Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in Somalia

Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in Somalia
A Planning, Design, Implementation and

Monitoring Framework
Technical Report No. W-09

Oct 2007
Somalia Water and Land Information Management

Ngecha Road, Lake View. P.O Box 30470-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel +254 020 4000300 - Fax +254 020 4000333,
Email: enquiries@faoswalim.org Website: http//www.faoswalim.org.
Funded by the European Union and implemented by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Disclaimer
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning
the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The document should be cited as follows:
Oduor A.R. Gadain, H. M. 2007: Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in Somalia, A Planning, Design,
Implementation and Monitoring Framework, Technical Report NoW-09, 2007,FAO-SWALIM, Nairobi,
Kenya.
i
Preamble
In 2004, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) established
a project entitled Somalia Water and Land Information Management Systems, SWALIM.
SWALIM’s objective is to contribute to improved water and food security in Somalia by:
• collecting data needed for water and land resources management

• generating user-friendly information from the data
• storing the information in easily accessible databases and disseminating it through
conventional and electronic media
• building capacity among Somali authorities to take over these functions in the
future.
In March 2007, FAO-SWALIM signed a memorandum of understanding with ICRAF

with the aim of producing a number of outputs. These include rainwater harvesting
(RWH) classification scheme and definition system; identifying traditional water
conservation systems; identifying technical and socio-economic factors for evaluating,
planning and designing RWH projects; assessing the potential of RWH practices for
increased agricultural or livestock production; and creating links between national
institutions and international bodies or networks involved in RWH. The final output is a
common framework for planning, designing, implementing and monitoring RWH
projects.
To achieve these objectives and outputs, two rounds of trips were organized for fact-
finding missions and consultative workshops in April and May 2007. These events took
place in Puntland, Somaliland and Southern Somalia, drawing participants from relevant
line ministries in government, UN agencies, international non-governmental
organizations and community-based organizations. The draft framework was presented in
Nairobi for ratification in June 2007. It is envisaged that the final products that include
the framework document and assessment report on the potentials of RWH technologies
shall act as reference material for policy makers to prioritize and guide community,
government and external support agencies, on RWH investment options.
ii
Table of Contents
Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................ i
Preamble ............................................................................................................................. ii
Table of Contents............................................................................................................... iii
List of Plates ...................................................................................................................... vi
List of Annexes ................................................................................................................. vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
Acronyms........................................................................................................................... ix
Local terms.......................................................................................................................... x
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. xi
1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and general context................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement......................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objectives of the assessment ........................................................................................ 2
1.4 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Challenges, opportunities and benefits of RWH in Somalia ........................................ 4
1.6 Expected outcome......................................................................................................... 6
2. Climatic and Hydro-physical Factors Influencing Rainwater Harvesting in

Somalia............................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Rainfall.......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Potential evaporatranspiration ...................................................................................... 9
2.3 Air temperature and wind speed ................................................................................... 9
2.4 Landforms and vegetation cover................................................................................. 10
2.5 Soil types..................................................................................................................... 10
3. Historical Development and Technological Options of RWH in Somalia............. 11

3.1 Water resources in various regions of Somalia........................................................... 11
3.2 Indegenous technologies............................................................................................. 11
3.3 Current RWH technologies in Somalia....................................................................... 12
3.4 Technological options for RWH and conservation systems in Somalia..................... 13
3.4.1 Ex situ agricultural RWH systems........................................................................... 13
3.4.2. In situ water conservation ....................................................................................... 14
3.4.3 Rainwater management for agro-forestry systems .................................................. 16
3.4.4 Rainwater for livestock production.......................................................................... 18
3.4.4 Domestic water harvesting systems in Somalia....................................................... 18
3.4.6 Water conservation in sandy river beds ................................................................... 19
4. Design of RWH Systems............................................................................................. 21

4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 21
4.2 Design considerations for agricultural systems - ponds ............................................ 21
4.2.1 The catchment area .................................................................................................. 22
4.2.2 Conveyance mechanisms ......................................................................................... 23
iii
4.3 Design considerations for berkads ............................................................................. 30
4.3.1 The catchment area .................................................................................................. 31
4.3.2 Conveyance mechanism........................................................................................... 31
4.3.3 Design considerations for storage............................................................................ 32
4.3.4 Abstraction of water for animal or domestic use ..................................................... 33
4.4 Design of roof water harvesting systems: the case of berkad guris............................ 36
4.4.1 Design considerations and aspects for roof catchments .......................................... 37
4.4.2 Conveyance, by pass and filtering mechanisms ...................................................... 37
4.4.3 Storage and abstraction ............................................................................................ 39
4.4.4 Demand-based approach to sizing a berkad guri ..................................................... 40
4.4.5 Total annual available rainwater from roof catchments .......................................... 40
4.4.7 Sizing roof rainwater tanks using nomographs........................................................ 42
5. Quality Aspects of Stored Rainwater........................................................................ 44

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 44
5.2 Domestic water treatment techniques ......................................................................... 44
5.2.1 Leaf screening.......................................................................................................... 44
5.2.2 Manual foul flush mechanisms ................................................................................ 45
5.3 Agricultural water quality management...................................................................... 50
5.4 Livestock water quality requirement .......................................................................... 50
6. Assessment of RWH Potential for Somalia .............................................................. 53

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 53
6.2 Assessement of RWH potential for Somalia .............................................................. 53
7. Institutional and Policy Aspects in RWH Projects .................................................. 56

7.1. Overview of current status ......................................................................................... 56
7.2 Excerpts from existing water policies......................................................................... 56
7.3 Role of local and external support agencies ............................................................... 57
8. Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of RWH Interventions....................... 59

8.1 RWH projects implementation ................................................................................... 60
8.2 RWH projects monitoring and evaluation .................................................................. 61
9. Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................... 63
References......................................................................................................................... 64
Annexes............................................................................................................................. 66
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Change in construction quality over time............................................................ 5

Figure 2: Area per region.................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3: Rainwater potential per region prior to partitioning............................................ 8
Figure 4: Rainwater potential per unit area......................................................................... 8
Figure 5: Wind speed at some stations ............................................................................. 10
Figure 6: Classification of rainwater harvesting and conservation systems for Somalia . 12
Figure 7: Rainwater harvesting components for agricultural system ............................... 14
Figure 8: Pictorial depiction of a pond design .................................................................. 24
Figure 9: Bird’s eyeview of a pond design ....................................................................... 25
Figure 10: Off-stream conveyance mechanism for berkads ............................................. 32
Figure 11: Use of rope and bucket to desilt or abstract water from berkads .................... 34
Figure 12: Rope and washer pump ................................................................................... 35
Figure 13: A Berkad runoff harvesting system depicting trough for animal drinking ..... 36
Figure 14: Roof pitch factors ............................................................................................ 37
Figure 15: Illustration of RWH system for grass-thatched house..................................... 38
Figure 16: Illustration of RWH system for a hemi-spherical house ................................. 39
Figure 17: Optimizing tank size using mass curve analysis method ................................ 42
Figure 18: An example of a nomograph for estimating required tank size ...................... 43
Figure 21: Sand and gravel- based water filters................................................................ 49
v
List of Plates
Plate 1: Participants during consultative workshops in Garowe, Hargeisa and Baidoa .... 3
Plate 2: A typical Berkad guri depicting the catchment, conveyance and storage
components ....................................................................................................................... 19
Plate 3: A typical ephemeral stream with a sandy riverbed in Somalia............................ 20
Plate 4: A balley filled with water during the rainy season .............................................. 22
Plate 5: Runoff conveyance channel during construction................................................. 23
Plate 6: Runoff conveyance channel in north-west Somalia after having developed into a
gully and conveying a lot of silt to the pond..................................................................... 24
Plate 7: A section of a balley embankment destroyed by 2007 Gu rains ......................... 28
Plate 8: A typical berkad in Somalia................................................................................. 30
Plate 9: Siltation of a berkad............................................................................................. 31
Plate 10: Mitigating evaporation losses from berkads using grass covers........................ 33
Plate 12: A Berkad guri showing the roof runoff harvesting components ....................... 36
Plate 13: Current practice of drawing water from the berkad guris.................................. 40
Plate 14: A guide for harvestable domestic roof water..................................................... 41
vi
List of Annexes
Annex 14: Factors to consider in the planning, design, and implementation of agricultural
RWH systems.................................................................................................................... 80
Annex 15: Factors to consider in the planning, design, and implementation of domestic
RWH systems.................................................................................................................... 81
Annex 16 Analysis for Borama 20mm Rainfall threshold................................................ 82
Annex 19: Runoff water harvesting potential for agriculture and rangelands.................. 85
Annex 22: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Garoowe ................................................. 88
Annex 23: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Garowe ................................................... 89
Annex 24: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Hargeisa.................................................. 90
Annex 25: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Borama ................................................... 91
Annex 26: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Borama ................................................... 92
Annex 27: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Bossaso................................................... 93
Annex 28: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Bossaso................................................... 94
Annex 29: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Jowhar .................................................... 95
Annex 31: Streams feeding into for Somalia.................................................................... 97
vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Nomenclature of water sources in various regions of Somalia ......................... 11

Table 2: Profile of some conservation farming practices ................................................. 14
Table 3: Runoff Curve Numbers ...................................................................................... 26
Table 4: Berkad size based on water demand................................................................... 32
Table 5: Optimizing tank size using mass curve analysis method.................................... 42
Table 6: Guide to the use of water containing nitrates for livestock and poultry............. 51
Table 7: Guide to the use of saline water for livestock and poultry ................................. 52
Table 8: Runoff potential in volumes for the agriculture and rangeland sectors.............. 54
viii
Acronyms
ACZ Agro-climatic Zone

AfDB African Development Bank
CA Conservation Agriculture
CBO Community-Based Organization
DEM Digital Elevation Model
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
ICRAF The World Agroforestry Centre
ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
RELMA Regional Land Management Unit
RWH Rainwater Harvesting
SWALIM Somalia Water and Land Information Management Systems
SWC Soil and Water Conservation
UN United Nations
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
USD United States Dollar
ix
Local terms
balli A natural depression on flatter silt soils that collect surface runoff with
water-holding capacity ranging from less than 1000 m3 to more than
100,000 m3.
war A stock pond excavated either by hand, and within the last 15 years by
machinery, in heavy sealing soils whose capacity for holding water ranges
from less than 100 m3 to more than 10,000 m3.
berkad A concrete-lined reservoir roofed either with corrugated iron sheets or

shaded with small bushes suspended over the tanks with nets. Its capacity
ranges from 30 to 400 m3.
xurfad Either a water pond or earth dam.
ceel A hand-dug well.
berkad guri Roof water harvesting.
majaroor Roof water harvesting.
naxaroor Soil bunds constructed to conserve both soil and water.
xadhig Soil bunds constructed to conserve both soil and water.
il Natural spring
doox xidh A sub-surface dam constructed in sandy rivers
deshek Flood-diversion techniques used for delivering flood water for irrigation
purposes
mugsid An underground reservoir
x
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the following for their contributions to the Rainwater
Harvesting Framework Document for Somalia:
Report review:
Zoltan Balint, Flavian Muthusi, Peris Muchiri
Section on Agro forestry

Azene Bekele Tesemma
Indigenous knowledge compilation

All the participants of the consultative workshops from Somaliland, Puntland and South
Central Somalia
GIS support:
Craig von Hagen, Alex Koton and Meshack Nyabenge
Computer graphics
Evans Oduor, Pixiniti Studios
Logistical support:
Pollyne Wangari, Amos Nyaoro and Christine Kenyao
English editing support:

