the environment
FIG. 1.8i on the calibration must be determined. For example, the cali-
Temperature sensor calibration setup. bration of a pressure sensor is often changed by variations in
the ambient temperature. In the case of differential-pressure
sensors, changes in the static pressure of the process can also
calibration data to interpolation equations, and print both a change the calibration. The manufacturer can usually provide
calibration table and a report or certification of the results. data on temperature and static pressure effects on accuracy. The
Using such a system, a number of sensors can be calibrated errors caused by these effects must be combined with the cal-
simultaneously with excellent repeatability and consistency. ibration errors to arrive at the total error of the installed sensor.
Next, the instrument drift must be accounted for in deter-
Calibration Intervals mining the total error. Usually, the drift error is added to the
sum of calibration error and the errors due to the environ-
Instruments are traditionally calibrated once a year, or more
mental effects so as to calculate the total error. The inaccuracy
often, depending on the accuracy requirements. However, due
of the sensor is then stated based on this total error. A com-
to the great advances in electronics in recent years, it has
mon formula for determining the total error is
been determined that annual calibrations may not be needed
for high-quality instruments, especially if an on-line moni- Total error = Root sum squared (RSS) of random errors
toring system is implemented to verify their performance. + Sum of bias errors 1.8(1)
This is described in detail in Section 1.9.
Typically, the total error may be a number like 0.35% of span,
To determine the right calibration interval for an instru-
of range, or of the actual indicated value, depending on the
ment, two pieces of information are required: (1) the accuracy type of sensor used. This number, although an indication of
requirement for the sensor and (2) the instrument drift rate. the total error, is referred to as the inaccuracy or uncertainty
For example, if a pressure transmitter drift rate is 0.25% of of the instrument.
span per year, and the accuracy requirement is 0.50% of span,
then biannual calibrations may be sufficient. The problem is Calibration and Range Setting
that the drift rates of most instruments are usually not known.
Research has shown that instruments such as temperature and Calibration and range setting are the same in case of analog
pressure sensors do not drift unidirectionally upward or transmitters. As for intelligent devices, calibration and range
downward so as to provide an opportunity to calculate an setting are different. For example, for smart (HART) trans-
objective drift rate. Rather, these and most other instruments mitters, calibration is called trim to distinguish it from range.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.8 Instrument Calibration 113

For fieldbus devices, ranging is called scale to distinguish it that this is ranging and not calibration. Calibration is when
from calibration. Ranging is accomplished by selecting input at zero differential pressure the transmitter reading is found
values at which the outputs are 4 mA and 20 mA, while to be 1 inch of water and it is corrected to read 0 inches of
calibration is performed to correct the sensor reading when water.
it is inaccurate.
For example, if a differential-pressure sensor has a lower
range limit (LRL) of 200 inches of water and an upper References
range limit (URL) of +200 inches of water, and if one wants
to use it to measure a differential pressure in the range of 0 1. EPRI Topical Report, On-Line Monitoring of Instrument Channel Per-
to 100 inches of water, then both the LRV and the URV formance, TR-104965-R1 NRC SER, Electric Power Research Insti-
settings must be changed. This adjustment would range tute, Final Report, Palo Alto, CA, September 2000.
2. Hashemian, H. M. et al., Aging of Nuclear Plant Resistance Temper-
(increase) the lower range value (LRV) to equal 0 and lower
ature Detectors, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Report Num-
the upper range value (URV) to be 100 inches of water. Note ber NUREG/CR-5560, Washington, DC, June, 1990.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing
H. M. HASHEMIAN (2003)

Off-line calibration of the zero and span of measurement was

the topic of the previous section. In this section, the on-line
methods of response time determination and calibration ver-
ification will be described for sensors that have already been
installed in operating processes. As in Section 1.8, the discus-
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

sion here will also focus on temperature and pressure sensors.

Input Output
Sensor
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESPONSE TIME TESTING

The response time of an instrument is measured by applying

a dynamic input to it and recording the resulting output. The
recording is then analyzed to measure the response time of
the instrument. The type of analysis is a function of both the
type of instrument under test and on the type of dynamic
63.2% of A
Response

input applied, which can be a step, a ramp, a sine wave, or

even just random noise. A
The terminology used in connection with time response
to a step change was defined in Figure 1.3z. The time constant
(T ) of a first-order system was defined as the time required
for the output to complete 63.2% of the total rise (or decay)
resulting from a step change in the input. Figures 1.9a and Time
1.9b show the responses of instruments to both step changes
and ramps in their inputs and identify the time constant (T ) FIG. 1.9a
and response times ( ) of these instruments. Illustration of step response and calculation of time constant.
As shown in Figure 1.9a, the time constant of an instru-
ment that responds as a first-order system equals its response Although most instruments are not first-order systems, their
time and it is determined by measuring, after a step change in response time is often determined as if they were, and as if
the input, the time it takes for the output to reach 63.2% of its their response time were synonymous with their time con-
final value. The response of a first-order system is mathemat- stant. However, if the system is of higher than first order,
ically described by a first-order differential equation, there is a time constant for each first-order component in the
t/
system. In spite of this, in the field, the definition of the first-
c(t) = K(1 e ) 1.9(1) order time constant is often also used in connection with
higher-order systems.
where
The ramp response time is the time interval by which the
c = output
output lags the input when both are changing at a constant
t = time
rate. For a ramp input, the response time () is defined as the
K = gain
delay shown in Figure 1.9b. This is also referred to as ramp
= time constant of the instrument
time delay and can be measured after the initial transient,
when the output response has become parallel with the input
The 63.2% mentioned earlier is obtained from this equa-
ramp signal. For a first-order system, the ramp time delay,
tion by calculating the output when the time equaling the
response time, and time constant are synonymous. The ramp
time constant (t = ) has passed.
time delay can be mathematically described as
1
c( ) = K(1 e ) = 0.632 K 1.9(2) c(t) = C(t ) 1.9(3)

114
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 115

Trigger Signal
Multimeter
IN OUT Conditioning

Sensor

Hot Air
Timing Probe Blower

Input Output Ch. 1 Ch. 2

Sensor
Rotating Data Recorder
Water Tank
r
Input

Output
Timing Signal
Response
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Response

Time
Channel 2
Test Transient

0.632 A
Time
Channel 1
FIG. 1.9b
Illustration of ramp response and calculation of ramp time delay.
Response Time

where C is the ramp rate of the input signal. The derivations FIG. 1.9c
of Equations 1.9(1) through 1.9(3) and the topic of Laplace Plunge test setup.
transformation is covered in the second volume of the Instru-
ment Engineers Handbook and also in Reference 1. Because the response time of a temperature sensor is a
function of the type, flow rate, and temperature of the media
in which the test is performed, the American Society for
LABORATORY TESTING Testing and Material (ASTM) has developed Standard E644
(Reference 2), which specifies a standard plunge test. This
The response time of temperature sensors is measured by using document specifies that a plunge test should be performed in
a step input, whereas the response time of pressure sensors is water that is at near room temperature and is flowing at a
usually detected by using ramp input signals. This is because velocity of 3 ft/sec (1 m/sec). A plunge test can therefore be
obtaining a step change in temperature is easier and more performed by heating the sensor and then plunging it into a
repeatable than obtaining a step change in pressure. Ramp rotating tank that contains water at room temperature. By
inputs are also preferred for the testing of pressure sensors, controlling the speed and the radial position of the sensor,
because a step input can cause oscillation of the pressure trans- the desired water velocity can be obtained for the plunge test.
mitter output, which may complicate the measurement. There can be other ways for performing the plunge test.
For example, the sensor can be at room temperature and
Testing of Temperature Sensors plunged into warm water. Although the actual temperatures
have an effect on response time, this effect is usually small;
Figure 1.9c illustrates the equipment used in determining the therefore, the response time is not significantly different if the
response time of a temperature sensor. This experiment is water is at a few degrees above or below room temperature.
called the plunge test. At the beginning of the test, the sensor
is held by a hydraulic plunger, and its output is connected to Testing of Pressure Sensors
a recorder. The heated sensor is then plunged into a tank of
water at near-ambient temperature. This step change in tem- The response time of pressure sensors is usually determined
perature determines the type of transient in its output, as was by using hydraulic ramp generators, which produce the ramp
illustrated in Figure 1.9a. To identify the response time of test input signals. A photograph of a hydraulic ramp generator
the temperature sensor, the time corresponding to 63.2% of is provided in Figure 1.9d. This equipment consists of two
the full response is measured. pressure bottles, one bottle filled with gas or air and the other

2003 by Bla Liptk

 116 General Considerations

sure sensor is measured. When testing differential-pressure

sensors (serving the measurement of level or flow), the set-
point pressure can be selected to correspond to the low level
or flow alarm setpoint of the process. In such cases, a decreas-
ing ramp input signal is used during the response time test
and the setpoint that initiates the test reading corresponds to
the low d/p pressure setting at which the alarm or shutdown
is triggered in the process.
These response time measurements can be important to
overall process safety if the instrument delay time is signif-
icant relative to the total time available to take corrective
action after the process pressure has exceeded safe limits.

FIG. 1.9d IN SITU RESPONSE TIME TESTING

Photograph of pressure ramp generator for response time testing of
pressure sensors. The laboratory testing methods described earlier are useful
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

for testing of sensors if they can be removed from the process

with water, as shown in Figure 1.9e. In the outlet from the and brought to a laboratory for testing, but this is often not
gas bottle, an onoff and a throttling valve is provided. The the case. For testing installed sensors, a number of new tech-
setting of the adjustable valve determines the flow rate of the niques have been developed as described below. They are
gas into the water bottle. Therefore, the desired ramp pressure referred to as in situ, on-line, or in-place testing techniques.
rate can be generated by adjusting the throttling valve. To measure the in-service response time of a temperature
The water pressure is detected simultaneously by two sensor, in situ testing is mandatory. This is because the
sensors, a high-speed reference sensor and the sensor under response time of a temperature sensor always is a function
test, as shown in Figure 1.9f. The outputs of the two sensors of the particular process temperature, process pressure, and
are recorded on a two-pen recorder, and the time difference process flow rate. The most critical effect is process flow rate,
(delay) between the two outputs is measured as the response followed by the effect of process temperature and then pres-
time of the sensor being tested. This delay time measurement sure. The reason why the response time is affected by the
is taken after the pressure in the water bottle has reached a process pressure and flow rate is because they affect the heat
predetermined setpoint or after the input and output curves transfer of the film of the temperature-sensing surface of the
have become parallel. detector. In contrast, the process temperature affects not only
The pressure setpoint is based on the requirements of the the heat transfer of the film but also the properties of the
process where the sensor is going to be used. For example, if sensor internals and sensor geometry.
a full process shutdown is initiated, and if the pressure exceeds Consequently, it is not normally possible to accurately
a certain upper limit, then this pressure is likely to be used as predict or model the effect of process temperature on the
the setpoint pressure at which the response time of the pres- response time of temperature sensors; predicting the effects

Gas
Supply

Signal
Rate Reference
Adjust Sensor
Gas Data
Water
Recorder
Sensor
Signal
Under Test
Initiate
Solenoid

FIG. 1.9e
Simplified diagram of pressure ramp generator.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 117

Output For thermocouples, a higher current (e.g., 500 mA) is

typically required. This is because the electrical resistance of
a thermocouple is distributed along the length of the thermo-
Pressure

Reference Sensor couple leads, but the resistance of an RTD is concentrated at

Time
the tip of the sensing element. In the case of thermocouples,

the LCSR current heats the entire length of the thermocouple
Pressure wire, not only the measuring junction. Because, in testing
Test Sensor
Test Signal
thermocouples, we are interested only in heat transfer at the
measuring junction, it is preferred to heat up the thermocou-
Time
ple first and measure its output only after the heating current
FIG. 1.9f has been turned off. Also, for LCSR testing of thermocouples,
Ramp test setup. AC current is used instead of DC to avoid Peltier heating or
cooling, which can occur at the thermocouple junction if DC
of process pressure and flow rate are easier. This is because current is used. The direction of the DC current determines
we know that, as the process pressure or flow rate increases, whether the measuring junction is cooled or heated.
the heat transfer coefficient on the sensor surface also
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increases and causes a decrease in the response time, and Testing RTDs As shown in Figure 1.9g, a Wheatstone bridge
vice versa. In contrast, an increase in process temperature is used in the LCSR testing of RTDs. The RTD is connected
can cause either an increase, or a decrease in the response to one arm of the bridge, and the bridge is balanced while the
time of a sensor. This is because, on the one hand, an increase electrical current in the circuit is low (switch is open). Under
in process temperature can result in an increase in the heat these conditions, the bridge output is recorded, and the current
transfer coefficient, which reduces sensor response time. On is then switched to high (switch closed) to produce the bridge
the other hand, an increase in process temperature can also output for the LCSR test shown in Figure 1.9h. In preparing
expand or contract the various air gaps in the internals of the for the LCSR test, the power supply is adjusted to provide a
temperature sensor, causing dimensional changes or altering low current within the range of 1 to 2 mA and a high current
material properties, which can increase or decrease the in the range of 30 to 50 mA. The actual values depend on the
response times of the various sensors. RTD and on the environment in which the RTD is operating.
In the case of pressure sensors, the response time is nor- In addition, the amplifier gain is adjusted to give an output in
mally not changed by variations in process conditions. Thus, the range of 5 to 10 V for the bridge.
for pressure sensors, the choice of in situ response time testing Figure 1.9i shows a typical LCSR transient for a 200-
is based on considering the convenience of in situ testing and RTD that was tested with about 40 mA of current in an
less on the basis of the accuracy of the test results. Therefore, operating power plant. In some plants, because of process
one can measure the response time of an installed pressure
sensor without removing it from the process by taking the ramp
test generator (Figure 1.9d) to the installed sensor (if this can
be done efficiently and safely). In fact, this operation is often
tedious, time consuming, and expensive, especially in hazard-
Rd
ous locations or in processes such as exist in nuclear power R1
plants. Still, if one can afford it, using an in situ technique to
Variable
measure the response time of a pressure sensor is preferred. Fixed Resistor
Resistors
Testing of Temperature Sensors Amplifier

