12

TURBULENT FLOW
12.1 Introduction
Turbulent flow is said to occur when fluid particles move in irregular motions
resulting in complete mixing of fluid particles, and Reynolds number exceeds 4 000. Fluid
masses are interchanged between adjacent layers. This results in momentum transfer
since adjacent layers have different velocities. Loss of pressure head in turbulent flow is
approximately proportional to the square of velocity, and velocity distribution is
logarithmic.
12.2 Coefficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress
Consider a uniform horizontal pipe as shown in Fig 12.1.
Let p1, V1, and A1 be the pressure, the velocity and area at section 1-1. The
corresponding values at section 2-2 are p2, V2, and A2 respectively.
1 2
F1

Flow p1 p2

F1

1 2
Fig 12.1: Forces on Control Volume in Pipe Flow
As the flow occurs, intensity of pressure will be reduced in the direction of flow by
frictional resistance F1.
The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
(i) Pressure force at section 1-1, = p1 A1
(ii) Pressure force at section 2-2, = p2 A 2
(iii) Frictional force F1, due to shear stress o
Resolving all the forces in the horizontal direction, and taking A1= A2 = A;
p1 A p2 A F1 = 0 (i)
(p1 p2 )A = F1 = force due due to shear stress o
= shear stress surface area
= o DL
where D = diameter of the pipe
L = length of pipe between sections 1-1 and 2-2
2
(p 1 p 2 ) D 2 = o DL area, A = D
4 4
4 o L
or p1 p 2 = (ii)
D
Also the head loss between sections 1-1 and 2-2 may be taken as,
p p 2 4fL V 2
hf = 1 =
w D 2g
 2

4fL V 2
or p1 p 2 = w (iii)
D 2g
Equating equations (ii) and (iii);
4 L 4fL V 2
o = w
D D 2g
fV 2 w fV 2 fV 2
o = = g = (iv)
2g 2g 2
2 o
f= , (v)
V 2
where f is the frictional coefficient.
12.3 Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow
This is due to both viscous flow and turbulent flow and is given by:
= v + t
du du
= + (vi)
dy dy
where v = viscous shear stress, as given by Newton's law of viscosity
t = turbulent shear stress, as expressed by J. Boussinesq (1877).
= coefficient of dynamic viscosity
u = average velocity, distance y from boundary
(Gk, eta) = eddy viscosity
In equation (vi), = 0 for laminar flow. In other cases, may be several thousand
times the value of . Also would be difficult to predict.
12.4 Reynolds Expression For Turbulent Shear Stress
Turbulent shear stress between two layers of fluid at a small distance apart is given
as:
= u v (vii)
where u , v = fluctuating component of velocity in x and y direction due to
turbulence.
Since u and v are varying, will also vary. To find shear stress, time average on
both sides of equation (vii) are taken, and the equation becomes;
= u v = u v (viii)
Turbulent shear stress given by equation (viii) is known as Reynolds stress (1886).
12.5 Prandtls Mixing Length Theory For Turbulent Shear Stress
In equation (viii), turbulent shear stress can only be calculated if the value of u v is
known, but it is very difficult to measure u v . This difficulty was overcome when Prandtl
presented a mixing length theory, which allows turbulent shear stress to be expressed in
measurable quantities.
According to Prandtl (1925), the mixing length (l) is defined as the average lateral
distance through which a small mass of fluid particles moves from one layer to another
adjacent layer before acquiring the velocity of the new layer.
 3

Consider two layers at a distance l (mixing length) apart, having velocities u and
u + u as shown in Fig 12.2.

v u+ u u+ u

l v l v
u u area, da

Fig 12.2: Prandtls Mixing Length

Prandtl assumed that the velocity fluctuation in the x- direction, u is related to the
mixing length l as,
du du
u = l , where is the velocity gradient normal to direction of flow,
dy dy
He also assumed that v is the fluctuation of component of velocity in y direction
and is of the same order of magnitude as u .
du
i.e. v = l
dy
Now, u v becomes as,
2
du du du
u v =   =  2
dy dy dy
Substitute values of u v in equation (viii);
Thus shear stress in turbulent flow, due to Prandtl is given by,
2
du
=  2
(ix)
dy
Total shear stress at any point in turbulent flow is the sum of shear stresses due to
viscous shear and turbulent shear, written as;
2
du du
= +  2 (x)
dy dy
Assuming viscous shear stress is negligible near the boundary. Equation (ix) is
used for determining shear stress in turbulent flow.
12.6 Prandtls Universal Velocity Distribution Equation
From equation (ix), velocity distribution can be obtained if the relationship
between  (mixing length) and y is known.
Prandtl assumed that the mixing length  is a linear function of the distance y from
the pipe wall, i.e.  = ky, where k is a constant, known as Karman constant=0.4
Substituting the value of  in equation (ix),
2 2
du du
or = (ky ) = k 2 y 2
2

dy dy
 4

2
du
or = 2 2
dy k y
du 1
= 2 2 = (xi)
dy k y ky
For small values of y close to boundary of pipe, Prandtl assumed shear stress to
be constant and approximately equal to o (shear stress at pipe boundary).
Substituting = o in equation (xi),
du 1 o
= (xii)
dy ky
o
In equation (xii), has the dimensions,