Dali Mwagore and George Obanyi
xi
Introduction
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background and general context
Somalia covers an area of 637,657 km2 with the population in 2003 estimated at 7.5
million inhabitants. Somalia’s economy is predominantly agricultural (crops and
livestock, the latter being a major mainstay). The economy depends highly on water
availability, which in turn is reliant on rainfall. Rainfall in Somalia is not only low, below
100 mm per year in some areas, but has a high temporal and spatial variability (annexes 1
to 5). The annual average rainfall ranges from 215 mm in the North-eastern regions to
approximate 550 mm in the South-Central regions (SWALIM, 2007). The water balance
for the country depicts potential evapotranspiration greater than rainfall in the entire
country. In addition, other hydro-physical conditions that negatively impact on the
availability of freshwater include land degradation and siltation of water bodies. The
situation has been compounded by 16 years of civil strife, especially in the southern
regions. A number of local and international organizations have initiated civil
reconstruction, environmental conservation and livelihood-support programmes.
Experts estimate that Somalia is among the 13 African countries that will face water
scarcity by 2025. A country is said to be water scarce when its annual per capita water
availability falls below 1000 m3. Already, Somalia has less than 500 m3/per capita/year
(UNECA, 2000). This is attributed to erratic spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall
with average annual amounts falling between 100 and 800 mm, high evaporation, and
human activities that exacerbate land degradation.
Annexes 6 and 7 show the agro-ecological zones for Somalia. The dry and moist semi-
arid zones in the South, South-Central and North-western regions are conducive to
agricultural production. In these regions the length of crop growing season ranges from
60 to 120 days, and in situ water conservation measures and rainwater harvesting
techniques can be practised.
A survey carried out by FAO-SWALIM in 2006; found that land degradation requires
serious attention. According to the technical report Name and year produced by the
SWALIM land team, rangeland degradation, which constitutes about 50% of land
degradation, is the most serious form of land degradation. Land degradation is
exacerbated by prolonged droughts and the charcoal trade, which is widespread in the
country. The report further states that the rate of soil nutrient loss alone in Somalia is 88
kg ha–1yr–1. Rangelands also constitute the largest runoff water domain. Proper
management of soil and water resources is therefore a big challenge.
The agricultural and livestock sectors play a key role in food security, natural resources
management and environmental protection. Many districts have no permanent sources of
water supply. The human population and livestock depend on surface water harvesting
structures such as dams and berkads. These however dry up in the middle of the dry
season resulting in serious shortage of water that causes deaths of livestock and
sometimes humans. Water trucking is common in such districts during prolonged
droughts. The waters in these reservoirs are polluted with organic matter, silt and
sometimes garbage. There is also high likelihood of biological contamination.
1
Introduction
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Despite all these problems, Somalia still has potential to harvest rainwater for domestic,
agricultural and livestock use in areas where considerable runoff is generated. The
principles and technologies applicable to rainwater harvesting are discussed in detail in
chapter 3 of this report.
Definition of rainwater harvesting and management systems

A rainwater harvesting and management system is broadly defined as the collection,
concentration and management of runoff water from roofs or ground catchments for the
production of crop, pasture/fodder, trees, livestock and/or domestic water (Ngigi, 2006).
Surface runoff from roofs or rock outcrops is collected and stored in plastic or concrete
tanks of about 4–20 m3. Surface runoff from ground catchments is harnessed and stored
in soil or in ponds with capacities of about 1000 m3 and in dams with higher capacities.
1.2 Problem statement
Although many organisations are involved in water-related activities, the capacity of the
community and government is still inadequate to take advantage of the potential that
rainwater harvesting offers in mitigating the effects of water scarcity in most parts of
Somalia.
The Governments of Puntland, Somaliland and South-Central Somalia are still in the
early stages of developing water policy. Rainwater harvesting is not adequately
mainstreamed in policy documents. The governments will need the support of experts to
incorporate RWH in its programmes and projects.
1.3 Objectives of the assessment
The objective of the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Somalia Water and Land
Information Management (FAO-SWALIM), is to improve water and food security and
support the sustainable use of natural resources through information management. In
March 2007, SWALIM signed a memorandum of understanding with The World Agro-
forestry Centre (ICRAF) to collaborate on the production of “A common framework for
planning, designing, implementation and monitoring of rainwater harvesting projects in
Somalia”. The aims of the mission included:
• Producing a rainwater harvesting classification scheme;

• Identifying traditional water conservation systems
• Identifying technical and socio-economic factors for evaluating, planning and
designing RWH projects
• Assessing the potential of RWH practices for increased agricultural and livestock
production
• Creating links between national institutions with regional and global networks
involved in RWH.
2
Introduction
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1.4 Methodology
Consultative meetings and workshops

Two rounds of trips were made to Hargeisa in Somaliland, Garowe in Puntland and
Baidoa in South-Central Somalia. Workshops and consultative meetings were held in the
three regions where participants drawn from government line ministries, UN agencies,
international and local NGOs deliberated on criteria for mapping and determining the
potential for agricultural, livestock and domestic RWH and conservation systems. In total
six workshops were held, two in each region. Participants were split into technology and
policy working groups to deliberate on rainwater harvesting for Somalia. These
discussions form the framework document.
Plate 1: Participants during consultative workshops in Garowe, Hargeisa and Baidoa
Outcome of the consultative meetings and workshops

There was acknowledgement and consensus that runoff that flows un-tapped to the Red
sea and the Gulf of Oman goes to waste. It also emerged that many organizations practice
rainwater harvesting in Somaliland, Puntland and South-Central Somalia, though its
definition is not clearly understood by some of the practitioners.
Common water harvesting and related activities currently in place include dam
construction, shallow wells, spring development, watershed management, pasture
development, sinking of boreholes and construction of berkads.
To benefit in the cross-fertilization of knowledge and experiences, the governments of

the three regions were interested to liaise with FAO-SWALIM in networking with and
joining the Southern and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SearNet). Somaliland has a
watershed management association formed to address for rainwater harvesting and land
degradation issues.
The governments have policies that touch directly or indirectly on rainwater harvesting
but which are still at various stages of development.
Classification of RWH and conservation technologies for Somalia

The technology working groups deliberated on indigenous rainwater as well as other
water conservation technologies, identified the local names for these practices and
produced a classification chart for each region (see sections 3.1 to 3.3).
3
Introduction
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Developing the mapping criteria
The original plan was to map development domains for rooftop; ponds, pans and small
earth dams; in situ water conservation; rock catchment systems and sand/sub-surface
dams (see annex 8 for the description of classes for these criteria). However, due to lack
of information on some criteria, mapping was done for rooftop water harvesting potential,
runoff water domains for agricultural areas and runoff water domains for rangelands.
Criteria for mapping rooftop water harvesting potential depended on the availability of
data on settlements (roof area coverage), population density and rainfall as shown in the
classes in annex 8. Owing to lack of demographic data, especially population density,
mapping for rooftop water harvesting potential was instead produced with support of roof
area coverage data provided by UN Habitat. FAO-SWALIM provided rainfall data.
Criteria for mapping agricultural and rangelands development domains depended on the
availability of GIS baseline datasets such as those for climate (rainfall and evaporation)
and elevation models. These were provided by FAO-SWALIM and ICRAF.
Design of RWH systems

Information compiled from the missions to Somalia and from the FAO-SWALIM office
was used as base data for developing designs for Somalia RWH systems. Three
categories of rainwater use were considered—livestock production, crop production and
domestic use. Suggestions were made on maintenance aspects and how to improve on the
systems.
1.5 Challenges, opportunities and benefits of RWH in Somalia
Somalia receives low rainfall and very high temperatures, hence high evaporation from
surface reservoirs. This means that large tracks of land are required as catchment areas to
generate adequate runoff for ponds or dams. The other problem is silt deposits along
conveyance channels. After the rains huge deposits of silt are transported to the
reservoirs. This not only reduces the lifespan of the reservoir, but also hikes maintenance
costs through manual or mechanical desiltation. NGOs such as the Agricultural
Development Cooperation in Hargeisa cite costs of desilting ranging from USD 20,000 to
USD 30,000 for ponds with surface areas of approximately 1000 m2.
Most concrete storage structures such as the berkads have cracks. According to Foerch
(2003), the quality of berkad construction changed drastically since the 1950s (see figure
1). This was attributed to the combined effects of war, absence of maintenance during the
displacement years and poor workmanship. Quality declined drastically during the 1970s.
The motto at the time was to build a berkad as fast and as cheaply as possible (15-day
construction period). This resulted in imprecision, carelessness and poor quality of
construction. From the rural water supply assessment carried out by SWALIM, more than
half of the berkads are currently broken. The challenge is to develop standards for their
design, construction and maintenance.
4
Introduction
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quality index
3
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
construction period
Figure 1: Change in construction quality over time
Unlike other countries in the region that have networks of rainwater harvesting
associations composed of diverse disciples relevant to the technology, Somalia is just
beginning to establish its own structure. So far, government authorities are taking the lead
with the inter-ministerial forums that are looking into policy and regulatory aspects of
water management. There is interest to establish watershed management associations that
would also include rainwater harvesting in their agenda.
Rainwater harvesting is mostly practised by NGOs and UN agencies show-casing or

proving to governments and key donors that the technology is a viable investment. So far,
information on costs and benefits is insufficient for econometricians to use in assessing
the viability of RWH.
In addition to the above, participants at the consultative workshop said there was
insufficient human capacity to implement rainwater harvesting in Somalia. The challenge
is to develop a capacity-building framework that will prepare Somalia in upscaling and
outscaling RWH projects and programmes implemented by governments, international
NGOs and UN agencies.
RWH presents opportunities which communities can take advantage of to enhance their
livelihoods. These include taking advantage of runoff water to boost human health (since
rainwater from roof and rock catchment is fairly clean and safe); boosting agricultural
productivity and thus food security; involving local communities in planning and
implementing RWH projects and creating jobs for local artisans and fabricators. RWH
complements other water sources. It saves energy and time because its infrastructure is
close to its utilization points. RWH mitigates against the devastating effects of climate
change as water stored during floods is stopped from creating havoc in the lowlands, and
it becomes useful for irrigation and livestock production during the dry periods.
Somalia receives approximately 209 km3 of fresh renewable rainwater annually. This
water is unevenly distributed in space and time. Using RWH as a means of addressing
this spatial and temporal rainfall variability would contribute to coping with droughts and
5
Introduction
______________________________________________________________________________
floods, thus enabling communities to invest in livelihood activities. The twin challenges
of droughts and floods can be mitigated by constructing huge reservoirs to store flood
water, which is later availed during the dry periods for irrigation, livestock and domestic
use.
1.6 Expected outcome
The major output from this exercise is a framework document that policy and decision
makers can use for planning, designing and implementing RWH projects in Somalia.
6
Climate and hydrophysial factors
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Climatic and Hydro-physical Factors Influencing Rainwater Harvesting in