The in situ response time testing of temperature sensors is

referred to as the loop current step response (LCSR) test. LCSR
is performed by electrically heating the temperature sensor by R1 LCSR
sending electric current through the sensor extension leads. Transient
RRTD
This causes the temperature of the sensor to rise above the
ambient temperature. Depending on the sensor involved, the
amount of current and the amount of temperature rise used in
the LCSR test can be adjusted. When testing resistance tem-
Switch
perature detectors (RTDs), the use of 30 to 50 mA of DC DC Power
current is normally sufficient. This amount of current raises Supply RS
the internal temperature of the RTD sensor by about 5 to 10C
(8 to 18F) above the ambient temperature, depending on the FIG. 1.9g
RTD and the process fluid surrounding it. Wheatstone bridge for LCSR test of RTDs.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 118 General Considerations

Sensor Power
Output Supply

V
Electric Current

Thermocouple
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Bridge Output

Test Medium

Time FIG. 1.9j

Simplified schematic of LCSR test equipment for thermocouples.
FIG. 1.9h
Principle of LCSR test.

temperature fluctuations, the LCSR transient is not as smooth

as shown in Figure 1.9i. In such cases, the LCSR test is
1.0 repeated several times on the same RTD, and the results are
Single Transient averaged to obtain a smooth LCSR transient as in Figure 1.9i.
0.8
The LCSR test duration is typically 30 sec for RTDs mounted
in fast-response thermowells and tested in flowing water. The
0.6
Response

LCSR test duration, when the sensor is detecting the temper-

0.4 ature of liquids, typically ranges from 20 to 60 sec but is
much longer for air or gas applications.
0.2
Testing Thermocouples The LCSR test equipment for ther-
0.0
0 10 20 30
mocouples includes an AC power supply and circuitry shown
in the schematic in Figure 1.9j. The test is performed by first
1.2 applying the AC current for a few seconds while the thermo-
Averaged Transient
couple is heated above the ambient temperature. After that,
1.0
the current flow is terminated, and the thermocouple is con-
0.8 nected to a millivolt meter to record its temperature as it cools
Response

down to the ambient temperature (Figure 1.9k). The millivolt

0.6
output records a transient representing the cooling of the
0.4 thermocouple junction alone. The rate of cooling is a function
of the dynamic response of the thermocouple.
0.2
Figure 1.9l shows an LCSR transient of a thermocouple
0.0
0 10 20 30
that was tested in flowing air. As in the case of RTDs, LCSR
transients for thermocouples can also be noisy as a result of
Time (sec)
fluctuations in process temperature and other factors. To over-
FIG. 1.9i come noise, the LCSR test can be repeated a few times, and
In-plant LCSR transients for RTDs. the resulting transients can be averaged to produce smooth

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 119

Test Signal

LCSR

Heat Transfer: Sensor

to Surrounding Fluid Plunge

Heat Transfer:
Time Surrounding Fluid
to Sensor

FIG. 1.9m
Heat transfer process in plunge and LCSR tests.
Output

(plunge test) are related if the heat transfer is unidirectional

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(radial) and the heat capacity of the sensing element is insig-

Ambient Temperature nificant. These two conditions are usually satisfied for indus-
trial temperature sensors. Nevertheless, to prove that the LCSR
test is valid for an RTD or a thermocouple, laboratory tests
using both plunge and LCSR methods should be performed
Time
on each sensor design to ensure that the two tests produce the
FIG. 1.9k same results.
Illustration of LCSR test principle for a thermocouple. Because, for most sensors, the heat transfer path during
LCSR and plunge tests is usually the same, one can use LCSR
1/16" Dia. K-Type test data to estimate the sensor response of a plunge test
1 where the step change in temperature occurs outside the sensor.
LCSR Response (Normalized)

The equivalence between the two tests has been shown math-
ematically (theoretically) as well as in numerous laboratory
tests (see References 3 through 5). Therefore, it can be con-
cluded that the test results gained from internal heating of a
sensor (LCSR) can be analyzed to yield the response time of
a sensor to a step change in temperature that occurred in the
medium outside the sensor.
0
One can mathematically prove the similarities between the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 transient outputs, which are generated by the same temperature
Time (sec) sensor, when evaluated by the plunge and the LCSR tests. For
FIG. 1.9l
the plunge test, the sensor output response T(t) to a step change
LCSR transient from a laboratory test of a sheathed thermocouple. in the temperature of the surrounding fluid is given by

T (t ) = A0 + A1e t /1 + A2e t / + L 1.9(4)

LCSR results. In the case of thermocouples, extraneous high-
frequency noise superimposed on the LCSR transient can be
removed by electronic or digital filtering. Each of the three (or more) elements in Equation 1.9(4) is
referred to as a mode, while the terms 1 and 2 are called
Analysis of LCSR Test Results The raw data from the LCSR the modal time constants, and the terms (A0, A1, A2,) are
test cannot be interpreted easily into a response time reading. called the modal coefficients. For the LCSR test, the sensor
This is because the test data is the result of step change in output response T (t) to a step change in the temperature
temperature inside the sensor, whereas the response time of inside the sensor is given by
interest should be based on a step change in temperature out-
side the sensor. Fortunately, the heat from inside the sensor to T (t ) = B0 + B1e t /1 + B2e t / 2 + L 1.9(5)
the ambient fluid is transferred through the same materials as
the heat that is transferred from the process fluid to the sensor Note that the exponential terms in the above two equations are
(Figure 1.9m). Therefore, the sensor response due to internal identical; only their modal coefficients are different. The
temperature step (LCSR test) and external temperature step response time () of a temperature sensor is defined by Equation

2003 by Bla Liptk

 120 General Considerations

1.9(5), and it is therefore independent of the modal coefficients, 1

although it does depend on the modal time constants.

LCSR Response (Normalized)

Unbonded
= 1 1 ln 1 2 ln 1 3 K 1.9(6)
1 1 25% Bonded

75% Bonded
The other terms in the equation are the natural logarithm, ln,
and the response time () of the sensor. Therefore, one might Good Bond

list the steps required in the LCSR test to obtain the response 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
time of a temperature sensor as follows:
Time (sec)

1. Perform the LCSR test and generate the raw data. FIG. 1.9n
2. Fit the LCSR data to Equation 1.9(5) and identify the LCSR test to verify the attachment of a temperature sensor to a solid
modal time constants (1, 2 ,). surface.
3. Use the results of Step 2 in Equation 1.9(6) to obtain
the sensor response time. 1
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The above procedure has been successfully used for

determining the response times of both RTDs and thermo-
couples, both in laboratory and in situ applications. As a

LCSR Signal
result, it has been demonstrated that the LCSR test can deter- Partial Bond

mine the response time of a temperature sensor within about Medium Bond
10% of the conclusions of a plunge test if both were per-
formed under the same conditions. Good Bond

Applications of LCSR Testing Nuclear industry applica- 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
tions of the LCSR test include the response time determina-
Time (sec)
tion of reactor coolant temperature sensors. The LCSR tech-
nique has been approved by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
FIG. 1.9o
Commission (NRC) for in situ measurement of the response LCSR test to verify the attachment of a strain gauge to a solid surface.
6
time of RTDs in nuclear power plants. The LCSR test has
also been used in aerospace applications to correct transient
temperature data and in solid rocket motors to determine the
quality of the bonding of thermocouples with the solid mate-
7
rials such as the nozzle liners.
In addition to response time measurements, the LCSR
test has been used for sensor diagnostics such as

1. The in situ determination of discontinuities or nonho-

8
mogeneities in thermocouples. In this case, the pur-
pose of running the LCSR test on the thermocouple is
to check if the resulting LCSR signal is normal. This
test is especially useful if a reference set of baseline
LCSR data is available, representing the test results
on normal thermocouples so that gross nonhomoge- FIG. 1.9p
neities can be easily noted. RTD response time test equipment.
2. Determining if strap-on RTDs are properly bonded
to pipes or tubes. In case of the Space Shuttle main can determine the degree of bonding between the solid
7
engine, in an experiment, the LCSR test was used to surface and RTDs or strain gauges (Figure 1.9o).
verify the quality of strap-on RTD bonding within
the fuel lines. In this application, the RTD-based tem- Figures 1.9p and 1.9q illustrate the commercial equipment
perature measurement is used to detect fuel leakages. used in LCSR testing of RTDs and thermocouples. In
3. Verifying the bonding of strain gauges to solid sur- Figure 1.9p, an LCSR test system includes six channels for
faces. Figure 1.9n illustrates how the transients resulting RTD response time measurements so that six RTDs can be
from LCSR tests change as a function of the strength simultaneously tested. This system automatically performs
of RTD bonding to the pipe. Therefore, the LCSR test the LCSR test, obtains and analyzes the LCSR data, and

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 121

V V V V

t t t t

Isolated High-Pass Data Sampling

Amplifier Low-Pass
Plant Filter and Storage
Filter
Signal or Bias Device

FIG. 1.9s
Block diagram of the noise data acquisition equipment.

FIG. 1.9q 4.0

Thermocouple response time test analyzer.
2.0

Flow (%)
0.0

Noise
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2.0

4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)

FIG. 1.9t
Raw noise data from a flow sensor in a power plant.
Sensor Output

can be separated by filtering. This is necessary, because only

the process pressure fluctuations are of interest.
DC Signal Figure 1.9s illustrates how the noise can be extracted from
a raw signal that includes both the DC and the AC components.
The first step to remove the DC component is by adding a
Time negative bias or by highpass electronic filtering. Next, the
signal is amplified and passed through a lowpass filter, which
FIG. 1.9r
Principle of noise analysis technique.
removes the extraneous noise and provides for anti-aliasing.
Next, the signal is sent through an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter and subsequently to a data acquisition computer. The
determines the response times for each RTD. The system can
computer samples the data and stores it for analysis.
send the data to a printer and print a table of RTD response
The raw noise data from a pressure transmitter (Figure 1.9t)
times. A response time test transient display of a thermocouple
represents the natural process pressure fluctuations and includes
is illustrated in Figure 1.9q.
the information required to determine the response time of the
pressure sensor that generated the steady-state (DC) signal.
In Situ Testing of Pressure Sensors
The raw noise data is a small portion of a noise record, which
The response time of installed pressure sensors can be mea- is normally about 30 to 60 min.
sured remotely while the plant is in operation. This technique For noise data analysis, the two techniques available are
is called noise analysis and is based on the monitoring of the the frequency-domain analysis and the time-domain analysis.
normally present fluctuations of the pressure transmitter output The first uses the power spectral density (PSD) technique
signals. In Figure 1.9r, such an output signal is shown at a involving fast Fourier transform (FFT). The PSD is obtained
steady state that corresponds to the normal process pressure. by bandpass filtering the raw signal in a narrow frequency
This steady-state value is referred to as the DC reading. When band and calculating the variance of the result. This variance
magnified, it displays some small fluctuations. This magnified is divided by the width of the frequency band, and the results
signal is called the noise or the AC component of the signal. are plotted as a function of the center frequency of the band
pass. This procedure is repeated from the lowest to the highest
Analyzing of Noise Data The noise is produced by two expected frequencies of the raw signal to obtain the PSD. In
sources. The first source is the fluctuation of the process pres- Figure 1.9u, the frequency spectrum of the noise signal from
sure caused by turbulence, random heat transfer, vibration, and a pressure transmitter in an operating power plant is shown
other effects. Second, there is electrical noise superimposed against PSD. If the pressure transmitter is a first-order system,
on the pressure transmitter output signal. Fortunately, these its response time can be determined on the basis of measuring
two phenomena occur at widely different frequencies and thus the break frequency of the PSD as shown in Figure 1.9v.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 122 General Considerations

1.0E+00 equation to which the noise data is fit and the model param-
eters are calculated. These parameters are then used to cal-
1.0E01 9
culate the response time of the sensor. Time-domain analysis
1.0E02 is generally simpler to code in a computer and therefore
PSD (%/Hz)

is preferred for automated analysis. However, in time-

1.0E03
domain analysis, it is often difficult to remove noise data
1.0E04 components that are unrelated to the sensor response time.
For example, if the noise data contains very low-frequency
1.0E05
process fluctuations, the AR model will take them into
1.0E06 account. In such a case, it gives an erroneously large response
0.01 0.1 1 10 time value. In contrast, in frequency-domain analysis, it is
Frequency (Hz)
easier to ignore low-frequency process fluctuations and to
FIG. 1.9u fit the PSD to that portion of the data that most accurately
Pressure sensor PSD. represents the sensor.
Commercial, off-the-shelf equipment is available for
both the frequency-domain and the time-domain analysis
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1 of noise data. A number of companies provide spectrum ana-

=
1 lyzers (also called FFT analyzers), which take the raw noise
PSD

Fb
data from the output of a sensor and provide the necessary
Fb= Break Frequency
conditioning and filtering to analyze it and calculate the sen-
Frequency (Hz)
Fb sor response time. However, because of resonance and other
influences, simple FFT analysis does not always yield the
FIG. 1.9v correct response time reading. This is not a shortcoming of
First-order system PSD. the FFT equipment but a consequence of the inherent nature
of the input signal with which they must work.
1.0E+02

1.0E+00
ON-LINE VERIFICATION OF CALIBRATION
PSD (%/Hz)

The calibration of installed instruments such as industrial

1.0E02
pressure sensors involves (1) the decision whether calibration
is needed at all and (2) the actual calibration, when necessary.
1.0E04 The first step can be automated by implementing an on-line
drift monitoring system. This system samples the steady-state
1.0E06 output of operating process instruments and, if it is found to
0.01 0.1 1 10 have drifted, it calls for it to be calibrated. Conversely, if
Frequency (Hz)
there is no (or very little) drift, the instrument is not calibrated
FIG. 1.9w at all (or calibrated less frequently). The accuracy require-
Flow sensor PSD and its model fit. ments of the sensor involved determines the amount of allow-
able drift.
However, pressure sensors are not necessarily first order,
and PSD plots for actual process signals are not smooth Drift Evaluation Using Multiple Sensors
enough to allow the accurate measurement of the break fre-
quency. In addition, PSDs often also contain resonance and In drift evaluations, it is necessary to distinguish the drift that
other disturbances that further complicate the response-time occurs in the process from instrument drift before a reference
analysis. Therefore, both experience and a validated dynamic limit of allowable drift can be defined. For example, if
model of the sensor are needed to obtain the sensor response redundant sensors are used to measure the same process
time by analyzing a PSD plot. The model, which usually is parameter, their average reading can be assumed to closely
a frequency-domain equation, is fit to the PSD to yield the represent the process and used as the reference. This is done
model parameters, which are then used to calculate the by first sampling and storing the normal operating outputs of
response time of the pressure sensor. A PSD for a flow sensor the redundant instruments and then averaging these readings
in an operating power plant and its model fit are shown in for each instant of time. These average values are then sub-
Figure 1.9w. tracted from the corresponding individual readings of the
Autoregressive (AR) modeling is used for noise data redundant instruments to identify the deviation of each from
analysis in the time domain. An AR model is a time series the average.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 123

SG D Level
3.0
X1
X2 Y output
Deviation from Average (% Level)

X3
1.5

FIG. 1.9y
0.0
Illustration of training of a neural network.