ML1T 2 L2 L
= =
ML3 T 2
T
L o
But = velocity, hence has the dimensions of velocity, known as shear
T
velocity and is denoted by u *
Equation (xii) then becomes;
du 1
= u*
dy ky
For a given case of turbulent flow, u* is constant.
Integrating above equation:
u*
u= log e y + C (xiii)
k
The constant of integration C is obtained from the boundary condition: u = umax at
y = R (radius of pipe).
u*
umax = log e R + C
k
u*
or C = umax log e R
k
Equation (xiii) then becomes:
u* u*
u= log e y + u max log e R
k k
u*
= u max + (log e y log e R )
k
u* y
or u = u max + log e (xiv)
0.4 R
Equation (xiv) is known as Prandtl Universal Velocity Distribution Equation for
turbulent flow in pipes, and is applicable to smooth as well as rough pipe
boundaries.
 5

Equation (xiv) may also be written as:

y R
u max - u = 2.5u * log e = 2.5u * log e
R y
Dividing by u*, we get
u max - u R R
= 2.5log e = 2.5 2.3log 10
u* y y
u max - u R
or = 5.75log 10 (xv)
u* y
The difference between maximum velocity umax, local velocity u at any point i.e.
(umax-u) is known as Velocity Defect (or velocity defect law).
12.7 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries
Consider the following boundaries shown in Fig 12.3:
Turbulent boundary layer
Lamina sub-layer

k
k

Smooth boundary Rough boundary

Fig 12.3: Smooth and Rough boundaries

Let: k = average height of irregularities

= laminar sub-layer (where viscosity predominates)
It should be observed that if Reynolds number is increased, becomes smaller
than average height of k and and an otherwise smooth boundary starts acting as a rough
u*k
boundary. In terms of roughness, Reynolds number R e = .

The classification of boundaries based on Nikuradses experiments or Reynolds
number is as shown in table 12.1.

Table 12.1: Smooth and Rough Boundaries

Type of boundary Based on Nikuradses experiments Based on Reynolds experiments
Smooth k u*k
< 0.25 <4

Rough k u*k
> 6 .0 > 100

Transition k u*k
0.25 < < 6.0 4< < 100

12.7.1 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Pipes

(a) Smooth pipes
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in smooth or rough pipes is given by Eq.
(xiii) as,
 6

u*
u= log e y + C (xiii)
k
At y = 0, velocity at wall is - (means u is +ve at some distance away from wall
and - at the wall).
At some finite distance from the wall, velocity u = 0
The constant C is determined from boundary i.e u = 0 at y = y
The above equation upon substituting the values(Eq. xiii) then becomes:
u*
0= log e y + C
k
u*
or C= log e y
k
u* u* u* y
u= log e y log e y = log e
k k k y
u* y y
= log e = 2.5u * log e
0 .4 y y
u y
or = 2.5 2.3 log10
u* y
u y
= 5.75 log10 (xvi)
u* y
For smooth boundary, there exist a laminar sub-layer and velocity distribution is
parabolic , hence logarithmic distribution does not hold good. Thus it can be
assumed that y is proportional to , where is the thickness of laminar sub-layer.
11.6
From Nikuradses experiment, y = , with = , where = kinematic
107 u*
viscosity of fluid.
11.6 1 0.108
y = =
u * 107 u*
Substituting the value of y in equation (xvi);
u y u*y
= 5.75 log10 = 5.75 log10 9.259
u* 0.108 / u *
u u*y
= 5.75log 10 + 5.55 (xvii)
u*
(a) Rough pipes
In the case of rough pipes, thickness of laminar sub-layer is very small, and surface
irregularities are above laminar sub-layer, hence laminar sub-layer is completely
destroyed. Thus y can be considered proportional to the height of protrusion k.
Nikuradses experiment shows the value of y for pipes coated with uniform sand
(rough pipes) as,
k
y =
30
Substituting the value of y in equation (xvi), we get
 7

u y
= 5.75 log10
u* k / 30
y
= 5.75 log 10 30
k
y
= 5.75 log10 + 5.75 log10 (30 )
k
u y
= 5.75log 10 + 8.5 (xviii)
u* k
12.7.2 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity
Consider an elementary circular ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in Fig
12.4.
dr
y
R
r r r
Flow