Somalia
2.1 Rainfall
Rainfall in Somalia is low and erratic caused primarily by the descending motion of the
air and low humidity. Somalia is also located at the leeward side of the Kenya–Ethiopia
highlands, thus subjecting it to further low rains. Somalia has a bimodal rainfall
distribution—gu and deyr. The timing of the seasons varies across the country. The first
main season, gu, occurs between March and July and the second, deyr, from August to
November (annexes 2 to 5). The months of highest rainfall within these seasons are
generally from April–June and October–November. The two dry seasons in the country
are jilaal and haggai, which occur between December and March and July and August,
respectively.
Based on the annual average rainfall pattern, Somalia has a desert to dry subhumid
climate. Rainfall is influenced greatly by the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and
the Somali jet. Orographic and coastal influences are also significant and cause a high
degree of variability across the country.
High rainfall areas occur in the Shabelle and Juba Basins with annual averages of
approximately 460 and 427 mm respectively (SWALIM, 2007). Rainfall reduces further
inland to the south with Upper Shabelle (Hiran and surrounding) receiving up to 400 mm
per year while the area between Shabelle and Juba valley receive relatively high rainfall
of about 500–700 mm per year. The amount of rainfall received annually reduces further
to the north except for areas around Sheikh, Hargeisa and Borama that receive between
500 mm and 600 mm per year. The area around Ceerigavo receives up to 400 mm
annually. The northern coastline is characterized by low rains of less than 100 mm per
year. The same is experienced around the inland of north-eastern coast (Lasanod, Qardo
and Scuscuban). The rest of the northern region and central Somalia receive an annual
mean of 200 to 300 mm. This situation is further exemplified in figures 2 to 4. Figure 2
shows the area per region, figure 3 shows the rainwater potential per region computed as
a volumetric product of average annual rainfall depth with the area, while figure 4 shows
the rainwater potential per unit area for every region. From the three charts, it is clear that
the southern regions of Juba, Shebelle, Mogadishu and Bay have the highest rainwater
water potential in Somalia.
7
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80
70
60
AreainThousandm2
50
40
30
20
10
0
MiddleJuba
Mudug
Galgaduud
Hiran
Gedo
MiddleShebelle
Mogadishu
Sanaag
Nugal
Bakool
Togdheer
Bay
Lower Juba
Bari
Lower Shebelle
Northwest
Re gion
Figure 2: Area per region
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
R e gio n
Figure 3: Rainwater potential per region prior to partitioning
300
AverageRainwater potential (Litres/m2)
250
200
150
100
50
Re gion
Figure 4: Rainwater potential per unit area
8
______________________________________________________________________________
Since its inception, FAO-SWALIM has put together all the available historical rainfall
data of Somalia. In addition, it is facilitating the installation and management of rain
gauges across the country. So far 70 manual 24-hour rain gauges have been installed.
2.2 Potential evaporatranspiration
Evaporation in Somalia is very high, exceeding rainfall in all regions. Annual potential
evapotranspiration ranges from 1000 mm around Lower Juba region, to 3000 mm in West
Galbeed and Togdheer regions (see annex 9). The southern regions are thus more suitable
to open surface water reservoirs compared to the northern and north-eastern regions.
Potential evapotranspiration is important especially when designing in situ rainwater
conservation structures. The rainfall potential evaporation ratios help in identifying
suitable locations for sand and subsurface dams which is < 0.6 for drylands and > 0.6 in
wetlands.
2.3 Air temperature and wind speed
Air temperature and wind speed are important especially in designing open RWH
reservoirs or tanks, particularly when considering losses due to evaporation. The mean air
temperatures in Somalia are generally high all the year round throughout the country.
Average monthly temperatures reach as high as 31–330 C in March around Bardheere,
Luuq and Afmadow in the south, and 36–380 C in the north around Berbera (annex 10).
The local communities in some areas have observed higher temperatures. These have not
been recorded and have not been used in this report.
December to March are the hottest months in Southern Somalia. Temperatures are
greatest at the Kenya, Somalia and Ethiopia borders (over 300 C) gradually decreasing
towards the ocean (280 C). July and August are the coolest months in Southern Somalia.
The Somali low-level jet is coincidentally strongest over southern Somalia during this
period thus contributing to the cooling effects in the region.
The hottest weather in the north is experienced between June and September especially
around Awdal and Bosasso areas. The North gets cooler in January and February.
Between 1963 and 1990 the highest mean maximum value that was recorded is 420 C in
June and July at Berbera, with the lowest mean minimum temperature being 60 C at
Erigavo in January.
Wind speeds are generally from about 2 m/s to 8.5 m/s on average and strongest during
the south-westerly monsoon (June to August). It is during such times that care needs to be
taken especially on evaporation losses from open surface reservoirs. On average the
lowest values of wind speed occur between April and November in the country
coinciding with the peaks of the two rainy seasons gu and deyr respectively. Losses due
to evaporation are enhanced with increased temperatures and further accelerated with
higher wind speeds. Where possible for open water bodies, the losses due to evaporation
can be reduced by planting wind-breaking trees on the side of the reservoir from whose
9
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direction the winds emerge. Figure 5 shows the temporal distribution of wind speed from
selected stations across the country.
Monthly Wind Speed In Somalia
12 SCUSCIUBAN
HARGEISA
BERBERA
10 KHISMAIO
MOGADISCIO
LUG-GANANE
8
windspeed(m/s)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 m onth 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 5: Wind speed at some stations
2.4 Landforms and vegetation cover
The elevation gradient, determined from digital elevation models including the degree
and length of slope, influences the amount of runoff generated from a given rainfall
event. The steeper or longer the slope, the more the runoff. Most of Somalia is made up
of gentle to undulating landforms. Annexes 11 and 12 show the digital elevation model
and landforms for Somalia.
Vegetation cover is determined by the inherent physiographic factors and the type of land
use of a given area. Areas with high rainfall have more biomass and hence dense
vegetation cover. Somalia is largely arid and semi-arid with sparse vegetation. A decrease
in vegetation results in corresponding decrease in interception, retention and infiltration
and increased runoff. Continuous denudation of land through practices such as
deforestation results in less infiltration and more runoff.
2.5 Soil types
Soil type is important in determining whether the water harvesting system will depend on
direct rainfall or runoff. Soils with poor infiltration capacities are can be used with
runoff-based systems while those with good infiltration and water-holding capacities,
whether natural or induced, are good for in situ water conservation systems.
10
Historical development and technological options
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Historical Development and Technological Options of RWH in Somalia

3.1 Water resources in various regions of Somalia
Rainwater harvesting is not the only technique for availing water to Somali communities,
but rather it complements other sources of water. Consultative workshops held in
Puntland, Somaliland and South-Central Somalia in May 2007 identified and developed a
nomenclature of water sources for the three regions. Table 1 shows these water sources
with minor variations in the local names of some technologies.
Table 1: Nomenclature of water sources in various regions of Somalia

Somaliland Puntland S. Somalia
Technology Local name Technology Local name Technology Local name
Cement water tank Berkad Underground water tank Berkad Cement water tank Berkad
Bund Naxaroor/Xadhig Natural water pond Balli Underground reservoir Ceel/Mugsid
Water pond/earth dam Balley Water pond/earth dam Xurfad Water pond/earth dam War
Hand well behind a dam Ceel Well Ceel Natural water course Tog
Spring IL Spring IL Flood diversion Deshek
Roof water harvesting Majaroor Roof water tank Berkad Guri Natural depression Gal
Subsurface dam Doox xidh
Underground reservoir Ceel/Mugsid
Natural ditch Dhiijan
Flood channel Deshek
Terrace
Plastic pond
Pit
3.2 Indegenous technologies
Rainwater harvesting is not new to Somalia. It has been in place since time immemorial.
The existence of berkads, waro and xadlings are testimony to a long history of
harnessing rainwater for domestic, livestock and crop use. During jilal (dry season),
people migrate with camels for long distances in search of water and fodder for their
animals. The camels were used to carry water fetching it twice weekly in the dry seasons,
and once monthly in the rainy seasons. Shoats were kept only in areas with adequate
water, for example, in rivers or shallow wells.
With the introduction of berkads, which are privately owned especially in Northwest
region of Somaliland, more and more people are settling down. The first berkads in the
region were built in the 1950s when Somaliland was still under British colonial rule
(Foerch, 2003). The idea was first introduced by one Xaaxi in 1952, who built the first
berkad near Odweyne. It is likely the idea was taken from existing examples in Sudan at
that time. It was not until 1964 when major construction started. Construction continued
even after the Italians occupied the South and the British protectorate in the North
merged and became independent in 1960. More and more people settled in the Haut
region and the demand for water increased tremendously. As a result, an intense period of
construction began. This continued until the civil war broke out between 1988 and 1991
pitting the North and the South of Somalia, and thus halting construction.
11
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3.3 Current RWH technologies in Somalia
Rainwater harvesting and management systems in Somalia are classified according to

rainwater use. Three categories were identified during the consultative workshops: crop
production systems; livestock production systems; and domestic water harvesting and
conservation systems (Figure 6).
RWH and Management

Systems for Somalia
Crop Livestock Domestic Water

Production Production Harvesting and
Systems Systems Conservation Systems
Earth bunds Ponds/dams Cement water tanks

Ponds Wells/underground reservoirs Wells / underground
Flood / Spate water Natural ditches reservoirs
Terracing Natural depressions Spring
Plastic-lined ponds Cement water tanks Rock water harvesting
Pitting Sub-surface dams
Figure 6: Classification of rainwater harvesting and conservation systems for

Somalia
Crop production systems

These are either water harvesting or water conservation systems that capture runoff water
that is stored in reservoirs for later use, or direct rainfall for in situ soil moisture
conservation. Technologies that benefit from direct runoff and that are either used for
supplementary or full irrigation include earth dams, ponds, dams and flood/spate water.
These technologies are common in south-central and southern districts and some parts of
north-western regions. Other areas, such us the southern riverine environs benefit from
floodwater flowing mainly from the Juba and Shabelle River basins.
Livestock production systems

These are systems that make use of runoff or underground water for livestock production.
Runoff water is collected and stored in natural depressions or man-made reservoirs such
12
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as ponds, berkads and dams. Quite often, the stored water is shared for crop production
and domestic use. Areas with shallow groundwater also abstract water for animal use.
Domestic water harvesting and conservation systems

Domestic water harvesting and conservation systems harness either direct rainwater or
ground water. From roof or rock catchments rainwater is collected and later stored in
concrete water tanks, known locally as berkad guri. Rainwater is also conserved in sandy
river beds in areas with sufficient rainfall also conserve rainwater. Water for domestic use
can also be drawn from shallow wells and springs.
3.4 Technological options for RWH and conservation systems in Somalia
All the RWH systems have six components: the catchment area, conveyance mechanism,
storage and treatment, abstraction mechanism and utilization components (see annex 13
for details). Systems with fewer components are more technologically efficient and cost
efficient. Losses are fewer and so are impurities from outside their domain area.
Domestic roof or rock catchment and in situ water conservation systems such as
conservation agriculture, are good examples of short-component systems. In situ systems
are even much better as the hydrologic cycle is closed at very small scales. Storage
mechanisms are the most expensive of all components. This calls for proper planning and
design to reduce the cost without compromising structural strengths.
3.4.1 Ex situ agricultural RWH systems
The agricultural (crop and livestock) systems get their water from direct runoff or flood
(both ex situ) and direct rainfall (in situ). Ex situ rainwater harvesting is the provision of
runoff water from external catchments for supplementary irrigation to sustain crops
through the entire growing period, or for livestock drinking. Runoff water that collects on
the ground in homesteads, farms, paths and rural roads is channelled via mitre drains into
already existing channels with silt traps. Immediately after the silt traps, the runoff water
is conveyed to surface or underground reservoirs. The underground reservoirs are either
closed or open. Closed reservoirs include sausage or spherical tanks while open ones are
either lined or unlined ponds and tanks. Water from these ponds or tanks is abstracted
using simple rope and washer or treadle pumps for supplementary irrigation. Figure 7
shows the components of an ex situ agricultural water harvesting system for crop
production. Livestock systems use mainly surface reservoirs such as ponds.
Information gathered during consultative workshops organised by FAO-SWALIM in

May 2007, shows that ponds are constructed using bulldozers at unit volumetric costs of
USD 5 per m3; a 500-m3 reservoir costs approximately USD 2500. The cost of hiring
machinery to construct new balleys ranges from USD 70 to USD 100 per day.
Siltation is a major problem calling for annual desiltation. Within 2 to 3 years, the
community maintains the structure by providing labour. Only those who contribute to the
maintenance of these structures have rights to the use of water from the balleys. There are
no restrictions on amount or quota for those eligible to use balley water.
13
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Figure 7: Rainwater harvesting components for agricultural system
3.4.2. In situ water conservation
In situ rainwater conservation technologies aim at conserving rainfall where it falls in the
cropped or pasture areas by holding rainwater and prolonging the time for infiltration. In
situ water conservation is achieved mainly using conservation agriculture and micro-
catchments. This technology can be practiced in areas with low topography in arid or
semiarid climates such as Somalia. Conservation farming involves minimizing soil
disturbance through reduced or zero tillage, maximizing soil cover, and using crop
rotations or associations. Indeed, conservation farming refers to the simultaneous practice
of all three through ripping, tied ridges, basins, strip tillage, etc., as a gateway to
progressively achieve minimal soil disturbance.
Table 2: Profile of some conservation farming practices1