1.5 models. Therefore, for the verification of on-line calibration,

empirical models are often preferred. Such empirical models
use empirical equations, neural networks, pattern recognition,
3.0 and sometimes a combination of these, including fuzzy logic
0 15 30
Time (Month) for data clustering, are used to generate the models output(s)
1014
based on its multiple inputs.
FIG. 1.9x Before using the empirical model, it is first trained under
On-line monitoring data for steam generator level transmitters. a variety of operating conditions. As shown in Figure 1.9y,
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

if the output parameter (y) is to be estimated on the basis of

measuring the input parameters x1, x2, and x3, then, during
In Figure 1.9x, the results of on-line monitoring of four the training period, weighting factors are applied to the input
steam-generator level transmitters in a nuclear power plant variables. These factors are gradually adjusted until the dif-
are shown. The difference between the average of the four ference between measured output and the output of the neural
transmitters and the individual readings are shown on the network is minimized. Such training can continue while the
y axis as a function of time in months. The data are shown neural network learns the relationship between the three
for a period of about 30 months of operation, and the four inputs and the single output, or while additional input and
signals show no significant drift during this period. Conse- output signals are provided to minimize the error in the
quently, one can conclude that the calibration of these trans- empirical model. Training of the model is completed when
mitters did not change and, therefore, they do not need to be the measured output is nearly identical to the estimate gen-
recalibrated. If it is suspected that all four transmitters are erated by the neural network. Once the training is completed,
drifting in an identical manner (drifting together in one direc- the output of the model can be used for drift evaluation or
tion), the data for deviation from the average would not reveal control purposes.
the drift. Therefore, to rule out any systematic or common An on-line calibration monitoring system might use a
drift, one of the four transmitters can be recalibrated. combination of averaging of redundant signals (averaging
can be both straight and weighted), empirical modeling,
Empirical Models, Neural Networks Another approach for physical modeling, and calibrated reference sensor(s) in a
detecting systematic drift is to obtain an independent estimate configuration similar to the one shown in Figure 1.9z. In such
of the monitored process and track that estimate along with a system, the raw data is first screened by a data-qualification
the indication of the redundant sensors. Both empirical and algorithm and then analyzed to provide an estimate of the
physical modeling techniques are used to estimate systematic process parameter being monitored. In the case of averaging
drift. They each monitor various related process variables analysis, a consistency algorithm is used to make sure that a
and, based on their values, evaluate the drift in the monitored reasonable agreement exists among the redundant signals and
parameter. For example, in a process involving the boiling that unreasonable readings are either excluded or weighted
of water (without superheating of the steam), temperature less that the others before the signals are averaged. Such
and pressure are related. Thus, if temperature is measured, systems as the one illustrated in Figure 9.1z can be consid-
the corresponding saturated steam pressure can be easily ered for both power plants and chemical industry applications
determined, tracked, and compared with the measured pres- for the on-line verification of the calibration requirements of
sure as a reference to identify systematic drift. The use of this process sensors.
method of drift detection does not require the use of multiple The data for on-line monitoring can be obtained from the
sensors, and individual sensors can also be tracked and their plant computer or from a dedicated data acquisition system.
calibration drift evaluated on line. Figure 1.9aa illustrates a data acquisition system used in a
The relationship between most process variables is much power plant for on-line calibration monitoring purposes.
more complex than the temperaturepressure relationship of The computer applies the on-line calibration algorithms and,
saturated steam. Therefore, most process parameters cannot based on the sampled data from a variety of process instru-
be evaluated from measurement of another variable. In addi- ments, provides such information as plots of deviation for
tion, an in-depth knowledge of the process is needed to pro- each instrument from a process estimate and a listing of
vide even an estimate of a parameter on the basis of physical instruments that have drifted. The data acquisition system

2003 by Bla Liptk

 124 General Considerations

REDUNDANT SIGNALS

Flow Signal S1
Straight or
Data Consistency
Flow Signal S2 Weighted
Qualification Checking F1
Averaging
Flow Signal S3

DIVERSE SIGNALS

Level (L)
Data Empirical Consistency
Temperature (T)
Qualification Model F2 Checking F
Pressure (P) &
Averaging

F 1 + F2 + F3 + F4
F=
4

Physical
Model F3 F is the
Best Estimate
of the Process
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Data
REFERENCE CHANNEL
Qualification F4

Deviations

S
1
2
S1 = S1 F
3 S2 = S2 F
S3 = S3 F
Time

FIG. 1.9z
Conceptual design of an on-line monitoring system.

a one-point calibration check. To verify the calibration of

M Results instruments over their entire range, on-line monitoring data
Plant Signals

U
L Signal
Plots shall also be collected during plant startup and shutdown
Computer
T
I
Isolation Tables episodes. With data from these episodes, the instrument cal-
P (Optional) Etc.
ibration can be verified for a wide range.
L
E According to research data on pressure transmitters in
X 14
E
nuclear power plants, about 70% of the time, the one-point
R calibration monitoring can reveal calibration problems
throughout the instrument range. This is because the drift in
pressure transmitters is usually due to a zero shift, which
Short does affect the entire operating range of the transmitter.
5 VDC
Reference
} Calibration
Signals

FIG. 1.9aa
Dedicated system. References

1. Hashemian, H. M. et al., Effect of Aging on Response Time of Nuclear

includes its own calibration signals so that test equipment
Plant Pressure Sensors. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
drift can be isolated from the drift that occurs in process NUREG/CR-5383, 1989.
instruments. If on-line monitoring data is already available 2. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard Meth-
in the plant computer, it can be stored or analyzed to provide ods for Testing Industrial Resistance Thermometers, Standard E 644
calibration verification results. 78, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 44, Philadelphia, PA, 1979.
3. Hashemian, H. M., New Technology for Remote Testing of Response
On-line calibration monitoring identifies calibration Time of Installed Thermocouples, United States Air Force, Arnold
problems at the monitored point (i.e., the process operating Engineering Development Center, Report No. AEDC-TR-9126, Vol.
conditions). As such, the above approach may be labeled as 1, Background and General Details, 1992.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 125

4. Hashemian, H. M. and Petersen, K. M., Loop current step response 9. Glocker, O. and Upadhyaya, B. R., Results and Interpretation of Mul-
method for in-place measurement of response time of installed RTDs tivariate Autoregressive Analysis Applied to Loss-of-Fluid Test Reactor
and thermocouples, in Proceedings of American Institute of Physics, Process Noise Data, SMORN-V, Vol. 21, Progress in Nuclear Energy,
Seventh International Symposium on Temperature, Vol. 6, 11511156, Pergamon Press, Burlington, MA, 447456, 1988.
Toronto, Can., 1992. 10. Hashemian, H. M., On-Line Testing of Calibration of Process Instru-
5. Hashemian, H. M. et al., Advanced Instrumentation and Maintenance mentation Channels in Nuclear Power Plants, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Technologies for Nuclear Power Plants, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Com- Commission, NUREG/CR-6343, 1995.
mission, NUREG/CR-5501, August 1988. 11. Upadhyaya, B. R., Glocker, O., and Eklund, J. J., Multivariate statis-
6. NUREG-0809, Review of Resistance Temperature Detector Time tical signal processing technique for fault detection and diagnostics,
Response Characteristics, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, ISA Transactions, 29(4), 7995, 1990.
Washington, D.C., 1981. 12. Tsoukalas, L. H. and Uhrig, R. E., Fuzzy and Neural Approaches in
7. Hashemian, H. M., Shell, C. S., and Jones, C. N., New Instrumentation Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
Technologies for Testing the Bonding of Sensors to Solid Materials, 13. Fantoni, P. F., Figedy, S., and Papin, B., A Neuro-Fuzzy Model
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Marshall Space Flight Applied to Full Range Signal Validation of PWR Nuclear Power
Center, NASA/CR-4744, 1996. Plant Data, Second OECD Specialist Meeting on Operator Aids
8. Hashemian, H. M. and Petersen, K. M., Measurement of performance for Severe Accident Management (SAMOA-2), Lyon, France,
of installed thermocouples, in Proceedings of Aerospace Industries 1997.
and Test Measurement Divisions of The Instrument Society of America, 14. EPRI Topical Report, On-line Monitoring of Instrument Channel Per-
37th International Instrumentation Symposium, 913926, ISA Paper formance, TR-104965-R1 NRC SER, Electric Power Research Insti-
#91113, San Diego, CA, 1991. tute, Final Report, Palo Alto, CA, September 2000.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems
T. J. WILLIAMS, E. J. SCHAFFER (1982) T. J. WILLIAMS (1995) A. ROHR (2003)

INTRODUCTION The goal of system reliability or of fault-tolerant com-

puting therefore is to either prevent or be able to recover from
Reliability in process control computing can be defined as faults and continue correct system operation. This also
the correct operation of a system up to a time t = T, given includes immunity to software faults induced into the system.
1
that it was operating correctly at the starting time t = 0. To achieve a high reliability, it is essential that component
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

However, correct operation can have many meanings, reliability be as high as possible. As the complexity of com-
depending on the requirements previously established for the puter systems increase, almost any level of guaranteed reli-
system. A common attitude today is that single or multiple ability of individual elements becomes insufficient to provide
6
failures can be accepted as long as the system does not go a satisfactory probability of successful task completion.
down or the desired operation is not interrupted or disturbed. Therefore, successful fault-tolerant computers must use a
Reliability is therefore a goal to be expected of a system and judicious selection of protective redundancy to help meet the
is set by the users. reliability requirements. The three redundancy techniques are
To obtain a certain measure of reliability, the term fault- as follows:
tolerant computing can be used. It may be defined as the
ability to execute specified algorithms correctly regardless of 1. Hardware redundancy
2
hardware errors and program errors. Since different com- 2. Software redundancy
puters in different applications have widely different require- 3. Time redundancy
ments for reliability, availability, recovery time, data protec-
tion, and maintainability, an opportunity exists for the use of
many different fault-tolerant techniques.
3 These three techniques cover all methods of fault tolerance.
The understanding of fault tolerance can be helped by Hardware redundancy can be defined as any circuitry in the
first understanding faults. A fault can be defined as the system that is not necessary for normal computer operation
deviation of one or more logic variables in the computer should no faults occur. Software redundancy, similarly, is addi-
1
hardware from their design-specified values. A logic value tional program instructions present solely to handle faults. Any
for a digital computer is either a zero or a one. A fault is the retrial of instructions is known as time redundancy.
appearance of an incorrect value such as a logic gate stuck
on zero or stuck on one. The fault causes an error if it,
Hardware Redundancy
in turn, produces an incorrect operation of the previously
correctly functioning logic elements. Therefore, the term Hardware redundancy can be described as the set of all hard-
fault is restricted to the actual hardware that fails. ware components that need to be introduced into the system
1
Faults can be classified in several ways. Their most to provide fault tolerance with respect to operational faults.
important characteristic is a function of their duration. They These components would be superfluous should no faults
can be either permanent (solid or hard) or transient (inter- occur, and their removal would not diminish the computing
mittent or soft). Permanent faults are caused by solid fail- power of the system in the absence of faults.
4
ures of components. They are easier to diagnose but usually In achieving hardware fault tolerance, it is clear that one
7
require the use of more drastic correction techniques than do should use the most reliable components available. However,
transient faults. Transient faults cause 80 to 90% of faults in increasing component reliability has only a small impact on
5
most systems. Transient faults, or intermittents, can be increasing system reliability. Therefore, it is more important
8
defined as random failures that prevent the proper operation to be able to recover from failures than to prevent them.
of a unit for only a short period of timenot long enough Redundant techniques allow recovery and are thus very
to be tested and diagnosed as a permanent failure. Often, important in achieving fault-tolerant systems. The techniques
transient faults become permanent with further deterioration used in achieving hardware redundancy can be divided into
of the equipment. Then, permanent fault-tolerant techniques two categories: static (or masking) redundancy and dynamic
must be used for system recovery. redundancy.