Fig 12.4: AverageVelocity for Turbulent Flow

Distance of ring from pipe wall, y = (R-r) where R= radius of pipe

Discharge through pipe,
dQ = velocity area of ring
= u 2 rdr
R
Q = dQ = u 2 rdr (xix)
0

total disch arg e (Q)

Average velocity U =
area of pipe (a)
(a) Smooth Pipes
Velocity distribution for smooth pipes is given by Eq. (xvii) as,
u u*y
= 5.75 log10 + 5.55
u*
u*y
or u = 5.75 log10 + 5.55 u *

But y =R-r
u * (R r )
u = 5.75 log 10 + 5.55 u *

Substituting the value of u in equation (xix);
R
u * (R r )
Q = 5.75 log10 + 5.55 u * 2 rdr
0

 8

Q Q
Average velocity, U = =
area R 2
R
1 u * (R r )
2
or U= 5.75 log 10 + 5.55 u * 2 rdr
R 0
Integration and simplification of above equation gives average velocity for
turbulent flow in smooth pipes as,
U u*R
= 5.75log 10 + 1.75 (xx)
u*
(b) Rough pipes
Velocity distribution for rough pipes at any point in turbulent flow is given by:
u y
= 5.75 log10 + 8.5 (xviii)
u* k
But y =R-r
u Rr
= 5.75 log10 + 8 .5
u* k
Rr
or u = 5.75 log 10 + 8 .5 u *
k
Substituting the value of u in equation (xix);
R
(R r )
Q = u * 5.75 log10 + 8.5 2 rdr
0 k
R
(R r )
Q
u * 5.75 log 10
k
+ 8.5 2 rdr

Average velocity, U = = 0
area R 2
Integration and simplification of the above equation leads to;
U R
= 5.75log 10 + 4.75 (xxi)
u* k
12.7.3 Difference Between Velocity at Any Point and Average Velocity
(a) Smooth pipes
Velocity at any point for smooth pipes is given by Eq.(xvii) as;
u u * (R r )
= 5.75 log10 + 5.55 ( y =R-r)
u*
and average velocity is given by Eq. (xx) as,
U u*R
= 5.75 log10 + 1.75
u*
Difference of velocity u and U for smooth pipe is obtained as:

u U u * (R r ) u*R
= 5.75 log10 + 5.55 5.75 log10 + 1.75
u* u*
 9

uU u * (R r ) u*R
= 5.75log 10 log10 + [5.55 1.75]
u*
u * (R r ) u * R
= 5.75 log10 + 3.75

= 5.75 log10
(R r ) + 3.75
R
uU y
or = 5.75log 10 + 3.75 (xxii)
u* R
(b) Rough pipes
Velocity at any point for a rough pipe is given by Eq (xvii) as:
u y
= 5.75 log10 + 8.5 (xviii)
u* k
and average velocity is given by Eq. (xxi) as,
U R
= 5.75 log10 + 4.75
u* k
Difference of velocity u and U for rough pipe is given by;
u U y R
= 5.75 log10 + 8.5 5.75 log10 + 4.75
u* u* k k
y R
= 5.75 log10 + [8.8 4.75]
k k
uU y
= 5.75log 10 + 3.75 (xxiii)
u* R
Eq. (xxii) and (xxiii) are the same i.e. difference of velocity at any point and the
average velocity will be the same in case of smooth as well as rough pipes.
12.8 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by the Power Law.
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow as given by Eq. (xv), (xvii) and (xviii) are
logarithmic in nature and not convenient to use.
Nikuradse carried out experiments for different Reynolds numbers to determine
the velocity distribution law in smooth pipes. He expressed the velocity distribution in
exponential form as;
1/ n
u y
= (xxiv)
u max R
1
where the exponent depends on Reynolds number.
n
1 1
For R e = 4 10 3 , =
n 6
1 1
R e = 1.1 10 5 , =
n 7
1 1
R e = 2 10 6 , =
n 10
 10

1 1
Thus if = , velocity distribution law becomes,
n 7
1/7
u y
= (xxv)
u max R
1
Eq. (xxv) is known as th power law of velocity distribution for smooth pipes.
7
Examples
Example 12.1: A pipeline conveying water has average height of irregularities
projecting from the surface of the boundary of the pipe of 0.16mm. If the shear stress
developed is 5.2N/m2 and kinematic viscosity = 0.01210-4m2/s, determine the type of
boundary.
Solution
Average height of irregularities, k= 0.1610-3m
Shear stress developed, o = 5.2N/m2
Kinematic viscosity = 0.01210-4m2/s,
Density of water, = 103 kg/m3
o 5 .2
Shear velocity, u* = = = 0.072m / s
10 3
u * k 0.072 0.16 10 3
Reynolds roughness number = = = 9 .6
0.012 10 4
u *k
Since lies between 4 and 100, the pipe surface behaves as a transition.