Type Technical Development Advantages Limitation Costs
description domain
Planting Pits -Holes measuring -Successful in -Traps Labour intensive 8 man
(a) Zai holes 10–30 cm wide,5– areas receiving moisture Animal draft not days/acre
15cm deep and 200–750 mm and increase applicable 2 man days/
spaced 75–90 cm annual rainfall soil water 0.25acre @
(inter-row) -Does best in silt Reduces soil USD 2 +
-Ideal for cereal clay soil on gentle erosion USD 4
crops (millet, slopes
sorghum, maize, Composed/manure
etc.) fertilizer very
necessary
1
Source: Wilfred Miriithi (2007)
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description domain
(b) Holes measuring Ideal for all Act as Labor intensive 10 holes/
Tumbukiza 2x2x2 ft to 3x3x2. slopes/rainfall micro- Animal draft not person/day
Holes spacing based regimes in dry catchments applicable 75
on specific crop. areas. Topsoil Can harvest holes/0.25acre
Ideal for Napier must be mixed water from 8md x USD 2
maize (multiple with manure, external = USD 16
seeding), pawpaw, fertilizers catchments
mangoes and other
fruit trees
Semi- Earth bands in the Suitable on gentle Easy to Animal draft not 32md/acre
circular shape of a semi- slopes with 200– construct applicable 8md/1/4 acre
bands circle (eye brows) 250 mm rainfall Suitable for Requires regular 8xUSD 2
Holes (planting) dug Soil should not be uneven maintenance USD 16
to specific crop too shallow or terrain
recommendation saline Increase soil
Bands vary from moisture
structure with radius Control soil
2–30 m. Ideal for erosion
fruit trees and fodder
crops
Staggered in
arrangement to get
spill over
Retention Laid along contour Suitable on flat Reduces soil Labour USD 0.75
ditch Measures 0.3x0.6 m gentle/steep slopes erosion. demanding /meter of
deep, 0.5–1 m wide On permeable, Holds runoff Requires regular excavation
Ends are closed deep and stable for use by maintenance 20 m= USD
May be a trench or a soils crops and Risk some 15
hole ground erosion/processes
Capture runoff from recharge Prone to
ext. catchments Guards overflow
other
structure
down stream
Cover crop Usually creeping Used for deep- Improve soil Competes for Cost of
legumes e.g. rooted crop to fertility water with establishing =
Mucuna, Dolichos avoid competition Suppress shallow rooted . USD 4.2 =
lablab, etc. for nutrients weeds crops per 0.25acre
Used to cover the Regulates
ground below widely soil
spaced tall crop temperatures
Conservation Entails minimal soil Herbicides Reduces Selective use of USD 4.2 =
tillage disturbance selection based on labour, lost herbicides per 1/4 acre
Agriculture Permanent soil cover type of weed and energy
Crop crop needed to
rotations/associations increase
SWC water.
15
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description domain
Improves
infiltration
Ripping (in Ripper works by On gentle flat Breaks hard Only applicable -
CA) ripping the soil and terrain pan where animal USD 3 per
therefore cracking it On field free of Moisture draft power is 0.25 acre
It breaks any paw rocks and tree stored in used
(hard)that may have roots root zone.
developed Soil
Magoye ripper - used nutrients are
in place of mould accessible
board on ox-driven by the plant.
ploughs Productivity
increase by
78%
compared to
conventional
farming
practices
The benefits of these include improved soil structure and moisture storage. Soil cover is
maximized through cover cropping, intercropping and the use of crop residues or mulch.
Conservation agriculture enhances moisture conservation, suppresses weeds, reduces
erosion and soil temperature variation and also enhances soil fauna and micro-organisms.
Crop rotations and associations enhance nutrient replenishment and uptake; control of
weeds, pests and diseases; integration of livestock, carbon sequestration and food security
(RELMA, 2004). In situ water conservation promotes improved management practices
when cultivating corn, cotton, sorghum and other drought-tolerant crops. In Somalia, it
can be practised in areas with annual rainfall above 200 mm (annex 5). The areas include
Gabiley District of Woqooyi Galbeed region, Bay, Hiram, Galgadud, Middle and Lower
Shebelle. Table 2 profiles of some of the in situ farming practices.
3.4.3 Rainwater management for agro-forestry systems
Selection of agro forestry trees and shrubs

Sunshine is not a problem in these areas; the growing season and sunny days are long.
Therefore, maximizing the shading effect of the trees and shrubs is what benefits most.
However, one cannot choose broad-leaved trees and shrubs because they will minimize
the Albedo (reflectivity) and trigger higher evapotranspiration. What is needed is the
maximization of reflectivity at the top canopy layer so that heat absorption is reduced to
the minimum. Hence the target species, especially in the most top canopy hierarchy must
be those with small pinnated leaves that quiver and cause air ventilation to the species in
the lower canopy layers. Most of the Acacia and Ziziphus species, Pithecellobium dulce,
Parkinsonia aculeate, Schinus molle, Salix subserata, Sclerocarya birrea, Moringa
oleifera, Commiphora erythraea, Ximenia americana, Celtis africana, Balanites
aegyptiaca, Boswellia rivae, Securidaca longepedunculaat, and many others belong to
this group.
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One additional important factor is looking for those agroforestry trees and shrubs, which
have got broader leaves but at the same time are aided either with thin film that covers
the stomata of the leaves or have leathery leaves for reduced evapotranspiration.
Sarcocephalus latifolius, Calotropis procera, Annona senegalensis, Celtis toka,
Piliostigima thonningii, Agave Americana, etc., few examples of such species aided by
nature.
The trees and shrubs listed above are among the few of many agroforestry trees and
shrubs that fit the agroclimatic conditions of Somalia. But what t tree or shrub species to
use will depend on the use and purpose of the intervention. These and other species have
varied benefits that range from shade provision, industrial milk production to soil fertility
replenishment medicinal use, and providing nutrition in the form of edible fruits. Bekele
Tesemma (2007) gives detailed information on the species best suited for dry, hot
lowland agroclimatic conditions.
Configuration of agro forestry trees and shrubs

Specifically in the agro-climatic zones of Somalia, where evapotranspiration far exceeds
precipitation, benefits from agro forestry systems are highly correlated to the
configuration of the trees and shrubs over the landscape. Components need to be mixed
and arranged carefully even regardless of the intended use of the farming system itself.
Good knowledge of the prevailing wind direction and aspect, slope extent and
orientations, amount of rainfall, soil depth and status of soil fertility of the site is
important. The tree/shrub configurations in agro forestry systems need to consider the
type and nature of the site preparation activities as well. Agro forestry systems in flat
lands can benefit from water harvesting if the size of the dish-like micro-basins (in the
case of flat lands) takes into account the amount of rain and for how many consecutive
days. For instance, where annual rainfall is only 600 mm and potential evapotranspiration
is 1600 mm doubling the diameter of the micro basins from 60 cm to 120 cm increases
the survival of agro forestry trees and shrubs by 250%.
Site preparations can take many shapes depending on the nature of the micro-site where
the agro forestry intervention is to take place. Micro basins, retention ditches, different
types of terraces may be used. In a flat site, circular dish-like micro basins are preferred
to crescent–shaped micro basins, the latter or better suited to sites with gentle to
undulating topography. If the same land is shallow in soil depth, shrubs are preferred
over trees. If the soil of the micro site is weak in organic matter, deciduous trees and
shrubs are more suitable. Knowing the hydro physical conditions of the area is important
to maximize the shading effect of the agro forestry system when it is practised along
irrigation canals to minimize evapotranspiration loss. The same is true when the
agroforestry system is designed to support and benefit from other rainwater harvesting
measures such as hillside reservoirs.
We recommend training development facilitators, who in turn train farmers, of the

essence and issues of agroforestry innovations that suit such environments. The training
should be supported with demonstrations and practicals. The trainers should prior
17
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understanding of the different micro-sites so that they can customize lessons and
practicals to real conditions of the area. Similarly there should be an understanding of the
communities’ interests about the main purpose and function of the agroforestry system to
be established and cared by them. Having a thorough understanding of complementary
development efforts such as rainwater management is quite necessary. The impact of
such community support can be effectively rooted if primary and high school teachers are
trained with development facilitators on how to re-tool their teaching syllabus to
accommodate agroforestry interventions that work in the different agroclimatic
conditions of Somalia. I recommend that specific agroforestry innovations be designed
taking into account the specific site conditions and community interests. For the pool of
agroforestry innovations, from which candidate interventions can be selected, read
Bekele-Tesemma (2007).
3.4.4 Rainwater for livestock production
A successful livestock enterprise requires a good water supply, both in terms of quantity
and quality. There are generic approaches for determining the quantity of water needed
for livestock production, however, the major concern is the quality of water that livestock
consume. The minimum amount of water required to produce feed that can produce one
tropical livestock unit (TLU) is 450 m3 (Peden et al., 2002). This is 50 to 100 times more
than water required for drinking. This information is important in designing livestock
production and water consumption systems. The two components of rainwater for
livestock production are rainwater management for pasture production and rainwater
management for livestock consumption. In the latter case, water quality is a critical issue.
Systems for livestock water consumption

These are systems that aim at producing adequate and clean water for livestock. Runoff
ponds and dams are examples of such systems with multiple uses for both livestock,
human and if in plentiful supply, crop irrigation. To avoid animals contaminating water
sources also used by humans, structures such as drinking troughs should be constructed
separately for livestock. This will prevent animals polluting domestic water supplies and
transmitting water-borne diseases. In the case of ponds, the water can be abstracted using
simple pumping devices such as treadle or suction pumps. This water should be lifted on
raised tanks and allowed to flow by gravity through sand filtration galleries before release
to the troughs.
Systems for livestock production

These are systems that aim at increased fodder production through efficient green water
management. For ex situ systems, spreading floodwater over the pasture area is one way
of achieving high productivity especially if the pasture fields are fertilized with organic
manure. The other option is to plant fodder trees or grasses using pot-holing techniques.
The holes should be fertilised with composted manure.
3.4.4 Domestic water harvesting systems in Somalia
18
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As shown in figure 6, water for domestic use is drawn from rock or roof catchments.
When it rains, runoff water generated on the catchments flow into gutters, which convey
the water to the tanks. The water collected in the tanks is abstracted either by gravity or
using buckets. Plate 2 shows the components of a domestic rainwater harvesting system
using roof catchments. This technological option is viable in urban settlement areas
where rainfall is sufficient to generate runoff. However, roof runoff is not the only source
of water. The Somali community also depends on wells, springs and sandy riverbeds to
access water for domestic use.
Plate 2: A typical Berkad guri depicting the catchment, conveyance and storage
components
3.4.6 Water conservation in sandy river beds
Somalia has ephemeral streams that yield adequate amounts of sand that could be used to
conserve water for domestic, livestock and irrigation purposes (see Plate 3 and annex 31).
Identifying areas whose rainfall to potential evapotranspiration ratio is above 0.6 is
necessary to indicate positions for installing sand dams, sub-surface dams or even
infiltration galleries. The advantage of these systems is that the water is hidden
underneath the sand layers and thus evaporation is reduced. The water also goes through
natural treatment where the schmutzdecke micro-organisms kill harmful bacteria and
other pathogens found in the water.
Infiltration galleries are a low-cost, low-skilled technology that require local construction
materials and labour to abstract groundwater via horizontally perforated pipes. Such
systems are in use in India, the Falkland Island, Barbados, Kenya and the USA. However,
their improvision by MS (Mesfin Shenkut) Consultants in Gambella, Ethiopia, is what
attracted international accolades. According to MS Consultants, the main advantage of
the galleries is the high acceptability of the bacteriological, chemical and physical status
of the infiltrated water devoid of conventional treatment mechanisms. In addition, the
gallery works with only one operator whose job is merely to start and shut off pumps.
19
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Plate 3: A typical ephemeral stream with a sandy riverbed in Somaliland
20
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4. Design of RWH Systems