126
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems 127

Static techniques are effective in handling both transient existence of a fault, which sometimes be corrected if enough
and permanent failures. Masking is virtually instantaneous of the original information remains intact.
and automatic. It can be defined as any computer error cor- This means that the original binary word can be recon-
rection method that is transparent to the user and often to the structed with some such codes if a set number of bits in the
software. Redundant components serve to mask the effect of coded word have not changed. Encoding and decoding words
hardware failures of other components. with the use of redundant hardware can be very effective in
Many different techniques of static redundancy can be detecting errors. Through hardware or software algorithms,
applied. The simplest or lowest level of complexity is by a incorrect data can also often be reconstructed. Otherwise, the
massive replication of the individual components of the sys- detected errors can be handled by module replacement and
1
tem. For example, four diodes connected as two parallel software recovery actions. The actions taken depend on the
pairs that are themselves connected in series will not fail if extent of the fault and of the recovery mechanisms available
any one diode fails open or short. Logical gates in similar to the computing system.
9,10
quadded arrangements can also guard against single faults,
and even some multiple faults, for largely replicated systems. Software Redundancy
More sophisticated systems use replication at higher lev-
Software redundancy refers to all additional software installed
els of complexity to mask failures. Instead of using a mere
in a system that would not be needed for a fault-free com-
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massive replication of components configured in fault-tolerant

puter. Software redundancy plays a major role in most fault-
arrangements, identical nonredundant computer sections or
tolerant computers. Even computers that recover from fail-
modules can be replicated and their outputs voted upon.
ures mainly by hardware means use software to control their
Examples are triple modular redundancy (TMR) and more
recovery and decision-making processes. The level of soft-
massive modular redundancy (NMR), where N can stand for
ware used depends on the recovery system design. The recov-
any odd number of modules.
ery design depends on the type of error or malfunction that
In addition to component replication, coding can be used is expected. Different schemes have been found to be more
to mask faults as well as to detect them. With the use of some appropriate for the handling of different errors. Some can be
codes, data that has been garbled (i.e., bits changed due to accomplished most efficiently solely by hardware means.
hardware errors) can sometimes be recovered instantaneously Others need only software, but most use a mixture of the two.
with the use of redundant hardware. Dynamic recovery meth- For a functional system, i.e., one without hardware design
ods are, however, better able to handle many of these faults. faults, errors can be classified into two varieties: (1) software
Higher levels of fault tolerance can be achieved more design errors and (2) hardware malfunctions.
easily through dynamic redundancy and implemented The first category can be corrected mainly by means of
through the dual actions of fault detection and recovery. This software. It is extremely difficult for hardware to be designed
often requires software help in conjunction with hardware to correct for programmers errors. The software methods,
redundancy. Many of these methods are extensions of static though, are often used to correct hardware faultsespecially
techniques. transient ones. The reduction and correction of software design
Massive redundancy in components can often be better errors can be accomplished through the techniques outlined
utilized when controlled dynamically. Redundant modules, or below.
spares, can have a better fault tolerance when they are left Computers may be designed to detect several software
unpowered until needed, since they will not degrade while errors.
14,15
Examples include the use of illegal instructions
11
awaiting use. This technique, standby redundancy, often uses (i.e., instructions that do not exist), the use of privileged
dynamic voting techniques to achieve a high degree of fault instructions when the system has not been authorized to
tolerance. This union of the two methods is referred to as process them, and address violations. This latter refers to
12
hybrid redundancy. Additional hardware is needed for the reading or writing into locations beyond usable memory.
detection and switching out of faulty modules and the switch- These limits can often be set physically on the hardware.
ing in of good spares within the system by this technique. Computers capable of detecting these errors allow the pro-
13
Error detecting and error correcting codes can be used grammer to handle the errors by causing interrupts. The inter-
to dynamically achieve fault tolerance in a computing system. rupts route the program to specific locations in memory. The
Coding refers to the addition of extra bits to and the rear- programmer, knowing these locations, can then add his own
ranging of the bits of a binary word that contains information. code to branch to his specific subroutines, which can handle
The strategy of coding is to add a minimum number of check each error in a specified manner.
bits, the additional bits, to the message in such a way that a Software recovery from software errors can be accom-
4
given degree of error detection or correction is achieved. plished via several methods. As mentioned before, parallel
Error detection and correction is accomplished by comparing programming, in which alternative methods are used to deter-
the new word, hopefully unchanged after transmission, stor- mine a correct solution, can be used when an incorrect solution
age, or processing, with a set of allowable configurations of can be identified. Some less sophisticated systems print out
bits. Discrepancies discovered in this manner signal the diagnostics so that the user can correct the program off line

2003 by Bla Liptk

 128 General Considerations

from the machine. This should only be a last resort for a To

fault-tolerant machine. Nevertheless, a computer should always supervisor
keep a log of all errors incurred, memory size permitting. Serial bit line To other redundant systems
Preventive measures used with software methods refer
mainly to the use of redundant storage. Hardware failures
often result in a garbling or a loss of data or instructions that Master Slave Duplex
are read from memory. If hardware techniques such as coding system
Parallel bus
cannot recover the correct bit pattern, those words will
become permanently lost. Therefore, it is important to at least
duplicate all necessary program and data storage so that it Protocol processor
can be retrieved if one copy is destroyed. In addition, special and associated
measures should be taken so that critical programs such as interface hardware
error recovery programs are placed in nonvolatile storage, A
Triplex
i.e., read-only memory. Critical data as well should be placed
system
in nondestructive readout memories. An example of such a
memory is a plated-wire memory.
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The second task of the software in fault tolerance is to

detect and diagnose errors. Software error-detection tech- B C
niques for software errors often can be used to detect transient
hardware faults. This is important, since a relatively large
number of malfunctions are intermittent in nature rather than
9
solid failures. Time-redundant processes, i.e., repeated tri-
als, shall be used for their recovery.
Software detection techniques do not localize the sources FIG. 1.10a
of the errors. Therefore, diagnostic test programs are fre- Comparison of duplex and triplex redundancy systems.
quently implemented to locate the module or modules
responsible. These programs often test the extent of the faults
at the time of failure or perform periodic tests to determine
malfunctions before they manifest themselves as errors dur- 1. Intramodule data errors
ing program execution. Almost every computer system uses 2. Intermodule data transfer errors
some form of diagnostic routines to locate faults. In a fault- 3. Address errors
4. Control signal errors
tolerant system, the system itself initiates these tests and
5. Power failure
interprets their results, as opposed to the outside insertion of
6. Timing failure
test programs by operators in other systems.
7. Reconfiguration faults

The two main designs considered here are that of a duplex

Fault-Tolerant Computer System Design system with two identical computers operating in parallel and
that of a triplex system (see Figure 1.10a). The triplex system
The design of a fault-tolerant industrial computer system has three computers operating synchronously. In addition to
should be different from that of a similar system for a space- those error detecting and correcting capabilities already built
borne computer system. Maintenance is available in an indus- into the computers, fault-tolerant features will be present in
trial environment to replace any modules that may have software for both systems. The duplex system will feature a
failed. In addition, the system may be much larger, and a comparison of data for fault detection with rollback and
hierarchy of many computers of different sizes may be nec- recovery to handle transient errors. The triplex system will
16
essary to handle the various operations. Therefore, a fault- incorporate a software voting scheme with memory reload
tolerant communication network may be required as well. to recover from transient failures. This removes the overhead
Future advancements must also be considered when study- of rollback. Each duplicated system of computers will com-
ing the design of fault-tolerant systems. Throw-away proces- municate internally via a parallel data bus that will allow
sors on a chip are no longer a myth, and the manufacture of high-speed communication, plus a parallel control bus that
equivalent inexpensive mass memory is probably already here will initiate interrupts to handle any faults within the system.
6
as well. Valid future designs must incorporate provisions for All computer elements will communicate with higher level
these advances and allow for larger replacement modules for systems via a full-duplex synchronous serial bit bus, a bus
quicker and simpler fault location and maintenance. that will permit simultaneous message transfer in both direc-
The ways in which faults manifest themselves have not tions, through the protocol microprocessor. With these com-
17
changed. They may be summarized as the following: ponents, a fully reliable system should be realized.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems 129

FIELD INSTRUMENT REDUNDANCY AND VOTING which the operator immediately notices. The consequence is
that the SIS-based definitions developed in IEC 61508, to
The above concepts apply not only to process computers but some extent, can also be used as guidelines for control loops
also to basic process control systems (BPCSs) and safety instru- that require high uptime and whose unavailability would,
mented systems (SISs), where they also improve performance, within a short time, drive the plant to conditions requiring
availability, and reliability. In the case of field instruments plant shutdown.
and final control elements, they mainly guarantee continuity of IEC 61508 Part 6 gives the definition of the various
operation and increase uptime, whereas, in SIS systems, they architectures most commonly used in the safety instrumented
minimize nuisance or spurious interventions and alarms. systems. They apply for use with one, two, or three elements
The techniques used in BPCS and SIS systems are similar and their various combinations. The elements that are used
and have initially been developed for the inherently more in a single or multiple configuration can be either transmitters
demanding SIS applications. For SIS systems, the need of or final control elements, but they are mainly for transmitters,
international regulations has been recognized (ANSI/ISA- and only very rarely for control valves, because of the sub-
18 19 20
84.01-1996, IEC 61508-1998/2000, and IEC 61511, in stantial difference in costs. The control system, such as a
draft version) while, for non-safety related control loops, this DCS system, is usually configured with multiple controllers
is left to good engineering practice. Therefore, the discussion and redundant other system components (e.g., system bus,
of redundancy and voting techniques, as applied to the field I/O bus, HMI). IEC 61508 considers and gives definitions to
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

instruments of BPCS systems, will be based on the SIS the configurations described below.
standards as guidelines. The BPCS goal is to improve control
loop availability such that the trigger point for the interven- Single-Transmitter Configuration (Figure 1.10b)
tion of the associated SIS system is unlikely ever to be 1oo1 A single transmitter is used, as in many control
reached. Thereby, redundancy in BPCS also improves safety. loops. These loops consist of an analog transmitter
This is because increased availability reduces the number of and an analog controller (pneumatic or electronic).
shutdowns, which tend to shorten the life of the plant due to This configuration is the most prone to overall mal-
the resulting thermal and other stresses. functioning. Errors and failures can be caused by a
One of the main objectives of measurement and control sticking control valve or transmitter or by an out of
specialists is to improve the availability and accuracy of range signal (up or down scale). In these loops,
measurements. To achieve that goal and to minimize system-
atic uncertainty while increasing reliability, correct specifi-
cation, instrument selection, and installation are essential.
Assuming that the transmitters have been properly spec-
ified, selected, and installed, one can further improve total System bus
performance by measuring the same variable with more than
one sensor. Depending on the importance of the measurement,
redundancy can involve two or more detectors measuring the
same process variable. When three or more sensors are used,
one can select the majority view by voting. With this Multiloop
approach, one would select m measurements out of the total controller
n number of signals so, that m > n/2. In industrial practice,
n is normally 3 so that m is 2.
The redundant and voting techniques have been standard- DI
ized in various SIS-related documents, including ANSI/ISA-
84.01, IEC 61508, and IEC 61511. The SIS systems usually
evaluate onoff signals or threshold limits of analog signals
whereas, in process control, redundancy and voting is obtained T AI
by the evaluation of multiple analog signals. The main differ-
ence between BPCS and SIS systems is that SIS is a dormant
system, but continuously self-checking, and it is called upon
to operate only in an emergency. In addition, the SIS is fail DO
safe; i.e., if it fails, it brings the plant to a safe status. SIS
malfunctioning is inferred from diagnostic programs and not
from plant conditions, because the plant cannot be shut down
or brought to unsafe conditions just to test the SIS system. All AO
international regulations follow this approach.
In contrast to SIS systems, the BPCS control loops are FIG. 1.10b
always active and, if they malfunction, they actuate alarms, 1oo1/1oo1D transmitter input.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 130 General Considerations

System bus System bus

Multiloop Multiloop
controller controller

DI
DI

Tx AI Tx AI
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Ty AI
Ty AI

Tz AI

DO
DO

AO AO

FIG. 1.10d
2oo3 transmitter input.

FIG. 1.10c
as correct and representative of the process condi-
2oo2D transmitter input.
tions. Concurrency means that they differ by no
more than X%.
diagnostic protection is very limited. Remember, in
the past, the burn-out feature of thermocouples was Diagnostic Coverage
almost the only diagnostic function implemented in
the mV/psi converters or mV/mA transducers. The diagnostic coverage in the BPCS is much less than in
1oo1D A single transmitter is used, with diagnos- the SIS, for reasons outlined previously, and is provided
tic coverage integral to the transmitter (e.g., self- mainly in and by the DCS, which has the capability of com-
21,22
validating transmitters ) and/or external in the paring the signals received from the transmitters and deter-
control system. mining whether they are within the imposed limits so as to
consider them to be concurrent. If an inconsistency is
Two-Transmitter Configuration (Figure 1.10c)
detected, the DCS is capable of signaling the abnormal sit-
1oo2 Two transmitters in parallel are used; the failure
uation and to maintain control, at least in some instances,
of one determines the loss of control. In principle,
without operator intervention.
this definition cannot be borrowed from IEC 61508.
1oo2D Two transmitters in parallel are used, with
1oo1D The diagnostic coverage can be partly integral
diagnostic coverage mainly residing in the control
to the transmitter and/or external in the control
system. The type of diagnostic functions will be
system (rate of change alarms, overrange alarms
covered afterward.
detecting the individual fault). In a broader sense,
2oo2 Two transmitters in parallel are used. The loss
in addition, the material balance (data reconcilia-
of control should be determined by the failure of
tion) performed in the DCS can contribute to detect
both. In principle, this definition cannot be borrowed
a failure in the flow transmitters or their unreliable
from IEC 61508.
reading.
Three-Transmitter Configuration (Figure 1.10d) 1oo2D The signal from each transmitter is checked to
2oo3 Three transmitters in parallel are used. The con- verify if it is within the validity limits (i.e., 4-20 mA).
current value indicated by two of them is assumed If a transmitter is outside the validity range, its signal

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems 131

a common percentage discrepancy value is chosen

Tx
MULTILOOP
and used for all measures, because experience has
AVERAGE
CONTROLLER
CONTROL
shown that it is unlikely that a transmitter fails to a
Ty VALVE value close to the correct one.
When the discrepancy is beyond the preset value,
but both signals are within validity limits, it is not
< 0
ALARM
possible to determine which one is invalid. In this
NO case, an alarm is produced, and the controller is
FORCE TO MANUAL
automatically forced to manual, with output frozen
FREEZE OUTPUT
at the last valid value. The operator then has the
FIG. 1.10e responsibility to discard one of the two transmitters
1oo2D signal conditioning. and use the other as the input to the controller, then
switch to auto again.
is discarded, the controller receives the value from 2oo3 The signal from each transmitter is checked to
the other transmitter and an alarm is issued to warn verify whether it is within the validity limits (i.e., 4
the operator about the malfunctioning. If both trans- to 20 mA). If a transmitter is outside the validity
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

mitters are within validity limits, the difference range, its signal is discarded as invalid, and the
among their signals is calculated. In case the differ- remaining two are used as if they were in 1oo2D
ence is within a preset value (in the range of few configuration. If no invalid signal is detected, then
percent), the average value is assumed as good and the discrepancy between the values is calculated.
used for the control function (Figure 1.10e). Supposing the three signals are X, Y, and Z, the
The acceptable discrepancy between the two differences X Y, Y Z, and Z X are calculated.
transmitters depends on the measurement condi- If each of them is within the preset limits, the
tions; for instance, the acceptable discrepancy in the median value is taken as good and used as process
level measurement in a steam drum is larger than in variable by the controller. If one difference exceeds
the case of a pressure measurement. As an indica- the preset limit, an alarm is issued to the operator,
tion, for two level transmitters installed at different and the median value is used as process variable for
ends of the steam drum, 5% discrepancy is accept- the controller. If two differences exceed the preset
able. However, for pressure measurement, 2% limit, the value of the transmitter involved in both
should not be exceeded. Normally, in the process the excessive differences is discarded, an alarm is
industry, it is not necessary to select a very small issued to the operator, and the average value of the
discrepancy (such as twice the declared accuracy) remaining two is used as process value. If all three
between the transmitted values, because the differ- differences exceed the preset limit, this means that
ence could be the result of many causes other than at least two transmitters are not reliable. In this case,
a transmitter failure or the need for recalibration (the the controller is automatically forced to manual,
main reason could be the installation). Sometimes, with output equal to last valid value (Figure 1.10f).