Example 12.2: A rough pipe is of diameter 100mm. The velocity at a point 40mm from
the wall is 40% more than the velocity at a point 10mm from pipe wall. Determine the
average height of roughness.
Solution
Diameter of rough pipe, D =100mm
Let velocity at 10mm from pipe wall= u
Then velocity at 40mm from pipe wall= 1.4u
Velocity distribution for rough pipe is given by;
u y
= 5.75 log10 + 8.5 , where k = height of roughness
u* k
For a point 10mm from pipe wall,
u 0.01
= 5.75 log10 + 8.5 (i)
u* k
For a point 40mm from pipe wall, velocity is 1.4u
1 .4 u 0.04
= 5.75 log 10 + 8 .5 (ii)
u* k
 11

Divide (ii) by (i):

0.04
5.75 log10 + 8.5
k
1.4 =
0.01
5.75 log10 + 8.5
k
0.01 0.04
1.4 5.75 log10 + 8.5 = 5.75 log10 k + 8.5
k
16.1 8.05 log10 k + 11.9 = 8.04 5.75 log10 k + 8.5
log10 k ( 8.05 = 5.75 ) = 8.5 11.9 + 11.6 8.04 = 4.66
4.66
log10 k = = 2.026
2.3
k = 9.4210-3m = 9.42mm
Example 12.3: A smooth pipe of diameter 75mm and 750m long conveys water at a rate
of 0.4m3/minute. Determine: (at) the loss head (b) the wall shearing stress (c) the
centerline velocity (d) the velocity and shear stress at 20mm from pipe wall (e) the
thickness of laminar sub-layer. Take kinematic viscosity of water as 0.01510-4m2/s, and
assume the value of the coefficient of friction f is given by the relationship,
0.0791
f = , where Re = Reynolds number.
R 1/4
e
Solution
Given: Diameter of pipe, D =75mm=0.75m
Length of pipe, L= 750m
Discharge , Q= 0.42/60=0.007m3/s
Kinematic viscosity =0.01510-4m2/s,
Density of water, =103kg/m3
D 2 0.075 2
Area of pipe, A= = = 4.418 10 3
4 4
Q 0.007
Mean velocity, V = = = 1.584m / s
area 4.418 10 3
VD 1 . 591 0 . 075
R e = = 4
= 7 . 955 10 4
0 . 015 10
As Re is >2500, the flow is turbulent and f is given as,
0.0791 0.0791
f= = = 0.00471
Re
1/ 4
( )
7.955 10 4
1/ 4

(a) Head lost,

4fLV 2 4 0.00471 750 1.584 2
hf = = = 24.093m
2gD 2 9.81 0.075
(b) Wall shearing stress,
fV 2 0.00471 10 3 1.584 2
o = = = 5.909N/m 2
2 2
(c) Centre line velocity:
umax for smooth pipe is given by:
 12

u u*y
= 5.75log 10 + 5.55 , where u* is the shear velocity given by,
u*
o 5.909
u* = = = 0.0769m / s
10 3
Maximum velocity occurs at y= d/2=0.075/2=0.0375m
In the above equation, y=0.0375m, u = umax
u 0.0769 0.0375
max = 5.75log10 + 5.55 = 24.432
0.0769 0.015 10 -4
u max = 0.0769 24.432 = 1.879m/s
(d) Shear stress at any point is given by;
p r
= , where r= distance from centerline of pipe, and hence
x 2
shear stress at pipe wall where r=R is
p R
o =
x 2
Dividing, we get
r
=
o R
r
Shear stress = o
R
At 20mm from pipe wall, r = 37.5-20 =17.5mm
0.0175 0.0175
at (r=0.0175m) = o = 5.909 = 2.758 N / m 2
0.0375 0.0375
Velocity at appoint 40mm from pipe wall means y = 0.04m, and is given by;
u u*y
= 5.75log 10 + 5.55 , where u*= 0.0769 and y=0.04m
u*
u 0.0769 0.04
= 5.75log10 + 5.55 = 24.593
0.0769 0.015 10 -4
or u = 0.076924.593 = 1.891m/s
(e) Thickness of laminar sub-layer is given by;
11.6 11.6 0.015 10 4
= = = 2.263 10 4 m = 0.2263mm
u* 0.0769