4.1 Introduction
Designing a RWH system requires adequate knowledge on rainfall characteristics

(intensity and distribution). There should be spatial and temporal rainfall data series to
determine distribution patterns and rainfall-runoff processes. There are three zones
determined by rainfall distribution patterns in Somalia: 1) Southern, with annual averages
between 300–500 mm; 2) Central and North-Eastern zone, with mean annual rainfall
decreasing from >200 mm in the south to <100 mm in the North East, and 3) Northern
Mountain zone with annual averages of >500 mm at high altitudes, that decreases
towards the southern valleys (Kammer and Tin, 1987). Hutchinson and Polishchouk
(1989) concluded that what makes a difference to annual rainfall over Somalia is not the
type of intensity but the number of rain days. Rainfall factors used in the design of RWH
systems include:
• The number of days when rain surpasses threshold values of 5 mm per event for
domestic purposes, or 20 mm for agricultural purposes
• Probability and occurrence of the mean monthly rainfall
• Probability and reoccurrence for the minimum and maximum monthly rainfall
• Distribution frequency of storms of different specific intensities
domestic RWH systems as shown in annexes 14 and 15. Agricultural systems mainly
depend on surface runoff water bodies such as ponds, dams and berkads, and quite often
share the same source for crop, livestock and to some extent human use. Ponds and
berkads are a lot more common and hence this section will dwell on their design aspects.
4.2 Design considerations for agricultural systems - ponds
These are open surface reservoirs constructed by communities (Plate 4). They consist of a
catchment area, an inlet canal and an appropriate live fencing to break the wind and
protect animals and humans. During the consultative workshops, the technology working
groups estimated that surface area for ponds is approximately 1000 m2 with depths
ranging from 2.5 to 6 m. The height of the embankments ranges from 2 to 3 m.
21
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Plate 4: A balley filled with water during the rainy season
4.2.1 The catchment area
This is the area where runoff is generated before it is conveyed for storage. In ex situ
systems, the catchment, and in some cases, the conveyance mechanisms are located
outside the farming area. A number of issues need to be considered during the risk
analysis in the planning stage. One major issue is the size of the catchment. Arid to semi-
arid regions with low rainfall need large catchments to draw runoff water. Such
expansive areas traverse communal or private property and thus the farmer has no control
with regard to catchment conservation. External problems such as massive siltation have
to be sorted out.
The catchment to cultivated area ratio formula helps determine the size of the catchment
needed to generate runoff that can meet crop water requirements. This ratio is computed
using the formula below:
C CWA − P
=
C A P * Cr * E f
Where C/CA = Catchment to cultivated area ratio (dimensionless)

CWA = Crop water requirement (mm)
P = Design rainfall (in millimetres at Probability of 67%)
Cr = Runoff coefficient (assumed as 0.25 for long catchment with low
slopes when data on slope, soil type, vegetation cover, antecedent
moisture, design rainfall and duration are lacking)
Ef = Efficiency factor (taken as 0.5 for long slopes)
For example, the crop water requirement for a millet crop is 475 mm. To grow millet at
Burhakaba in Bay region with design rainfall of 335 mm, the C/CA ratio is determined as
follows:
22
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C 475 − 335
= = 3.34
C A 335 * 0.25 * 0.5
This means that the catchment area should be about three times the size of the cultivated
area to guarantee sufficient water to grow millet.
Generating runoff is important for rainwater harvesting. The average annual rainfall
usually gives a wrong impression if used directly for computing runoff harvesting
potential. For instance, the mean annual rainfall for Borama calculated for 41 years
(between 1925 to 1987) is 536 mm.
However, the annual averages for storms that have threshold of 20 mm, deemed
sufficient to cause runoff is 266 mm, all received on an average of 6 days annually (see
annex 16). The latter value is more dependable when computing runoff for agro-pastoral
purposes.
4.2.2 Conveyance mechanisms
Conveyance mechanisms are natural or man-made channels or waterways that convey

runoff generated from catchment areas to storage structures. The channels are dug along
rather than grading them across the slope using tractor-drawn implements (Plate 5).
When it rains, a lot of erosion occurs culminating in gully formation (Plate 6). The
channels develop into rills or gullies, conveying large amounts of silt to storage
structures. The biggest challenge in runoff conveyance is how to contain the large amount
of silt that is washed into storage structures.
Plate 5: Runoff conveyance channel during construction
23
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Plate 6: Runoff conveyance channel in north-west Somalia after having developed

into a gully and conveying a lot of silt to the pond
Siltating of the waro or balleys can be mitigated by designing shallow but wide
waterways with side slopes of 1:3. Vegetating such waterways with grass would be ideal
but since it is difficult to establish grass given the low rainfall and high evaporation in
most parts of Somalia, stone pitched filter strips would be sufficient wherever possible
(figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8: Pictorial depiction of a pond design
24
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Figure 9: Bird’s eyeview of a pond design
Determining size, depth and number of ponds based on the Soil Conservation Curve
Number method
Issues to consider when designing pond reservoirs are structural strength, siltation, the
cost of construction and the sizing of its capacity. With runoff already determined, Senay
and Verdin (2004) further developed a methodology for computing the recommended
pond depth, required watershed areas, potential number of ponds in a given area, and
number of ponds per family as shown below.
25
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Supply-based approach to pond sizing

To estimate the size, the soil conservation curve number method (SCS-CN) is employed
by getting the product of runoff generated with the area of the upstream watershed. The
SCS-CN is used in hydrological and crop models to evaluate the effects of soil
management or surface conditions on runoff, erosion, and water balance. Runoff is
computed using the formula below:
Q=
(P − I a )2 (1)
(P − I a + S )
25400
S= − 254 (2)
CN
Therefore Pond volume = (Q x A ) x 10-3 (m3) (3)
Where P = Average annual rainfall (mm)

Q = Runoff (mm)
S = Potential maximum soil storage (mm)
Ia = Initial moisture abstraction (assumed as 0.2)
CN= Dimensionless curve number shown in Table 3
The watershed should be divided into a maximum of five sub-catchments represented by

different curve numbers. Then, the overall curve number and total area is weighted. The
Weighted curve number is computed from:
A = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
CN = 1A [ A1 (CN 1 ) + A2 (CN 2 ) + A3 (CN 3 ) + A4 (CN 4 ) + A5 (CN 5 )]
Where A = Area or watershed
An = Area of sub-catchment
Table 3: Runoff Curve Numbers

Description of land use Hydrologic soil groups
A B C D
Paved parking lots, roofs, driveways 98 98 98 98
Streets and roads
Paved with curbs and storm sewers 98 98 98 98
Gravel 76 85 89 91
Dirt 72 82 87 89
Cultivated (agricultural crop) land*:
Without conservation treatment (no terraces) 72 81 88 91
With conservation treatment (terraces, contours) 62 71 78 81
Pasture or range land
Poor (<50% ground cover or heavily grazed) 68 79 86 89
Good (50–75% ground cover; not heavily grazed) 39 61 74 80
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Description of land use Hydrologic soil groups

A B C D
Meadow (grass, no grazing, mowed for hay) 30 58 71 78
Brush (good, >75% ground cover) 30 48 65 73
Woods and forests
Poor (small trees/brush destroyed by over-grazing 45 66 77 83
or burning)
Fair (grazing but not burned; some brush) 36 60 73 79
Good (no grazing; brush covers ground) 30 55 70 77
Open spaces (lawns, parks, golf courses, cemeteries, etc.):
(grass covers 50–75% of area) 49 69 79 84
Good (grass covers >75% of area) 39 61 74 80
Commercial and business districts (85% 89 92 94 95
impervious)
Industrial Districts (72% impervious) 81 88 91 93
Residential areas
0.05 ha plots, about 65% impervious 77 85 90 92
Source: Chow et al., 1988
The hydrologic soil group A to D in the table refers to the infiltration potential of the soil
after prolonged wetting.
Group A Soils: High infiltration (low runoff). Sand, loamy sand, or sandy loam.
Infiltration rate > 0.75 cm/hr when wet.
Group B Soils: Moderate infiltration (moderate runoff). Silt loam or loam.
Infiltration rate 0.375 to 0.75 cm/hr when wet.
Group C Soils: Low infiltration (moderate to high runoff). Sandy clay loam.
Infiltration rate 0.125 to 0.375 cm/hr when wet.
Group D Soils: Very low infiltration (high runoff). Clay loam, silty clay loam,
sandy clay, silty clay, or clay. Infiltration rate 0 to 0.125 cm/hr
when wet.
The Agricultural Development Organization based in Hargeisa, stressed that it takes

about three to four tractor hours to construct one balley. The embankments are often
inadequately compacted leaving room for flush floods to destroy them (see Plate 7). For
example, the Allaybaday reservoirs, where more than 87 cascades of balleys were
destroyed during the onset of gu rains in April 2007. The balleys also lack adequate
spillways to dispose of excess water.
27
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Plate 7: A section of a balley embankment destroyed by 2007 Gu rains
Determining recommended pond depth

This is calculated according to the following water balance equation:
D=1+E–P+S (4)
Where D = Recommended pond depth (m);
E = Annual evaporation (m)
P = Average annual rainfall (m), and
S = Annual seepage (m).
Wherever D is negative, it is set to a minimum depth of 1 m.
Example:
If we take the case of Baidoa District whose annual rainfall is about 500 mm with an
assumed evaporation of 1900 mm and seepage of 2.5 mm/day for 20 storm events (50
mm). Then recommended pond depth for Baidoa would be
D=1+E–P+S
= 1 + 1.9-0.5+0.05
= 2.45 m
To yield a minimum depth of 1 m net supply of pond water in Baidoa region, one would
need a recommended design depth of 2.45 m. Thus 1.45 m is lost to seepage and
evaporation. A map for minimum pond depths can be produced for Somalia if the
rainfall, evaporation and seepage values are known.
Required upstream watershed area (drainage basin)

This is given by the equation below:
(1000)
WA = D 0.0001 (5)
Q
Where WA = required watershed area (ha)

D = recommended pond depth (m);
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Q = average annual runoff (m), and

1000 is the net desired pond volume (m3)
0.0001 is the conversion factor from m2 to hectares
Continuing with the Baidoa example, the watershed area can be computed by substituting
the values of D and Q in the equation above. Recommended depth has already been
obtained in the previous example as 2.45 m. The map on RWH potential also indicates
that average annual runoff for Baidoa is approximately 0.02 m. From computations, the
watershed area is 12.25 ha.
(1000)
WA = 2.45 0.0001 (6)
0.02
Here again, a map for Somalia can be produced to depict required watershed areas
needed to generate runoff water for the 1000-m3 ponds (see example for Africa in the
annex 17).
Potential number of ponds

Once the gross capacity of the pond has been estimated, the potential number of ponds in
a given watershed is estimated by dividing the runoff volume by the gross pond capacity.
Q * TWA
NP = (7)
D *1000
TWA
NP =
WA
Where TWA = Total watershed area (ha).