Tx

COMPUTING
MULTILOOP
Ty
CONTROLLER
CONTROL
MODULE VALVE

Tz

ALARM

< 0 < 0 < 0

TRUTH TABLE
A B C A YES YES YES NO
B YES YES NO NO
C YES NO NO NO
Computing Module Median Median Average NONE
Alarm NO YES YES YES
Discard NONE NONE Tz Tx, Ty, Tz
Force contr. output to man. NO NO NO YES

FIG. 1.10f
2oo3 signal conditioning.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 132 General Considerations

The operator has the responsibility to select one of necessary to evaluate properly to what extent it is necessary
the three transmitters as the good one, use it as input to avoid common-mode failures as a factor of the criticality
to the controller, and switch to auto again. There are of the application. If, for instance, all the cables are installed
some possible variations in the algorithms used for on the same tray, distributing the redundant transmitters in
the selection of the valid signals and the discarding different cables does not improve the situation; it would be
of the unreliable ones, and they depend on the avail- unusual for only one cable to break while the others remain
able control blocks of the involved DCS. in operation.

Engineering Redundant Measures

Complex Control Loops
When redundant measures are performed, attention shall be
given to avoid common-mode failures. A possible common- In the power generation industry, two or three transmitters in
mode cause of inaccuracy in flow measurement is the primary redundant or voting configuration are commonly used for all
flow element, which can be erroneously calculated, wrongly control loops. As the boiler control requires complex loops,
installed, or show wear after extended operation. This situa- a question to be answered is to what extent can it be justified
tion is not easily corrected but can be detected by material that the transmitters be duplicated or triplicated.
balance and/or maintenance (i.e., by checking the size of the Consider the steam drum level control, and suppose that
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

orifice or throat and the sharpness of the orifice edge). duplicated measurements are the contractual requirement. Of
Starting from the tapping point on the process, the most course, the level transmitters, the relevant steam and water
usual common-mode failures are examined. Two or three flow transmitters, are duplicated to allow for a fully redundant
pressure transmitters connected to the same valved branch three-element control. What about the pressure transmitter
on a pipe or vessel are prone to common-mode failure, used to compensate the level measurement for density? If the
because the closing or clogging of the root valve puts all boiler is operating at constant pressure, a single transmitter
transmitters out of service. Such an installation is therefore should be sufficient. If it fails, the last valid value could be
to be avoided. frozen and used, obviously sending an alarm to the operator.
The same multicore cable containing the 4 to 20 mA sig- If the boiler is operating in sliding pressure, then it must also
nals of redundant transmitters is a possible cause of common- duplicate the pressure transmitter.
mode failure because, if it is cut, all the signals are lost at Consider the steam flow compensation for pressure and
the same time. Therefore, the signals should be contained in temperature. If the flow transmitter is duplicated, the pressure
different cables, and the cables themselves should be routed and temperature transmitters do not always require duplication;
on different cable racks. if these variables are allowed to vary only slightly and the
The same input card receiving the signals from redundant measure is not used for custody transfer, it should be sufficient
transmitters is a possible cause of common-mode failure to freeze the last valid value for compensation, with a warning
because, even if only a single channel (even different from to the operator. But, again, if the boiler is operating in sliding
the ones under consideration) of the input card fails and the pressure mode or could possibly have a variable steam tem-
card is then replaced, all the transmitter inputs are lost simul- perature, then the transmitters should be duplicated.
taneously. It is appropriate to connect the redundant trans- Notwithstanding these considerations, if a plant is sup-
mitters to different input cards. plied as a turnkey operation, the specifications uniformly will
call for redundancy without closely examining the real need
If the multiloop controller in the DCS is not redundant
for duplication or triplication of the transmitters.
(or fault tolerant), the input cards connected to the redundant
transmitters should belong to different multiloop controllers
to avoid common-mode faults. It is, however, highly prefer-
Final Control Elements
able to use redundant multiloop controllers (rather than two
independent nonredundant multiloop controllers) because of In very rare instances, the final control elements can be dupli-
the increased traffic in the system bus and of a loop failure cated, as when the erosive/corrosive or sticking characteris-
consequent to the system bus failure. tics of the fluid could cause unacceptable downtime. It should
Because all the transmitters are powered from the DCS, be noted that the need for duplicating the valves is more
redundant power supplies to the DCS modules should be stringent if the valves are more sophisticated and therefore
provided, coming from different sources. more expensive, so justifying this duplication is often diffi-
For an exhaustive evaluation of failure modes, Tables cult. The price of a critical valve can be 10 to 20 times the
B.5.1 and B.5.2 of ANSI/ISA-84.01-1996 provide a useful price of a transmitter (and on occasion, even more).
guideline, even though they cover the SIS. If duplicated, the control valves are not operating in
These simple examples clearly indicate that it is not suf- parallel, but one is in cold standby, so the analogy with
ficient to duplicate or triplicate the transmitters and that, to redundant transmitters is not accurate.
obtain the best possible results, the complete engineering The possible configurations of the final control elements
of the system shall be carried out correctly. However, it is are as listed below:

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems 133

1oo1 A single control valve is used, as in all typical +

control loops. This configuration covers the majority I
of the applications, being the simplest; however, a Vi=6,2V
P
valve malfunction (e.g., sticking) could be detected,
with some time delay, as a drift in process variables
caused by the incorrect positioning of the trim.
1oo1D A single valve is used, with some diagnostic
coverage integral with the electropneumatic posi-
I
tioner. This is a check of the valves actual position Vi=6,2V
against the required one and verification that the P
dynamic response of the valve has not changed over
time. This function is made possible by smart posi-
FIG. 1.10g
tioners that generate a position signal that is trans-
Single output to two I/P converters.
ferred to the control system as a feedback on valve
behavior. The DCS compares the requested position
with the actual one and gives an alarm if the dis-
control redundancy is not essential. The solution can be a
crepancy becomes excessive or does not tend to zero
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simple analog output feeding, in series, both of the I/P con-

in a reasonable time. The value of the discrepancy
verters whose pneumatic output adjusts the pump stroke. The
being alarmed is somewhat higher than between two
output to the stopped pump has no effect. If one I/P converter
transmitters and is considered acceptable if it is fails in short circuit, the signal through the other keeps flow-
about 5 to 7%, provided that this offset tends to zero ing correctly. It is sufficient that the pump in operation is the
in time. one controlled by the healthy I/P converter, and so the plant
For onoff control valves, the diagnostic function will have no problems. To prevent the stroke from going to
can occasionally command the valve to move from zero if one I/P converter fails open, it is sufficient to install
the current condition shortly and slightly, perform- a zener diode on the terminals of each I/P converter to guar-
ing only a partial travel, to determine whether the antee the signal flow continuity (Figure 1.10g). In this way,
trim is stuck and to prevent it from sticking. The if all the equipment is healthy, the 4 to 20 mA signal does
result is monitored, and any malfunctioning sets off not flow through the zener diodes. However, if a converter
an alarm. This partial movement, however, shall be fails open, the current flows through the parallel diode with-
compatible with the process characteristics. out any deleterious effect.
1oo2D Two valves in cold standby are used, with diag-
nostic coverage mainly residing in the DCS. The Availability Considerations
diagnostic helps to determine if and when the
switching from the main valve to the spare one must Availability can be defined as the probability that a system
23
be performed. To avoid encountering a faulty spare is operating at time t. For control loops, the availability is
valve, it is necessary to exercise it regularly so as the major parameter in that high availability means continuity
to achieve an awareness of and confidence about its of operation. If a single component (e.g., a transmitter) is
operability. used, its failure means that the control loop is no longer
If the problem is associated with erosion or cor- operable in an automatic mode until the component has been
rosion, the Cv of the valve increases at low lift. repaired or replaced. This can require several hours and could
However, if the flow remains within the operational involve a plant shutdown, which requires additional time for
values, it is not easy to detect a problem. Only when restarting and consequent loss of production.
the valve is almost closed and the passing flow cre- By duplicating the transmitter, the failure probability is
ates process upsets can the erosion/corrosion situa- doubled, but the measure becomes almost immediately avail-
tion be detected, unless a correlation between flow able (in terms of minutes), and the probability that the second
and valve opening can be established and logged transmitter will fail during the few hours needed to
over time. replace/repair the failed one is really close to zero. With the
technique explained above, the duration of unavailability cor-
An example of a different application that always responds to the time needed for the operator to select the
involves redundancy of the final control element is stroke transmitter he trusts most and assign it as the process variable
control of the dosing pumps. In boiler applications, the chem- to the controller.
ical dosing pumps are normally redundant and in cold By triplicating the transmitters, the failure probability is
standby because of the criticality of the application, while tripled, but even the short period of unavailability of the
the accuracy is not a major requirement (in some cases, the measure is eliminated. The control system is able to auto-
stroke adjustment is manual). If the stroke is controlled from matically calculate, from the set of available measurements,
the DCS, it is important that both pumps be controlled, but the one that best represents the process.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 134 General Considerations

Of course, these qualitative statements are true only if 18. ANSI/ISA-84.01-1996: Application of Safety Instrumented Systems for
the maintenance activity is immediate and the faulty equip- the Process Industry, ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1997.
19. IEC 61508: Functional Safety of Electrical/Electronic/Programmable
ment is repaired/substituted within the shift or the day. The
Electronic Safety-Related Systems, International Electrotechnical
triple transmitters are less sensitive to the faulty operation of Commission, Geneva, 1998/2000.
one (or even two) units, because it is possible for the operator 20. IEC 61511: Functional Safety: Safety Instrumented Systems for the
to select the remaining healthy transmitter and use it as the Process Industry Sector (draft), International Electrotechnical Com-
process variable of the control loop. mission, Geneva.
21. Clarke, D. W., Validation of sensors, actuators and processes, Proc.
These qualitative considerations can be studied quantita-
Interkama ISA Tech. Conf., Dsseldorf, Germany, 1999.
tively with statistical methods based on the fact that failures 22. Manus H., Self-validating (SEVA) sensorstowards standards and
are random variables. Further information is available in the products, Proc. 29th BIAS Int. Conf., Milan, Italy, 2000.
23,24
specialized literature. 23. Goble, W. M., Control Systems Safety Evaluation & Reliability, ISA,
Research Triangle Park, NC, 1998.
24. Gruhn, P. and Cheddie, H. L., Safety Shutdown Systems: Design, Anal-
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Hopkins, A. L. Jr. and Smith, T. B. III, The architectural elements of a
Alto, CA, IEEE Computer Society, New York, 1116, 1973.
symmetric fault-tolerant multiprocessor, Dig. 1974 Int. Symp. Fault-
Tolerant Computing, Urbana, IL, IEEE Computer Society, New York, Sellers, F. F. Jr., Hsiao, M. Y., and Bearnson, L. W., Error Detection Logic
4-2 to 4-6, 1974. for Digital Computers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
Horning, J. J., Lauer, H. C., Melliar-Smith, P. M., and Randell, B., A Program Shepherd, M. Jr., Distributed Computing Power: Opportunities and Chal-
Structure for Error Detection and Recovery, in Lecture Notes in Com- lenges, 1977 National Computer Conference Address, Dallas, TX,
puter Science, G. Goos and J. Hartmanis, Eds., Vol. 16, Springer- 1977.
Verlag, Berlin, 171187, 1974. Texas Instruments, Inc., 990 Computer Family Systems Handbook, Manual
IBM Systems Development Division, IBM Synchronous Data Link Control No. 945250-9701, Texas Instruments, Inc., Austin, TX, 1976.
General Information, IBM Manual GA 27-3093-0, IBM Systems Wachter, W. J., System malfunction detection and correction, Dig. 1975 Int.
Development Division, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1974. Symp. Fault-Tolerant Computing, Paris, France, IEEE Computer Soci-
Jensen, P. A., Quadded nor logic, IEEE Trans. Reliability, Vol. R-12, 2231, ety, New York, 196201, 1975.
1963. Wakerly, J., Error Detecting Codes, Self-Checking Circuits and Applica-
Kim, K. H. and Ramamoorthy, C. V., Failure-tolerant parallel programming tions, North Holland, New York, 1978.
and its supporting system architecture, AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 45, Wensley, J. H., SIFTsoftware implemented fault-tolerance, AFIPS
AFIPS Press, Montvale, NJ, 413423, 1976. Conf. Proc., Vol. 41, Part 1, AFIPS Press, Montvale, NJ, 243253,
King, J. C., Proving programs to be correct, IEEE Trans. Comput., C-20 1972.
(11), 13311336, 1971. Williams, T. J., The development of reliability in industrial control systems,
Kompass, E. J. and Williams, T. J., Eds., Total control systems availability, Proc. IEEE Micro., 4(6), 6680, 1984.
Proc. 15th Annu. Advanced Control Conf., Purdue University, West Williams, T. W. and Parker, K. P., Design for testabilitya survey, IEEE
Lafayette, IN, September 1113, 1989. Trans. Comput., C-31 (1), 214, 1982.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.11 Instrument Evaluation
J. BARTH, W. M. WALRAVEN (1995) ROBERT J. SMITH II (2003)