D = recommended pond depth (m);
WA = Required watershed area (ha)
Q = Average annual runoff (m), and
1000 is the net desired pond volume (m3)
If the total watershed area is 200 ha, then the number of ponds is given by
200
NP = = 16.33, or approximately 17 ponds.
12.25
Number of ponds per family

Computation of number of ponds per family is important as a planning tool for spacing
water points. When the value goes below one, then it denotes sharing of the resource.
This is especially important for the pastoralist community who gather around the only
available water source in the event of drought. Such congregations have impacted
negatively on the surrounding areas owing to soil erosion caused by cattle tracks and
deforestation by humans. Large amounts of silt are washed into ponds reducing their
longevity. The formula below shows how to compute the number of ponds per family.
29
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NPkm − 2
NPf −1 = fs (8)
pρ
Where NPf −1 = Number of ponds per family

NPkm − 2 = Number of ponds per square kilometre
f s = Average family size, and
p ρ = Population density
As an example for Baidoa, assuming a population density of 34 people per square
kilometre, the number of ponds per family is then determined by;
NPkm − 2 ((17 * (100 / 200))

NPf −1 = fs = NPf −1 = 8
pρ 34
NPf −1 = 2
The number of ponds per household with a family size of six is thus 2.
4.3 Design considerations for berkads
Berkads are cuboid-shaped ground or above-ground tanks made of concrete or

ferrocement and are common in most parts of Somalia (Plate 8). They consist of an inlet
canal, masonry lining and a live fencing. Fencing is done as a security measure for water
conservancy or against dangers to livestock and human beings who may fall and get
injured, sometimes fatally. Their volumes vary, but majority range from 300–500 m3. In
some cases, silt traps are provided to check siltation. At the entrance of the berkads, stairs
are constructed to facilitate access inside the tank. Berkads receive runoff water from
upstream ground catchments via mitre drains or stone bund diversion and silt traps. Water
conserved in berkads is mainly for livestock and domestic use.
Plate 8: A typical berkad in Somalia
30
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4.3.1 The catchment area
The catchment area is usually big enough to generate enough runoff that can fill a berkad.
The size is therefore demand based. However, if the watershed boundary is known, then
the soil conservation curve number method (see formula 1) can be used to compute its
potential runoff generation capacity, which can then be used to design the berkad.
4.3.2 Conveyance mechanism
Unlike ponds, the conveyance mechanism for berkads does not use machine excavated
channels. Instead, runoff from upstream catchments or roads is directed via mitre drains
to the reservoirs. Owing to silt being washed into the berkads (Plate 9), silt traps are
constructed just before the entrance. This is an on-stream approach to control siltation,
but it is not a good approach. Instead, an off-stream approach to silt management should
be adopted.
Off-stream design entails converging runoff to a waterway that is positioned besides the
berkad. When the inflow rate is low, a ‘tongue’, constructed at the entrance to the mitre
drain directs water to the berkads via the silt traps (figure 10). The same mitre drain acts
as a spillway and will discharge excess runoff back to the waterway. However, with high
flow rates, most of the runoff simply ‘jumps’ over the tongue, carrying with it heavy silt
away from the berkads.
Plate 9: Siltation of a berkad
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Figure 10: Off-stream conveyance mechanism for berkads
4.3.3 Design considerations for storage
Design of the berkad capacity or volume could either be supply or demand based. In a
supply-based approach, the soil conservation curve number method could be used as
highlighted in section 4.2.3 and 4.3.1. In a demand-based approach, consideration has to
be made for the dry periods for which this water shall be needed as well as the daily
water requirements for domestic use that includes animals and humans. Table 4 is an
example for determining berkad size based on water demand and a six-month dry period.
Table 4: Berkad size based on water demand

Consumption rate Total/day Total /dry period
Item Population (Litres/day) (Litres/day) (m3/day) Dry days (m3)
People 5 x 20 100 0.1 180 18
Camels 5 x 15 75 0.1 180 13.5
Cattle 8 x 15 120 0.1 180 21.6
Sheep/goats 20 x 3.5 70 0.1 180 12.6
Donkeys 2 x 15 30 0.0 180 5.4
Berkad volume 395 0.4 71.1
Source: Adopted from RELMA Technical Handbook No. 32
From the volumes determined either in supply- or demand-based approaches, the

dimensions of the berkads can be iterated. Care should be taken not to have a large
surface area due to evaporation losses. Instead, a narrow, long and deep shape for
cuboidal designs would be prefferable. From the volume in the example of table 4,
iteration would give dimensions of approximately 3 m by 5 m (top area) by 4.73 m
(depth). The problem with cuboidal shapes is that they are more prone to cracking,
especially at the corners. Cylindrical shapes would therefore be preferrable although they
32
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require more skill in construction. Again, the surface area should be minimized to reduce
evaporation losses while not compromising the maximum depth for water abstraction.
The current practice to mitigate evaporation losses is to cover the surface of the tanks
using vegetative material such as grass placed over a mesh of wires (Plate 10). There is
need to ensure that all the sides of the tank are reinforced with appropriate wire mesh and
British re-inforced concrete depending on the size to avoid cracking (Plate 11).
Plate 10: Mitigating evaporation losses from berkads using grass covers
Plate 11: Cracking of a berkad
4.3.4 Abstraction of water for animal or domestic use
The current practice is to abstract water or silt from the berkads using rope and buckets
(figure 11). After the bucket is dipped in water, it is pulled by hand and brought to the
33
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ground level to pour out the water. This technique is not good as it is prone to
contamination. An alternative is to install a rope-and-washer pump, which delivers water
via a spout (figure 12). This pump should be installed at one of the berkad corners as
shown in figure 14, to facilitate easy abstraction. The water drawn using this technique
should be allowed to pass through a layer of quick sand and later to either a tank for
domestic use, or a trough for animal drinking. NB: The current practice by the Somalis
of separating the area where water is drawn to the area where animals drink using live
fences is good and should be adopted and incorporated in the designs. This is also clearly
demonstrated in figure 14.
Figure 11: Use of rope and bucket to desilt or abstract water from berkads2
2
Adopted from Caritas Switzerland, Luxemburg, COOPI, OXFAM GB & SCF-UK
34
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Figure 12: Rope and washer pump
35
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Figure 13: A Berkad runoff harvesting system depicting trough for animal drinking
4.4 Design of roof water harvesting systems: the case of berkad guris
Berkad guris are cuboid-shaped above-ground tanks made of concrete or ferrocement

(Plate 12). Their rainwater harvesting systems consist of a roof catchment, gutters, down
pipes and the tank itself. They are covered using corrugated iron sheets with a small
opening that also serves as a manhole to access the interior to maintain and abstract water
from the tank. They are best applied in urban settings with rainfall above 200 mm.
Plate 11: A Berkad guri showing the roof runoff harvesting components
36
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4.4.1 Design considerations and aspects for roof catchments
In designing roof catchment systems, the following factors have to be taken into account:
rainfall, area/size of the roof surface, surface conditions, roof pitch and presence of
settlements. Annex 8 expounds on the criteria for domestic water harvesting.
Areas with rainfall above 200 mm per annum are considered suitable for roof water
harvesting. The nature of roofing material or surface will determine how much runoff is
generated. The smoother the surface, the higher the runoff coefficient. Most buildings
especially in urban areas of Somalia use corrugated galvanised iron sheets for roofing
whose coefficients range from 0.8–0.9. The roof pitch, which denotes the slope defined
by the vertical height of a roof truss to its half-length is gentle, estimated at 4 to 12
(figure 14). The roof pitch factor for such ratio is 1.05. The relationship between roof
pitches and roof runoff losses due to splashing effect is that the sharper the pitch, the
lower the losses due to smooth flow of water and vice versa. For the internally displaced
persons (IDPs) however, canvass and polythene are the preferred roofing materials.
Given their hemi-spherical shapes, it is difficult to determine their roof pitches. However,
since they are vertically oriented towards the ground level, an assumption of 1.2 for the
roof pitch could be used. An issue of concern for the roof is dust blown by wind and
deposited on the roofs.
Runoff generation for roofwater harvesting systems requires lower threshold values as
compared with that for agriculture. The threshold of 5 mm is sufficient to create runoff
from corrugated iron-roofed catchments, which are common in Somalia urban settings.
Using the example of Borama, the mean annual rainfall for Borama calculated between
1925 and 1987 is 500 mm. However, the annual averages for storms that have threshold
of 5 mm, deemed sufficient to cause runoff is 489 mm, all received on an average of 30
days annually (annex 18).
Figure 14: Roof pitch factors
4.4.2 Conveyance, by pass and filtering mechanisms
Conveyance mechanisms consist of gutters and down pipes made of poly vinyl chloride
(PVC), galvanised iron sheet (gauge 20–22) or bamboo trunks cut vertically in half. The
37
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gutters should be laid on an appropriate 1% gradient (10 cm in 10 m) to drain water from

roof to tank. They can either be semi-circular or rectangular in shape. With data on
average rainfall intensities for Somalia, it is possible to develop a guide for estimating
pipe diameters for known roof areas.
In the case of grass thatched or hemi-spherical round houses (common in IDP camps), it
is difficult to install conventional gutters. For grass-thatched houses, circular trenches can
be dug and positioned to receive runoff directly below the roof eves (figure 15), and
trench gutters dug around hemispherical houses (figure 16). The mitre drain from the
trench gutters should be positioned on the side or at the back of the house to be
accessible. The mitre drains convey runoff into an underground tank (figures 15 and 16).
Figure 15: Illustration of RWH system for grass-thatched house
38
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Figure 16: Illustration of RWH system for a hemi-spherical house
4.4.3 Storage and abstraction
Storage tanks collect rainwater for later use. In Somalia, they are often cuboid or
rectangular in shape. Most of the tanks are placed above the ground with overflow
provisions. Stairs are made in some cases to access the top of the tank. This allows for the
use of buckets or jerry cans to draw water. Dipping jerry cans or buckets in and out of the
tanks is an un-hygienic practice that introduces impurities and pathogens in the stored
water (Plate 13). Instead, provisions should be made for a tapping station to draw water
from the tank through gravity (figures 19 and 20).
39
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Plate 12: Current practice of drawing water from the berkad guris
4.4.4 Demand-based approach to sizing a berkad guri
A demand-based approach to determining the size of a berkad guri is dependent on the

per capita basic water requirement (BWR) taken as 20 litres/capita/day. Getting the
product of BWR with a number of people in a household and the number of dry days
gives the tank capacity. For instance, in a house of 8 people inhabiting a location with
180 dry days, tank capacity is given as:
Tank capacity = BWR x 8 x 180 litres

= 20 x 8 x 180 litres
= 28,800 litres or 28.8 m3
4.4.5 Total annual available rainwater from roof catchments
The total annual available rainwater is dependent on the size of the roof. Tank capacity is
computed by getting the product of total roof area with average annual rainfall, the roof
pitch and runoff coefficient. For example, for a house roofed with GI sheets in a town
covering an area of 60 m2, with annual rainfall of 400 mm the tank capacity is calculated
as follows:
Tank capacity = Area x rainfall depth x runoff coefficient x roof pitch

= 60 x (400/1000) x 0.85 x 1.05 litres
= 60 x 0.4 x 0.85x 1.05
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= 21.42 m3 or 21,420 litres
Using the formula in Section 4.4.5, it is possible to develop a guide table for estimating
harvestable rainwater from varied roof sizes and rainfall in Somalia.
Plate 13: A guide for harvestable domestic roof water

Rainfall (mm) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Roof area (m2) 3

Harvestable rainwater from rooftop (m )
20 1.79 3.57 5.36 7.14 8.93 10.71 12.50 14.28
30 2.68 5.36 8.03 10.71 13.39 16.07 18.74 21.42
40 3.57 7.14 10.71 14.28 17.85 21.42 24.99 28.56
50 4.46 8.93 13.39 17.85 22.31 26.78 31.24 35.70
60 5.36 10.71 16.07 21.42 26.78 32.13 37.49 42.84
70 6.25 12.50 18.74 24.99 31.24 37.49 43.73 49.98
80 7.14 14.28 21.42 28.56 35.70 42.84 49.98 57.12
90 8.03 16.07 24.10 32.13 40.16 48.20 56.23 64.26
100 8.93 17.85 26.78 35.70 44.63 53.55 62.48 71.40
150 13.39 26.78 40.16 53.55 66.94 80.33 93.71 107.10
200 17.85 35.70 53.55 71.40 89.25 107.10 124.95 142.80
250 22.31 44.63 66.94 89.25 111.56 133.88 156.19 178.50
300 26.78 53.55 80.33 107.10 133.88 160.65 187.43 214.20
400 35.70 71.40 107.10 142.80 178.50 214.20 249.90 285.60
500 44.63 89.25 133.88 178.50 223.13 267.75 312.38 357.00
1000 89.25 178.50 267.75 357.00 446.25 535.50 624.75 714.00
2000 178.50 357.00 535.50 714.00 892.50 1071.00 1249.50 1428.00
3000 267.75 535.50 803.25 1071.00 1338.75 1606.50 1874.25 2142.00
41
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Table 5: Optimizing tank size using mass curve analysis method

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Amount 0 0 45 64 60 21 5 0 26 43 38 0
Cum amount (mm) 0 0 45 109 169 190 195 195 221 264 302 302
3
Supply from RWH (m ) 0 0 6 14.6 22.6 25 26 26 30 35 40 40
No of days 31 28.0 31 30 31.0 30 31 31 30 31 30 31
Monthly Water deman (m) 3 2.80 3 3.00 3.10 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Cum water demand (mm) 3 5.90 9 12.00 15.1 18.1 21.2 24.3 27.3 30.4 33.4 36.5
3
Absolute difference (m ) 3 5.90 3 2.60 7.50 7.30 4.9 1.8 2.3 4.9 7 3.9
45
Cumulative roof water supply vs demand
40
35
30
25
(m3)
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0 5 10 15
Time (Months)
Cumulated monthly water demands

Cumulated monthly water supply
Figure 17: Optimizing tank size using mass curve analysis method
4.4.7 Sizing roof rainwater tanks using nomographs
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in Kenya developed a

nomograph that uses computer-based spreadsheet performance calculator to size
roofwater harvesting tanks in Kenya at a reliability of 67%. This was in collaboration
with the World Agroforestry Centre where, nomographs for 50 stations covering a wide
range of agroecological zones were developed.
The monograph is a simple tool that can be understood by most people and can only be
applied in areas with similar rainfall. It helps in determining the mean daily runoff for
particular areas. To determine the tank size using a nomograph, the daily family water
demand should be determined. For instance, for a family of five at a basic water
42
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requirement of 20 litres per day, the total demand for the family will be 100 litres. If the
roof area is 80 m2, then for the example of Moyale town given in figure 19, the MDR is
140 l/d. From the nomograph, this means that there is sufficient water to supply the needs
of the family with a balance still left of 40 litres for other uses.
Somalia too, could develop similar nomographs for selected towns based on the
performance calculator developed by Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology.
Station: 8639000 Moyale Met Annual rainfall 769 mm

25 500
24
23 450
22 100 lpd 200 lpd 300 lpd MDR
21
20 400
19
Mean daily runoff (lpd)

18
17 350
Tank size (cu. m)
16
15 300
14
13 250
12
11
10 200
9
8 150
7
6
5 100
4
3
2 50
1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Roof area (sq. m)
Figure 18: An example of a nomograph for estimating required tank size3
3
Source: Malesu et al. (2005)
43
Quality aspects of stored rainwater
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Quality Aspects of Stored Rainwater

5.1 Introduction
In areas that are fairly clean and unpolluted such as rural settings with low
industrialization, rainwater is a clean and safe resource. However, once it hits the roof
surface, the rainwater collects impurities and washes down bacteria, moulds, algae,
protozoa and other contaminants into the tank (UN Habitat, 2005). Health concerns
related to bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherechia coli and Legion ella are the primary
criteria for analysing the quality of drinking water. Rainwater for household use should
be filtered and disinfected.
Virtually all ex situ runoff water is led to open storage structures. As the runoff flows to
the reservoirs, it carries with it silt and organic impurities. If the surrounding areas are
denuded following cutting down of trees to produce charcoal, high siltation and pollution
of the water bodies occur. There is also a danger of such water harbouring mosquitoes or
snails that are hosts to malaria and bilharzia. Typhoid is common when the people,
livestock and other domestic animals use water un-hygienically.
5.2 Domestic water treatment techniques

5.2.1 Leaf screening
At the roof catchment level, large organic matter such as leaves deposited on the roof
surfaces by wind can be removed using leaf screens (plate 14). These are placed at the
lower edges of the roofs and extended over the gutters. During initial rainfall events,
runoff water flows into the gutters carrying with it minute particles. The leaves cannot
enter the fine mesh covering the gutters and will thus go over the gutters and fall to the
ground.
Leaf screening can also be achieved along down pipes. A section of the pipe is cut in a
slanting manner and a fine mesh placed over it. Runoff flowing on the pipe will pass
through the mesh leaving behind the large organic matter such as leaves, which will slide
to the ground.
Gutter
Plate 14: Screening leaves from roof runoff water
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5.2.2 Manual foul flush mechanisms
This is a plastic by-pass mechanism which is initially positioned to allow foul flush to
flow away as wastewater. After about five minutes of a rainfall event, it is manually
changed so that clean water is re-routed to the tank (Plate 15). The disadvantage of this
system is that the operator has to be around to re-position the foul flush gadget so that it
receives clean water after a few minutes of the rainfall event.
Plate 15: Manual foul flush mechanism
The alternative to the manual mechanism is the automatic one shown in Plate 16 and
figures 20 and 21. Here, roof runoff is directed to the down pipe which has an extended
pipe that separates the foul flush from on-coming cleaner runoff. The volume of foul
flush is calculated to fill the separator pipe. Thereafter, oncoming runoff is blocked by a
non-return valve and instead re-routed to the treatment chamber. This water is forced
through layers of sponge and sand. A space on the top portion of the chamber acts as a
sump upon which treated pool water collects and discharges into the berkad (see top right
and bottom Plates 16). The advantage of this system is that it takes care of the physical
(using the separator) and biological impurities (using the sand filtration) simultaneously.
45
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Top left Top right
Bottom left Bottom right

Plate 16: Use of separator and filtering mechanisms to treat roof runoff water
46
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Figure 19: Use of separator and filtering mechanisms to treat roof runoff water
The alternative to the use of separator extension pipe (figure 18) is the use of a floating
ball technique (figure 19). In this technique, initial runoff flows into a container with
conical ends. The container has a ball that floats and rises with the filling water. When
full, this chamber is automatically blocked by the ball. At this stage, clean water will be
rerouted into the berkad. The advantage of this method is that the operator doesn’t have
to be around during a rainstorm. He can remove the foul flush after the rainfall event.
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Figure 20: Floating ball technique in foul flush treatment
5.2.3 Filtration
A number of filtration mechanisms are in use—gravity, pressure and sand- based filters.
Given the abundance of sand in Somalia, the sand-based filter is highlighted.
Sand-based filters remove turbidity (suspended particles), colour and even micro-
organisms. Depending on availability of different materials, layers of sand are arranged
as shown in figure 21.
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Figure 19: Sand and gravel- based water filters
5.2.4 Disinfection
Disinfection consists of boiling water and using chemicals and ultra-violet light. Boiling
water for 10 to 20 minutes is sufficient to remove all biological contaminants (UN
Habitat, 2005). Chlorination is done using calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2), known as
bleaching powder, at a mix of 1 g per 200 litres of water to kill all types of bacteria.
Alternatively, chlorine tablets can be used at a mix of 0.5 g to treat 200 litres of water.
Table 5 summarizes water treatment along various components of a domestic roof water
harvesting system.
At the collection conveyance stage, physical treatment through leaf screening is done.
This is followed by a physical and biological stage especially when automatic foul flush
gadgets are used together with sand. Finally, at the storage and utilization stage, water
must be boiled and chemicals applied to kill harmful micro-organisms.
5.2.5 Monitoring water quality
The World Health Organization has developed standard chemical and biological tests that
guide users in monitoring water quality. Chemical tests are carried out for chemical
oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand, turbidity, conductivity, iron, manganese,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, aluminium, chlorides, fluoride, ammonia, sulphate,
49
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phosphorus, total dissolved solids, zinc, cadmium and lead. Biological tests include
bacteriological, viral and protozoa tests. Somalia needs to develop a strategy and
framework for the monitoring of water quality. Since these tests cost money (see table 6
as an example), a study should be carried out to determine the on which parameters are
relevant parameters for monitoring so that appropriate laboratories are set up either in
government, parastatal or university colleges. When establishing monitoring
infrastructure, twinning of a Somali institution with that of a counterpart in a
neighbouring country such as Kenya or Yemen, is desirable especially if the latter have
advanced technologies. The Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology Department at
the University of Nairobi undertakes water quality tests.
Table 6: Example of current costs for charges of various parameters for water
testing at the University of Nairobi
Tests Parameter Cost per sample (USD)
Chemical tests PH 3.0

Chlorides (mg/l) 9.0
Fluoride (mg/l) 27
Ammonia (mg/l) 22.5
Copper (mg/l) 22.5
Phosphorus (mg/l) 22.5
Cadmium (mg/l) 22.5
Lead (mg/l) 22.5
Arsenic (mg/l) 22.5
Flourides 27
Microbiological tests Coliforms/E-coli 22.5

Faecal Strephtococci 15
Salmonella 22.5
Clostridium Perfrigens 22.5
5.3 Agricultural water quality management
Water for agricultural use is polluted from non-point sources, i.e. it is difficult to pin-
point precisely where particular pollutants come from, especially if the catchment is
located in an area with intensive farming or livestock rearing. In Somalia, the major
problem is siltation of water bodies. To mitigate this problem, there is need to come up
with policies that encourage catchment management through soil and water conservation.
Terracing is recommended wherever applicable as noted in parts of Bay region and
Somaliland, as is the use of silt traps and waterway treatment (section 4.2.2).
5.4 Livestock water quality requirement
Given that the origin of all waters is rainwater, livestock have no problem drinking water
drawn from surface or ground reservoirs. However, the water quality of water may be
affected by the presence of nitrates and sulphates, alkalinity, salinity, bacterial
contamination, other toxic elements and stagnant water.
Nitrates
Nitrate poisoning in cattle results from eating forage with a high nitrate content. The
nitrates themselves are not toxic, but bacteria in the rumen reduce the nitrates to nitrites,
which then get into the bloodstream. There, the nitrites convert the red pigment,
haemoglobin, which is responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, to a
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dark brown pigment, methaemoglobin, which will not carry oxygen. When this
conversion is about 50% complete, animals become distressed and short of breath, and
when conversion reaches 80% or more, they usually die of suffocation.
Table 6: Guide to the use of water containing nitrates for livestock and poultry
Nitrate content
(ppm nitrate nitrogen) Comments
Experimental evidence to date indicates that this water
Less than 100 should not harm livestock or poultry.
This water should not by itself harm livestock or poultry.