Instrumentation evaluations are difficult to accomplish in the instruments, the cost of any resulting damage is still paid by
field. Independent evaluations by users and associations prove the end user.
to be the best sources for determining whether a particular Independent evaluation has become difficult for users
instrument will work in a given application. Manufacturers whose time constrains do not allow them to perform tests
specifications can provide many details about the instrument, that verify certain design criteria of a particular instrument.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

but comparing apples to apples is sometimes difficult. When it was found that cooperative evaluations could sub-
Instrumentation undergoes rapid changes every year. The stantially reduce the costs and workloads for the individual
pressure on manufacturers to implement techniques that are users, internationally orientated instrument users associa-
novel in theory proves to be a challenge. The development tions were founded.
cycle is furious, resulting in instruments that do not meet
users expectations. This results in:

1. Delays in design/engineering, construction, and start- EVALUATION RESULTS

up
2. Increased cost for commissioning Statistics show the potential problems one might expect from
3. Decreased performance of the plants process or an instrument (see Table 1.11a). Improvements have increased
adverse consequences on personnel, plant, or the envi- over the years. This implies that evaluation results have pro-
ronment vided manufacturers with feedback that benefits the user. The
types of instruments evaluated are shown in Figure 1.11b. It
End users cannot assume these risks in todays market. is desirable for a manufacturer to have a good quality man-
Although the supplier usually corrects problems with the agement system, based on internationally accepted standards,
such as those of International Standards Organization (ISO),

TABLE 1.11a
Instrumentation Evaluation Results (Numbers Represent Percentages of Population)
196377 198082 198488 199599

Defective on arrival 25 18 7 18

Defective during testing 17 35 17 18

Outside manufacturers own specifications 27 48 33 49

Variations in output in excess of 0.5% N/A N/A 29 N/A

Sensitive to external influences that cannot be expressed N/A N/A 68 N/A

in percentages

Unanticipated effects N/A N/A 39 N/A

Inadequate documentation 54 47 25 86

Modified after evaluation 29 35 44 27

Population (number of reports issued) 710 193 750 105

Data provided by Evaluation International.

136
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.11 Instrument Evaluation 137

Flow Pressure exchange of reports and other information. The three associ-
19% 21% ations together have approximately 100 members, covering
many multinationals in markets varying from oil, chemical,
Temperature Other steel, food, and beer to utilities such as the electricity, gas,
6% 5% water, and nuclear industries.
Control Valves
3%
Analyzers
Control Systems EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
19%
18%
Environmental/Safety
8% Evaluations of instruments and systems aim at confirming
the claims made by manufacturers specifications. Where
FIG. 1.11b these are lacking, user requirements or relevant IEC/ISO
Type of instruments evaluated by WIB, SIREP, and EXERA from evaluation standards may be used. The methodology in use
19841988 (268 reports).
in the evaluation laboratories of TNO, Netherlands, provides
guidance to the engineers involved in the evaluation. An
to ensure that its instruments all have the same characteristics. evaluation is an iterative process in which the evaluator needs
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

Independent firms regularly audit these systems. It has been the involvement of user and manufacturer for setting up the
found, however, that even the most reputable auditors some- evaluation objectives and techniques. Evaluation is becoming
times lack the instrumentation know-how needed to perform increasingly complex because of the introduction of sophis-
an effective audit. This weakness can be remedied by the ticated electronics and software-based data processing, mea-
participation of an instrument engineer on the audit team. surement, and communication techniques.
Evaluation requires an analysis of four main aspects of
the device being tested, as follows:
ORGANIZATION
1. System configuration in terms of functional and phys-
The International Instrument Users Association (WIB) is a ical modules
nonprofit organization located in The Hague, the Netherlands. 2. Functions relevant for the user
It has more then 50 members worldwide. Its working language 3. Properties relevant to the quality of the functions
is English. An executive elected by and from the members is 4. External environmental and operating conditions that
responsible for the associations general policy and finances, affect performance
while a full-time professional staff handles day-to-day business.
The associations funds are provided by the annual mem- The first three items can be interrelated with the last one
bership fees, which are determined at the General Members in a multidimensional matrix that has the structure shown in
Meeting. After the deduction of a share for organizational Table 1.11c. Each field represents a test. In actual practice,
costs, each member has a say in determining the evaluations
not all possible tests will be performed. The choices by the
upon which the balance is spent.
parties involved (user, manufacturer, evaluator) may depend
The evaluation work is always contracted out to indepen-
on priorities of the intended application, cost and time con-
dent, internationally renowned laboratories such as the Neth-
straints, and knowledge of system performance based on
erlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO),
other applications. The completed matrix then forms the
Sira Certification Service, NEL Laboratories, Laboratoire
unambiguous agreement on the evaluation program, which
Central des Industries Electriques (LCIE), The KEMA group,
still has to be supplemented by a description of the tests.
and so on. The interested members and the manufacturer base
the work on a mutually acceptable test program. After com-
pletion of the evaluation, all findings are reported along with
any observations from the manufacturer. The reports contain SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
an objective comparison with the manufacturers specifica-
tions and do not provide a rating of good or not recom- The description of a system to be evaluated is based on the
mended. Applications and requirements vary so widely that functional models of Figure 1.11d and the physical mode of
only the individual user can decide whether the instrument Figure 1.11e.
is suitable for a particular application. Similar user associa- In the functional model the following modules are dis-
tions exist in the United Kingdom (e.g., SIREP International tinguished:
Instrument Users Association) and France (Association des
Exploitants dEquipements de Mesure, de Rgulation et The input module converting the physical quantities
dAutomatisme, EXERA). A Liaison Agreement was con- (analog and/or digital) to be measured into signals
cluded in 1982 to ensure similarity in reporting and a free suitable for further processing.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 138 General Considerations

TABLE 1.11c
Evaluation Matrix
Subsystem A Subsystem Layer

Function a Function b Function c Functions Layer

Properties

Test Conditions K L M N O K L P Q M N Q R Properties Layer

Condition A

Condition B
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Enclosure
Power User (Environmental
Utility Supply Interface Interface)
Power Module Module

Data- Output Signals

Input Output
Physical Processing to Final Control
Module Module
Quantities Module Elements

Communication
Module

FIG. 1.11d
Functional system model.

The data processing module that processes the various presentation (measurements in real time or historic
input signals (measurements, human inputs, and for- trends and system status).
eign system inputs) through a library of algorithms The power supply module providing properly condi-
and programs for self-monitoring and maintaining tioned power to the system modules.
integrity, security, and data storage. It sends the pro- The enclosure providing environmental protection. It
cessed data to the various output facilities. may consist of a simple housing, but it can also provide
The output module providing signals suitable for steer- temperature control and vibration protection through
ing final control elements such as valves or motors. active dampers.
The communication module that provides a digital
communication between the various elements or units The physical model of Figure 1.11e shows the physical
of a system or with foreign systems. This does not elements (subsystem, units, and so on) that can be identified
apply to single, stand-alone instruments. in a system and are its building blocks. Specific system con-
The user interface module providing means for manual figurations for specific applications can be built that utilize
control and access to relevant data including data the various physical elements in any required amount within

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.11 Instrument Evaluation 139

Intersystem Control functions (continuous, batch, logic, and

Human Operator Communication sequential control)
Channel Communications functions
CM
Human I/O functions
Operator Data Intersystem Auxiliary functions (configuration, self-diagnostics,
Station Storage Communication supply, environmental protection)
Station
PS CM PS CM PS CM
Communication PROPERTIES
Channel
PS CM PS CM PS CM System properties are grouped into the following categories:
Data functionality, accuracy, dependability, operability, safety, and
Control Control
Station
Acquisition
Station
non-task-related. Each category deals with a specific set of
LOI Station system performance aspects.
Functionality is the extent to which a system is provided
with an inherent basic hardware and software structure with
Process I/O Process Input Process I/O which specific functional structures can be formed to control
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FIG. 1.11e
processes. Functionality comprises system capacity (number
Physical system model: CM = communication interface module; PS and size of elements, network structure, software size and
= power supply module; LOI = local operation interface module. structure), flexibility, configurability, compatibility, robust-
ness, and so on.
the overall limitations of a system. Each physical element Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between the the-
may be equipped with all or some of the basic functional oretical function concepts and their material-bound (imper-
modules described above. fect) realization. Accuracy comprises conformity errors, hys-
The modules and elements of systems from different teresis, repeatability, and resolution. Accuracy is a property
manufacturers may differ considerably in size and capabili- specially related to functions for measuring, controlling, pro-
ties. The subdivision of instruments and systems into ele- cessing, observing, and manipulating quantities such as pres-
ments and modules is only relevant and practical when they sure, temperature, density, current, and functions for calcu-
can be treated and tested as separate entities and when it lation and communication. In systems, the routes that data
provides relevant information. follow through the functional modules affect the accuracy of
data. Measurement data obtained at one module may appear
SYSTEM FUNCTIONS with different accuracy at a local or a remote operator inter-
face. Accuracy can be quantified either in absolute values
A system function is defined as the intended relationship such as V, mA, bar, or percent of full scale, or in relative
between a dependent variable (output) and one or more values such as scale factor or percent of reading.
independent variables (inputs) of a system of a system Dependability is the extent to which the system can be
element (subsystem, unit, and so forth). System functions relied upon to exclusively and correctly perform the tasks
are distinguished at the following three different hierarchi- and duties delegated to it. Dependability comprises availabil-
cal levels: ity, reliability, maintainability, integrity, and security. Some
of the dependability aspects are probabilistic, while others
1. Management (strategic) level, dealing mainly with are deterministic in nature. Dependability is strongly affected
functions related to efficiency aspects. by adding redundancy to a system.
2. Process measurement and control (operations) level, Operability is the degree to which a system is provided
dealing with functions for measuring, controlling, and with the means for observing and manipulating the operation
supervising the energy and material flows in a process of a process. It also includes the ability to observe and manip-
or the product quality. ulate the operation of a system. Operability depends on the
3. Support level, consisting of auxiliary functions at the tools and procedures for giving commands and calling up
operations level (accessible to the user) and compen- and representing process data and on the speed of response
sation functions provided for counteracting environ- for executing commands and providing data to the demanding
mental influences (not accessible to the user). recipient. The term speed of response is related to transmis-
sion of information from:
The functions of interest to system users are grouped
together as follows: Process (measurement)-to-process (actuator), as in a
control loop
Process I/O functions (measurement, actuation) One system element to another system element
Data processing functions (reporting, alarming, data Process or system element to the user (operator) and
storage, optimization, real-time clock) vice versa

2003 by Bla Liptk

 140 General Considerations

Safety is the extent to which a system is provided with periodic reporting, and so on), overload conditions (too many
facilities that exclude hazards to persons, plant equipment, tasks at too high a speed), and demand from foreign systems.
and the environment. Safety depends on the exclusion of The user domain considers disturbances caused by incor-
and protection against electrical shocks, exceptionally high rect or unauthorized actions of operators and maintenance
temperatures, radiation, emission of dangerous or poisonous personnel.
gases, explosion and implosion, and fire. The safety aspects The system (hardware) domain considers disturbances
are in general subject to tight, well-defined rules for imposed on a system by the appearance of component failures
approval. in the system hardware.
Non-task-related properties are not related to the above
groups, and they include documentation, training, system
identification, physical dimensions, weight power consump-
tion, and so forth. EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

From the larger variety of evaluation techniques available,

some techniques developed for the evaluation of micropro-
TEST CONDITIONS cessor-based systems have been selected as examples for
description herein.
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Proper system operation will be affected by external environ- Dependability is challenged by conditions in the hard-
mental conditions at the application area and the demands ware domain such as:
for plant operation. Along with the application boundaries
specified by the manufacturer, they provide the data for def- Loss of the supply signals on printed circuit boards
inition of the test conditions. Based on the main links between due to fuse burnout
a system and the environment and demands, the test condi- Loss of operation of units, subsystems, or their redun-
tions are divided into the following domains: dant parts
Component failures and rupture of bus cables
Process Incorrect connections of cables by maintenance per-
Utility sonnel
Foreign systems Incorrect exchange of printed circuit boards
Environment
System tasks In these failed or erroneous situations, the following points
User are raised to reveal the different dependability aspects of the
System system:

Each of these domains is described below. Failure detection and reporting performed correctly by
The process domain considers disturbances that enter a the self-diagnostics (integrity)
system via the I/O connections to the process, such as com- Correct continuation of operation through redundant
mon- and series-mode signals, line break, earthing, con- units (availability)
ducted RFI, load effects, and so on. At the sensors and actu- Security against failure propagation to other units
ators, a system is in direct contact with the product, providing (integrity)
information concerning specific conditions of the product, The possibility of hot-swapping parts
such as temperature, pressure, pH, density, and corrosiveness.
The utility domain considers mainly electrical distur- The speed of response as an aspect of operability is
bances entering the system via power supply lines, such as defined and measured under arbitrarily agreed-upon reference
voltage and frequency variations and interruptions, high- conditions. For a system under test, these conditions com-
frequency noise, and transient overvoltages. prise the hardware modules involved, the implemented func-
The foreign systems domain considers mainly electrical tions and tasks, and the load under steady conditions.
disturbances entering the system via the links with foreign Then the system is stressed in the task domain and inves-
systems, such as common-mode noise, transient overvoltage tigated for delays in data transfer loss of information, or
signals, short circuits, and open circuits on bus cables. operation. These conditions may be
The environment domain considers a large range of dis-
turbances, such as ambient temperature and humidity, corro- A change of the internal load of a subsystem by chang-
sive media, dust, radiation (heat, UV, RFI), vibration, and so ing cycle times or number of active function blocks
forth. Increase of the external demand by means of the intro-
The system tasks domain considers disturbances imposed duction of large amounts of alarms or requests
on a system by the various control and data acquisition tasks Changing the allocation of functions and tasks between
under normal and critical conditions (high alarm rates, subsystems mutually or between subsystems/ peripherals

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.11 Instrument Evaluation 141

Relevant Standards IEC 1069 1991, Evaluation of system properties for the purpose of assess-
ment of industrial process measurement and control systems, Part I,
General Considerations.
IEC 68 series, Basic environmental testing procedures.
IEC 5461 1987, Controllers with analogue signals for use in industrial pro-
cess control systems, Part I, Methods of evaluating the performance.
IEC 746 series, Expression of performance of electrochemical analyzers.
IEC 770 1984, Methods of evaluating the performance of transmitters for Bibliography
use in industrial process control systems.
IEC 873 1986, Methods of evaluating the performance of electrical and Prellwitz, S.B., Do your instruments meet their specs: evaluation alterna-
pneumatic chart recorders for use in industrial process control systems. tives, InTech, March 1985.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams*
G. PLATT (1970, 1982) R. A. GILBERT (1995, 2003)

Diagrams are key components of a process documentation Operate

HS START
portfolio. The complexity of a modern production process Amber
Pump
has increased the process engineers use and reliance on XL
OR
symbolic representations of a process and its unit operations. HS Automatic
B
A LS
This section reviews diagram symbols and their role in binary Cooling
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A R
logic diagrams. The complete description of a production System High Water
process demands the use of several types of descriptive dia- Pressure DI on
PAH
grams. The three important drawings that make up a specific (PSH Opens) 10 Min.
Red
process documentation package are the process function dia- Pump TAH XL
gram (a site-specific binary logic diagram), the process flow Discharge High C

sheet (a piping and instrument diagram [P&ID]), and a hard- Temperature Green
XL
ware diagram (a detailed equipment wiring diagram). (TSH Opens) A
IAH
Pump Motor
OR
Overload
LOGIC DIAGRAMS (Circuit
Breaker Opens) MS
OR
Consider a section of a chemical vapor deposition process that Manual Reset R

includes only a backup vacuum roughing pump. The process HS STOP

function diagram, Figure 1.12a, along with its accompanying
process flow sheet, Figure 1.12b, are expected to provide all FIG. 1.12a
of the information required to understand the control scheme Logic diagram for standby vacuum pump with cooling water on and
and general operation of this process subsystem. For the exam- water valve (UV) open (see Table 1.12g).
ple illustrated, the process flow sheet indicates the equipment
and instrumentation associated with the operation of the
HS PAH TAH
backup vacuum pump. However, a P&ID has its limitations.
Vacuum
For example, this P&ID indicates that the vacuum pump is To Air
Pump TSH
water-cooled but does not provide any plumbing details. In Ejector PSH I

addition, the diagram makes little or no attempt to indicate the Vent

specific details of the reactors backup vacuum control scheme. Water s
FO
Water
Supply XL M Return
In fact, key control components, start and stop pushbuttons for UV
example, are commonly omitted in P&IDs. FO ISH IAH
The role of the process function diagram and the binary Vacuum AS
Tank S Vent
logic diagram is to illustrate the overall control flow of the UY
process. The diagram is a combination of logic and instru-
mentation symbols that reflects the overall control strategy.
It also includes the details for the successful operation of the FIG. 1.12b
Control system for standby vacuum pump.
specified process equipment. For the example under consid-
eration, the binary logic diagram indicates the operation
requirements for the auxiliary vacuum pump. Note that the diagram does not provide for the reader or require the reader
symbol for this pump doesnt even appear in the diagram; to possess knowledge of the complex and specialized circuit
however, its operational characteristics with respect to the information associated with the assembly of the instrumen-
cooling water system are clearly indicated. In addition, the tation presented. Its function is to provide an informed view

* Permission by the ISA to abstract from its standard, ANSI/ISA S5.2 Binary Logic Diagrams for Process Operators, is gratefully acknowledged.

142
2003 by Bla Liptk
 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams 143

of the process to operating personnel, maintenance workers, By contrast, if a logic diagram indicates that the result of
process engineers, and others who need to appreciate the the logic operations is the control of a constant-speed pump,
expected behavior of the specified process equipment. it is sufficient to indicate the pumps state as either operating
or not operating, i.e., the logic one or logic zero state. In this
case, it would be the readers responsibility to recognize that
LOGIC SYMBOLS any variation in pump throttling was not the result of the
control signal to the pump but rather due to the action of a
Although the symbols selected to represent the logic opera- separate signal to its accompanying valve. The two possible
tions associated with a control scheme are arbitrary, the pump logic signals are responsible only for starting or stopping
choice of logic operations is universally consistent. All pro- the transfer of energy to the pump. Any planned adjustment in
cess function diagrams describe a process control scheme as the fluid flow rate is not the result of the logic one or logic
a sequence and/or combination of the AND, the OR, the NOT, zero binary signals delivered to the pump.
the NAND, and the NOR logic operations. Table 1.12c sum- The binary logic diagram may have additional inputs to
marizes the ANSI/ISA standard symbols that describe these its logic symbols that do not represent actual process vari-
operations. The additional symbols in the table illustrate other ables. For example, a process operation may be affected by loss
commonly represented logic functions. of a component power supply. This would be especially true
It is important to recognize that binary logic diagrams are if the process equipment involved had electronic memory
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

living documents. Because they illustrate a process control elements, and that memory was vital to the specific operation
procedure, binary logic diagrams also reflect any updates in under consideration. Thus, the power failure might adversely
process control strategy as well as the personalities of the affect the performance of one part of the process but not shut
process personnel who create and maintain the documents. As down its operation or directly influence the operation of other
a result, it is likely that a selected (i.e., standard) set of diagram elements of the process. To take such situations into account,
symbols will be modified within a companys various plant it would be necessary to consider the effect of that power
locations across the country, and completely different symbol loss on the logic of that components operation and indicate
sets may be adopted by different process industries. what the new control action might be. In such cases, power
Table 1.12d summarizes another common set of logic sym- or loss of power should be entered as a logic input to the
bols. These symbols are often used in the description of digital diagram. The diagram should then indicate the expected
electronic circuit operation. As a result, they are particularly sequence of events as if the power signal were just an additional
popular with process technical personnel with computer sci- binary process input to the entire process.
ence or electrical engineering backgrounds. Although this and The indication of time delays and other time functions
other varieties of logic symbolism for binary logic diagrams is common in binary logic diagrams. It is recommended for
exist, once the diagram readers attention is focused on the clarity that a single time function symbol be used to represent
logic operations represented, the significance and meaning of each single time function in the diagram. The use of one
even unfamiliar symbols becomes apparent. symbol to represent a sequence of unusual or complex time
functions in immediate succession is often confusing to the
reader. Even the correct use of NOT operations combined
PREPARATION OF LOGIC DIAGRAMS with a time function is confusing and often leads to the
diagram reader reaching the opposite conclusion intended
The number of logic operations involved dictates the arrange- from these symbol combinations.
ment of the symbols on a binary logic diagram. There are no It is quite common for the binary logic diagram for a
specific rules as to symbol placement. Most process function process to require more than one page of drawings. When
diagrams depict the flow of information from top to bottom the diagram has more than one page, each sheet should be
and left to right. Lines interconnect the logic symbols, and clearly labeled with the plant location, the process identifi-
arrowheads might be added to lines where the input to output cation, the last update to the diagram, and which page out of
directions are not clear. the total this sheet happens to be. For example, each sheet
A summary of possible final control element operating of an 11-page logic diagram might be labeled:
states is often added to the diagram when the control action
is not the result of one of two specific alternative states. For Cheese Curd Vacuum Packing Process
example, if the control action involves a control valve, it is Tug Hill Packing Plant
not sufficient to indicate that the valve is not closed. This
could mean that the valve is completely open or that the valve The fifth sheet for this process diagram would have the addi-
is in some position between almost closed and wide open. tional information:
Since logic diagrams should be interpreted as literally as
possible, in this example, the reader would accept that the Auxiliary Vacuum Pump Control
diagram indicates that the valve was not closed but make no Last Update: March 15, 2003
assumptions as to its degree of openness. Sheet 5 of 11

2003 by Bla Liptk

 144 General Considerations

TABLE 1.12c
Binary Logic Diagram Symbols
Function Symbol Definition and Truth Table Example

INPUT (Input statement) Input for logic value or sequence of values. Start chemical injection by pushbutton.

Statement may be preceded Start injection manually

by instrument balloon with
tag number.
OUTPUT (Output statement) Logic value provided as an output signal because of an The logic sequence causes drawoff to
input logic sequence. cease.
Stop drawoff
Statement may be followed by
instrument balloon with tag
number.
AND Output D is active only when inputs A, B, and Operate pump if feed tank level is high
A
C are all active. and the discharge valve is open.
B D
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A C FIELD TANK
LEVEL HIGH OPERATE
A B O I
A PUMP
C O O O O DISCHARGE
O I O O VALVE OPEN
I O O O
I I O D

OR A
Output D is active only if and while one or more of inputs Stop compressor if cooling water
A, B, and C are active. pressure is low or bearing temperature
B OR D C is high or both.
A B O I WATER
C O O O D PRESSURE
LOW
O I D D
STOP
I O D D OR
COMPRESSOR
I I D D BEARING
TEMPERATURE
HIGH

QUALIFIED A
Output D is active only if and while a specified number Operate feeder if and while two and only
OR of inputs A, B, and C are active. two mills are in service.
B D Mathematical symbols shall be used, as appropriate, in
* MILL N
specifying the number, e.g., 3, to denote 3 or more.
C
MILL E
*Insert numerical quantity =2
OPERATE
FEEDER
(see Definition).
MILL S

MILL W

NOT Output B is active only if and while input A is passive. Close valve if and while pressure is low.
A B
PRESSURE CLOSE
HIGH VALVE

FLIP-FLOP S denotes set memory and R denotes reset memory. If standby pump operation is initiated, the
A S C
MEMORY Output C is active as soon as input A is active. C remains pump shall operate, even on loss of the
B R D * active, regardless of the subsequent state of A, until the logic power supply, until the process
memory is reset, i.e., terminated when B is active. C sequence is terminated. The pump shall
*If output D is not used, it remains passive, regardless of the subsequent state of B, operate if START and STOP commands
shall not be shown. until A causes the memory to be set. exist simultaneously.
Output D, if used, is active when output C is passive and
STANDBY PUMP
D is passive when C is active (i.e., a signal flip-flop). OPERATION
OPERATE
INITIATED
Input-Override Option If inputs A and B are active MS STANDBY
PUMP
simultaneously, and if A is then required to override B, R
PROCESS
then S should be encircled, i.e., if B is to override A, then SEQUENCE
TERMINATED
R should be encircled.
Loss-of-Power-Supply Option Required action of the
memory on loss of power shall be symbolized by
modifying the set letter, S, as follows:

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams 145

TABLE 1.12c Continued

Binary Logic Diagram Symbols
Function Symbol Definition and Truth Table Example
Modified Required Memory Action
Symbol on Loss of Power
S (unchanged) Was not considered by logic
designer
LS Memory lost
MS Memory maintained
NS Is not significant, no preference
The use of a logic feedback to symbolize a memory that
is lost in the event of loss of power although depicted
below, is not recommended. Thus, the following shall not
be used:
A
OR C
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A
A C
B
OR

TIME Basic Method

A D
ELEMENT * This uses the following specific symbols:
*Insert symbolism for specific Symbol Meaning
functions and time interval DI Delay Initiation of output. The continuous existence If a Pressure Alarm High is active (in
(see Definitions). of input A for a specified time causes output B to alarm) for 4 sec, the auxiliary vacuum
become active when the time expires. B becomes pump is engaged. The pump shuts down
passive when A becomes passive. when the PAH becomes passive.
DT Delay Termination of output. When input A is active,
VESSEL OPERATE
output B becomes active. When A becomes passive PURGE PO EVACUATION
FAILS 3 MIN. PUMP
for the specified time, Output B will become passive
(terminate) as well. When the auxiliary vacuum pump is active
PO Pulse Output. If Input A becomes active and then (running), the water jacket pump is also
immediately passive, output B is active for specified engaged. When the auxiliary vacuum
time. pump is shut down, the water jacket
pump remains on for 5 min before it shuts
down. If vacuum pump is started before
5 min is up, water jacket pump stays on.
If vessel purge fails even momentarily,
operate evacuation pump for 3 min and
then stop the pump.

In addition to this detailed labeling of each sheet of the would identify that logic signal as exit signal 7 from sheet 5
diagram, care must be taken to identify lines that come from and indicate that it was going to enter sheet 8 as the third
or go to other sheets of the drawing. There are no standards external input from the top of the page. To complete the
for accomplishing this, but one good practice is to repeat the redundancy for this numbering system, 83/57 would be the
label on a line that leaves one sheet as that line begins again label on the third external input line from the top of sheet 8.
on another sheet. Another popular approach to the task is to This tag would confirm that the signal in question indeed was
identify each sheet entrance and exit line with its source and the third external sheet source input signal for sheet 8 and
destination. Numbering all exit lines from one sheet from top that this particular signal was also the seventh off-the-sheet
to bottom and then identifying each line that enters a new output from sheet 5. Letters and numbers are often interlaced
sheet in the same manner is the usual approach. With this in this identification scheme, but the source, destination, and
numbering system in hand, each line entering or leaving a redundancy aspects of the system are always maintained.
sheet can be identified with its source and destination address. In summary, the creation of a binary logic diagram requires
For example, suppose a diagram line that leaves sheet 5 specific knowledge of how the process is controlled. In addi-
of a binary logic diagram was labeled 57/83. This label tion, this type of process function diagram must be clearly

2003 by Bla Liptk

 146 General Considerations

for devices that have open, closed, and intermediate

TABLE 1.12d positions.
An Alternate Set of Logic Symbols
3. Label each input and output of each set of logic oper-
Function Symbol Definition ations on every sheet of the diagram.
If PSH and TSH are 4. Label each external input or output for each sheet of
PSH
PUMP ALARM both at logic 1, then the diagram so that its source and destination are
AND
TSH
output to pump clearly understood.
alarm is at logic 1 5. Adopt a standard set of logic symbols and instrument
If either PSH or TSH labels (see Section 1.1), and resist the temptation to
PSH PUMP ALARM modify your logic symbols for the special situa-
is at logic 1, then
OR
TSH output to pump tion that inevitably develops. If the situation cannot
alarm is at logic 1 be initially explained with relatively simple combi-
If PSH and TSH are nations of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR sym-
PSH
PUMP ALARM both at logic 1, bols, think about it some more until it can be done
AND
TSH
then output to pump that way.
alarm is at logic 0 6. Avoid using ladder diagrams or ladder diagram logic
symbolism. These types of icons are useful when
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If either PSH or TSH

PSH PUMP ALARM is at logic 1, then installing or troubleshooting the control scheme but
OR
TSH
output to pump are only routinely used and understood by a small
alarm is at logic 0 percentage of the technical personnel who need to
If PSH is at logic 0 or know about the process.
PSH PUMP ALARM TSH is at logic 1,
Mixed
TSH then output to pump These useful rules of thumb all follow from one golden
alarm is at logic 0 rule.
Note: When logic 1 is assigned to the high physical signal
value, the output of an AND device is active when it is at logic 1. If the binary logic diagram does not clearly, easily, and
unambiguously indicate what is going on in the process,
then the diagram is of marginal value and should be
reworked until it does.
TABLE 1.12e
Intermediate Position Labels Following this rule will increase the chances of having the
Device State Definition diagram match what it is intended to say with what it actually
says.
Open position Device 100% open
Not open position Device less than 100% open (may or
may not be closed)
DIAGRAM INTERPRETATION
Not closed position Device more than 0% open
Closed position Device that is 0% open Even if authors follow the golden rule when creating logic
Intermediate Device at specific position (greater than diagrams, interpreting logic diagrams is not always an easy
position 0% but less than 100% open) assignment. Consider the example process presented in this
Not-at-intermediate Device at position above or below the section. Its process function diagram, Figure 1.12a, describes
position specified intermediate position (0% or the operation of a standby vacuum pump system for a process
100% open) that needs to maintain a specified pressure in the vacuum
tank illustrated in Figure 1.12b. Information about the panel
instrumentation indicated in Figure 1.12b is provided in
labeled and religiously updated. Below are several common- Table 1.12f. Complete details about the other instrumentation
sense guidelines that will help develop a good diagram: symbols used in Figure 1.12b are available in Section 1.1.
The logic diagram shown in Figure 1.12a indicates that
1. Develop the logic diagram in such a way that it pre- the backup pump control is based on the binary value from
sents results in a positive logic format. For example, seven independent process input signals. By contrast, a close
if the result of the logic operation is to completely inspection of the diagram reveals the existence of only one
open a valve, it should be so stated and not be stated independent output signal. This examples high ratio of input
as being not closed. to output signals is typical of most binary logic diagrams,
2. Use a specific separate label to indicate conditions of indicates the reason why logic diagrams might be difficult to
final control elements that have more than two interpret, and suggests that a good way to analyze the entire
responses to binary signals. Table 1.12e defines labels diagram is to study it from right to left.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams 147

The output of the pump reset OR device goes to the

TABLE 1.12f reset terminal of the memory lost on loss of power to the
Control Panel Instrumentation
flip-flop. If this OR output is at logic one, the flip-flops
Panel Symbol Instrument Function output resets to logic zero. This logic signal forces the pump
HS Manual control switch for pump operation. to shut down, the cold water control valve to close, and the
Three momentary-contacts for Start, Automatic, red panel indicator (XL/C) to go off.
and Stop actions. The circle around the letter R in the memory lost on loss
PAH Alarm if vacuum fails. Alarm sounds 10 min after of power flip-flop symbol indicates that a logic one output
backup vacuum pump start request. from the pump reset OR will initiate the flip-flop reset
TAH Temperature alarm if pump discharge temperature action even if the output of the pump run AND device is
rises above normal operating value. at logic one. Since the HS STOP signal is directly con-
XL-A Green pilot lamp when bright indicates pump motor nected to one of the inputs of the pump reset OR, placing
circuit breaker is not closed, i.e., pump cannot the hand switch in the HS STOP position allows the pump
operate. to receive the logic zero reset signal from the LS flip-flop
XL-B Amber pilot lamp when bright indicates pump and stop running.
is ready for automatic start. Although not directly connected to the pump reset OR,
activation of either the PUMP MOTOR OVERLOAD CIR-
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XL-C Red pilot lamp when bright indicates pump motor

circuit breaker is closed, i.e., the pump can operate. CUIT BREAKER or the PUMP DISCHARGE HIGH TEM-
PERATURE (TSH) alarm produces logic signals that gener-
Note: XL-C is not connected to a pump motor feedback signal. ate the same control action as the HS STOP input. These
It cannot confirm that motor is on. two control signals feed to an OR that is connected to the
other input of the pump reset OR. Therefore, a logic one
output signal from this OR produces the same response in
As stated above, the condition of all four output logic the pump reset OR as a logic one signal from the HS
signals in Figure 1.12a (i.e., the red and green pilot lamps, STOP.
the cooling water control value, and the pump operation The memory maintain on loss of power flip-flop is
signal) depends on the logic state of a single output. This is located in the lower left portion of Figure 1.12a. It is arranged
represented as the logic output from the memory lost on so that, if both its inputs are activated simultaneously, the
loss of power memory operation of the LS flip-flop located PUMP MOTOR OVERLOAD CIRCUIT BREAKER signal
on the upper far right side of the diagram. The logic one overrides the MANUAL RESET signal. In other words, the
signal on this output will cause the pump to be engaged, the pump cannot start again until the pump motor overload has
cold-water control valve to open, and the red closed motor been cleared. Once that pump motor circuit problem no longer
circuit-breaker light to glow. The logic signal inversion rep- exists, a logic one MANUAL RESET signal will produce a
resented by the circle symbol between the flip-flop output logic zero on the memory-maintain flip-flop. If the TSH sensor
and the green not-closed motor circuit-breaker light (XL/A) is not in alarm (i.e., at logic zero) or the HS STOP is not
assures that the green light is not glowing when the flip-flop engaged (i.e., at logic zero), then the logic zero output from
output is at logic one. the flip-flop is passed directly to the reset input of the memory
It should be clear at this point in the analysis of lost on loss of power flip-flop. Although, at this point, the flip-
Figure 1.12a that the input signals to the LS flip-flop are the flops output still remains at logic zero, and the pump remains
key to understanding the operation of the backup vacuum off, the pump will engage the next time the pump run con-
pump. The diagram indicates that this flip-flop is controlled ditions are satisfied.
by two input logic signals: a signal that comes from an AND Pump run operating scenarios are determined by the
operation (the pump run AND) and a signal that comes output of an AND operation. This pump run AND is the
from an OR operation (the pump reset OR). It is also clear, other input connected to the memory lost on loss of power
but not necessarily appreciated by the reader, which of these flip-flop. If the output of the pump run AND is at logic one,
two input signals is more important. the pump will be turned on. The only constraint on this logic

TABLE 1.12g
Control Valve Operating Sequence
Control Valve (UV)
Current Vacuum Motor Circuit Breaker Solenoid Valve
Pump Status Auxiliary Contacts (UY) Coil Actuator Port Water

Off Closed Energized Pressurized Closed Off

On Open De-energized Vented Open On

2003 by Bla Liptk

 148 General Considerations

one pump run signal is if the reset input to the memory- has an active high input, an active low input, and an active
loss flip-flop is already at logic one. Under that condition, high output. The three OR devices each have two active high
the pump run signal will not override the reset, and the inputs and one active high output. The efficiency of this
pump will not start. identification scheme is appreciated once it is realized that
There are two inputs to the pump run AND operation. the output of an AND logic device is active only when all its
The HS START, HS AUTOMATIC, and SYSTEM HIGH inputs are active, while the output of an OR device is active
PRESSURE (PSH) process signals identified in the upper left when any of its inputs are active. Thus, it becomes clear very
corner of Figure 1.12a all eventually feed their logic signals quickly that the OR device in the lower part of the diagram
to one of these inputs. Basically, the pump will engage if the that deals directly with high-temperature and motor-overload
hand switch is in the HS START position or if it is in the HS situations can prevent the HS automatic input from acti-
AUTOMATIC position and the PSH is in alarm, i.e., at vating the standby vacuum pump. It also becomes clear that,
logic one. An operator panel alarm function is also provided when the output of that OR device is active, the LS flip-flop
when PSH goes into alarm. If the pressure alert is not cor- is reset, and the vacuum pump would stop if running. In other
rected within 10 min (i.e., the backup vacuum pump has not words, the vacuum pump becomes passive.
returned the vacuum tank to an acceptable vacuum condi-
tion), a panel alarm, PAH, will be activated.
The other input to the pump run AND is a gate signal
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from the TSH and PUMP MOTOR OVERLOAD CIRCUIT FINAL CAUTION
BREAKER logic section of the diagram. This gate signal is
at logic one only when the pump is not in a temperature or Now that the function diagram in Figure 1.12a has been
overload circuit alarm condition. If either such alarm condition reviewed, a few concluding remarks are in order. A complete
exists, the gate input to the pump run AND would be at logic understanding of a process requires all three types of dia-
zero and the pump would not run even if the reset input to the grams in the process documentation package. For the exam-
memory loss on lost power flip-flop were at logic zero. ple sited, no attention was focused on the hardware diagram.
In fact, assumptions were made to facilitate the explanation
of Figure 1.12a. For example, Figure 1.12a does not indicate
how the green not-closed motor circuit-breaker light (XL/A)
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE LOGIC is wired. If it uses a pull-up resistor type wiring scheme, then
the light is off when the motor is running. However, if XL/A
The example process provided in this section is adequate to is wired directly to its source, then the inverted logic one
illustrate the important aspects of drawing and reading a from the memory lost on loss of power LS flip-flop will allow
process diagram. This specific logic diagram is typical with the XL/A light to glow. If this were the situation, many binary
respect to elements in the diagram but not in the number of logic diagram authors would draw a line over the XL/A
these elements. To read diagrams that have many more com- symbol to indicate that the green not-closed motor circuit-
ponents and interactions among them, it is convenient to breaker light had an active low input. This would indicate
initially identify the input and out logic signals as active or that the light would glow when it detected the low logic
passive and then further classify the logic device inputs and signal. Always check the wiring diagram to determine the
outputs as active high or active low. For the example pre- active/passive signals for all sensors and final control ele-
sented in Figure 1.12a, the vacuum pump is active when a ments included in a binary logic diagram.
logic one signal is presented to that pump. By contrast, the The biggest danger when reading a binary logic diagram
XLA indicator is active when the logic zero signal is pre- is projecting what should be there instead of reading the
sented to it. Thus, the vacuum pump input terminal is iden- diagram as it is written. There are often different views as to
tified as an active high input while the XLA indicator input how to implement the specific details for a process control
terminal is an active low input. When the vacuum pump is strategy. The example process discussed in this section is no
not running, the signal to the pump is the passive logic exception to that observation. Constructive criticism about a
signal; when the XLA indicator is on, the signal to that control scheme is an important aspect of improving the con-
device is the active signal. Thus, the entire logic diagram trol of a process. However, it is important to distinguish
can be initially reviewed by first establishing what the active between not liking the logic presented in a logic diagram and
and passive signals are for each device represented in the mentally refusing to read the logic as it is presented in the
diagram and then determining if the input and output termi- diagram. The responsibility of binary logic diagram creators
nals for each device are identified as active high or active is to produce unambiguous diagrams that explain the pro-
low terminals. cesss current control logic. The responsibility of binary logic
For this standby vacuum pump example, the AND device diagram readers is to interpret the diagram without altering
that accepts signals directly from the HS automatic and its mental image with personal bias about the control scheme
PSH field elements has two active high inputs and one active described. Once the creator and reader of a logic diagram
high output. The AND device that controls the LS flip-flop agree as to what the diagram says, then it is time to discuss

2003 by Bla Liptk

 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams 149

the merits of the current control scheme and consider any Platt, G. and Barrikka, N.E., Process Control: A Primer for the Non-
reader-suggested alterations. specialist and the Newcomer, 2nd ed., ISA, Research Triangle Park,
NC, 1998.
Course No. 205, Fundamentals of Process Instrumentation, Job Training
Systems, Inc., Unionville, PA.
ISA Dictionary of Measurement and Control, 3rd ed., ISA, Research Triangle
Bibliography Park, NC, 1995.
Measurement and Control Basics, 3rd ed., ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC,
ANSI/ISA S5.2, 1976 (reaffirmed July 13, 1992), Binary Logic Diagrams 2002.
for Process Operations, ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC. Programmable Controllers, 3rd ed., ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2000.
Downloaded by [Mette Green Fischer] at 03:32 10 March 2014

2003 by Bla Liptk