When feeds contain nitrates, this water could add greatly
to the nitrate intake and be dangerous. This could be of
some concern in the case of cattle or sheep during
drought years and especially with waters containing levels
100 to 300 of nitrates that approach the upper limits.
This water could cause typical nitrate poisoning in cattle

and sheep, and its use for these animals is not
recommended. Because this level of nitrate contributes
significantly to salinity, and also because experimental
work with levels of nitrate nitrogen in excess of this are
meagre, the use of this water for swine, horses or poultry
Over 300 should also be avoided.
Sulphates
Both sodium and magnesium sulphates are well-known laxatives. Water containing up to
3,000 ppm sulphates has no harmful effects on the rate or efficiency of weight gain or on
faecal consistency, in gestating or lactating sows or on their litters up to 28 days of age.
Water containing above 3,000 ppm, will harm livestock.
Alkalinity
Waters with alkalinities of less than 1,000 ppm are considered satisfactory for all classes
of livestock and poultry. Adults may not be harmed at concentrations of less than about
2,500 ppm unless the concentration of carbonates exceeds the concentration of
bicarbonates. Most waters have alkalinities of less than 500 ppm, and are not harmful.
Excessive alkalinity in water can cause physiological problems and digestive upsets in
livestock.
Bacterial contamination
Bacterial contamination in water for livestock use drinking water does not usually cause
problems. Most water consumed by livestock has some degree of contamination from
being impounded stored in depressions, tracks, dugouts or ponds. However, producers
should be concerned if bacteria contaminate farm water supplies. become contaminated
by bacteria. The source of contamination should be determined and eliminated,
particularly if humans also consume water from the system. Waters with alkalinities of
less than 1,000 ppm are considered satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry.
Adults may not be harmed at concentrations of less than about 2,500 ppm unless the
concentration of carbonates exceeds the concentration of bicarbonates.
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Salinity
At high salt concentrations, water consumption increases. At very high salinities, animals
may at first refuse to drink water for a few days, then drink large quantities at a go. This
leads to sudden sickness or even death. Below is a table that gives a guide for salinity
levels in water for livestock.
Table 7: Guide to the use of saline water for livestock and poultry
Total dissolved solids Total dissolved solids (parts/million)*
(parts/million)*
Less than 1,000 This water should is be excellent for all classes of
livestock.
1,000 to 2,999 This water should be satisfactory for all classes of
livestock. Water approaching the upper limit may
cause some watery droppings in poultry, but should
not adversely affect the health or production of birds.
3,000 to 4,999 This water should be satisfactory for livestock. If not
accustomed to it they may refuse to drink it for a few
days, but they will adapt to it in time. If sulphate salts
predominate, animals may show temporary diarrhoea,
but this should not harm them. It is, however, a poor to
unsatisfactory water for poultry. It may cause watery
faeces and, particularly near the upper limit, it may
cause increased mortality and decreased growth,
especially in turkeys.
5,000 to 6,999 This water can be used for livestock, except those that
are pregnant or lactating, without seriously affecting
their health or productivity. It may have some laxative
effects and animals may be refuse to take it d by the
animals until they become accustomed to it. It is
unsatisfactory for poultry.
7,000 to 10,000 This water should not be used for poultry or swine. It
can be used with reasonable safety for older, low-
producing ruminants or horses that are not pregnant or
lactating.
Over 10,000 This water is considered unsatisfactory for all classes
of livestock.
* Electrical conductivity expressed in micromhos per centimetre at 25°C can be
substituted for total dissolved solids without introducing a great error in interpretation.
Other factors
Although toxic elements such as arsenic, mercury, selenium and cadmium may harm
animals, the major concern is that their accumulation in meat, milk or eggs makes them
unsafe for human consumption. Occasionally, heavy algal growths occur in stagnant or
slow-flowing water bodies. Under some circumstances, a few of these species can be
toxic. As there are no tests for these toxins at present, stagnant water should not be used
for livestock.
52
RWH potential for Somalia
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Assessment of RWH Potential for Somalia

6.1 Introduction
Given that at less than 500 m3 per capita per year, Somalia already faces water scarcity,
every effort should be made to use all available and accessible freshwater to sustain
livelihoods. Somalia currently depends on livestock and rainfed and irrigated agriculture
to produce food. To cope with the low and erratic rainfall, the current practice is to grow
drought-resistant crops or to abstract water from ephemeral or permanent rivers for
irrigation. Pastoralists are forced to shift with their animals to new areas in search of
green pasture and water during droughts. The situation is not different for water for
domestic use. In most areas with low annual rainfall, the government and resident
communities use either boreholes or trucking to supply water.
Rainstorms come in short and intense events and usually cause flooding both in the rural
and urban areas. Such untapped potential if under-utilized poses great danger to people
and the environment. Rainwater harvesting could complement and ease not only the
scarcity problem, but contribute to environmental conservation too. Emphasis should be
on the runoff which otherwise goes to waste.
6.2 Assessement of RWH potential for Somalia
FAO-SWALIM and ICRAF collaborated with US Geological Survey to estimate runoff

using the soil conservation service curve number technique and satellite-derived rainfall
estimates. This follows experience from a previous similar study conducted by Senay and
Verdin (2004) for Africa. For Somalia, watersheds were delineated from digital elevation
model data sets in a GIS environment. Annual runoff volumes were estimated as the
product of the watershed area and runoff excess estimated from the SCS–CN method
(section 4.2.3).
The average rainfall values for Somalia were used to produce three runoff potential maps
of the following ranges; low (0–10 mm), medium (10–20 mm) and high (over 20 mm).
By determining the areas for these regimes using GIS, the product of the runoff and areas
provided an estimate of runoff water harvesting potential (volumes in km3). Annex 19
shows runoff water harvesting potential estimated as follows: desert areas with annual
rainfall below 200 mm having less than 1,393 M m3 (million cubic metres); regimes with
low rainfall (200–400 mm) generating between 2,246 to 4,492 M m3; and medium-
rainfall regimes generating above 5,309 M m3. Using GIS, the runoff harvesting potential
for Somalia is therefore estimated to be 11,194 M m3. FAO-Africover aggregated
rangelands and agriculture data sets were used to extract runoff for the agricultural lands
and rangelands (annexes 19 to 21). By determining the areas covered under these
domains using GIS, the runoff potential for agriculture and rangeland sectors were was
estimated (table 8).
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Table 8: Runoff potential in volumes for the agriculture and rangeland sectors
Rainwater Harvesting domain Rainfall regimes Area Runoff depth (mm) Runoff volume (M m3)
(Million
ha)
Rainfed Agriculture Desert 0.15 <10 <15.38
Low 1.77 10 – 20 177.83 - 355.66
Medium 1.15 >20 230.74
TOTAL 3.08 601.78
Irrigated herbaceous fields & tree crops Desert 0.04 <10 <3.95
Low 0.71 10 – 20 70.73 – 141.5
Medium 0.16 >20 32.15
TOTAL 1.01 177.6
Rangelands Desert 14.3 <10 1433
Low 4.67 10 – 20 467 – 935
Medium 1.79 >20 357
TOTAL 7.89 2725
Overall Desert 14.49 <10 1452.33
Low 7.15 10 – 20 1432.16
Medium 3.9 >20 619.89
TOTAL 11.98 3504.38
From table 8, it is clear that at 7.89 Million hectares (M ha), rangelands constitute the
biggest area generating 2,725 M m3 of runoff water. This is in comparison to rainfed
agriculture, covering an area of 3.08 M ha with runoff water harvesting potential of about
602 M m3, and irrigated areas covering 1 M ha with runoff water harvesting potential of
178 M m3. The total amount of runoff generated in the whole of Somalia is thus
approximately 3,504 M m3 (3.5 km3).
6.2.1 Roof water harvesting potential
According to UNECA (2000), a human ideally requires about 1,700 m3 of freshwater per
year, equivalent to 4,660 litre per day for drinking, dietary and industrial needs. Of these,
the daily domestic water needs alone constitute 3.33%, or 155 litres per capita, with
dietary needs taking 86.7% equivalent to 4,040 litres, and industry the remaining 10%
equivalent to 466 litres. Table 9 shows water needs in comparison to the Somalia
allocations in litres per capita per day.
Table 9: Global water needs in comparison to the Somalia per capita allocation
Amount Domestic water
Category of water situation (m3) 3% of amount (Litres/cap/day)
Ideal global >1700 >155
Water stressed 1000-1700 82 - 155
Water scarce <1000 < 82
Somalia
Current <500 41
Basic Water Requirement 242 20
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On average, per capita daily water availability for Somalia is about 41 litres/capita/day.
ICRAF and FAO-SWALIM determined the RWH potential for selected towns. Roof
coverage of these towns is shown in annexes 22 to 30. The formula below was used to
compute roof water harvesting potential (RWHpot) for selected towns (see table 10):
RWHpot = P x Cd x ΣAd x η x Rp
Where P = Average annual rainfall (mm)
Cd = Runoff coefficient dependent on the common roof material used (See
annexes 23 to 31)
ΣAd = The sum of all roof surfaces in a given town (m2)
η = Rainfall reliability (assumed as 0.67 for the East African region
dependent on the monsoons)
Rp = Roof pitch, taken as 1.05 for Somalia buildings
Table 10: Roof water harvesting potential for selected towns in Somalia
Example of RfWHpot Approximate Basic water Duration of
urban (Million population4 requirement supply per
settings litres) (2007) (litre/cap/day) year
(months)
Garoowe 33 60,000 20 
Hargeisa 1200 500,000 20 3
Hargeisa 1200 500,000 20 2
Jowhar 352 60,000 20 10
Analysis of the results shows that rainwater harvesting alone is not adequate to meet the
basic daily water requirements. Nevertheless, it complements conventional municipal
supplies.
4
Population figures are obtained from UN Habitat, Hargeisa office
55
Institutional and policy aspects
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. Institutional and Policy Aspects in RWH Projects

7.1. Overview of current status
Although the governments have established lead ministries to coordinate other line
ministries in water policy management, RWH has not received adequate attention in
government programmes and projects unlike in irrigation or groundwater resources. In
addition, management capacity to operate and maintain water supply facilities is
inadequate in Somalia (PSAWEN, 2001) following 16 years of civil strife. This has
prompted the governments to start institutional and policy development initiatives. The
policies are still in their development stages and are yet to be implemented. Examples of
the draft policies include:
• The Water Supply Policy Green Paper: a discussion paper for to be reviewed by
Puntland State for Water, Energy and Natural Resources Corporation
• The Draft National Water Plan by Puntland State for Water, Energy and Natural
Resources Corporation
• The Draft Water Act for Somaliland
On-going water policy reforms in Puntland, Somaliland and the Transitional Federal
Government recognise the Ministry of Water as the lead agency in charge of water
resources. Depending on the state or region, the water ministry coordinates a task force
drawing its members from line ministries and key local or external agencies. At the
moment, most of the RWH activities are carried out by international NGOs.
7.2 Excerpts from existing water policies

7.2.1 Somaliland Water Act
The Ministry of Water and Mineral Resources (MWMR) prepared the Draft Water Act
for Somaliland in collaboration with UNICEF and the Danish Royal Government. The
MWMR is responsible for implementing this water act. Its purpose is to improve water
availability and access in a sustainable and equitable way for all types of uses, in a
manner that is environmentally safe. The specific objectives are to:
• recognise, legitimise, empower, and endorse the Somaliland’s customary laws and
institutions and Somaliland’s traditional leaders in water-related administrative,
fiscal, and judicial affairs;
• manage water resources and provide water services by implementing and
enforcing the Water Code, its laws and regulations;
• develop a national water strategy, and translate it into national water plans;
• enable multi-disciplinary planning and evaluation of water resources, programs
and projects;
• coordinate government ministries and autonomous agencies which are concerned
with the development and administration of water resources and water rights; and,
• define the rights and obligations of persons, both social and economic, and
harmonise them with the general welfare.
56
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7.2.2 Puntland Green Water Paper
The objective of the Green Water Paper is to set out the policy for the Puntland State for
Water, Energy and Natural Resources Corporation, (PSAWEN). PSAWEN is positioned
to be the lead technical agency to direct and coordinate sector activities, policy
development, guidelines, standards, monitoring and evaluation, surveys, create database,
training and advice on financing. The green paper and the input from a review process
must be endorsed by parliament for it to be accepted as a white paper on water policy.
The institutional framework for PSAWEN will involve a range of other agencies, notably
provincial and local government as well as other interested parties such as the private
sector and NGOs. PSAWEN has the following institutional goals for water supply
services:
• In the long term, the goal is that services provided to consumers should be based
on full cost recovery.
• In the medium term, the objective of the government is to support institutional
development at local and national and local levels.
• In the short term, the immediate goal is to maintain service delivery to build
institutions and ‘gear’ up to achieve medium-term goals.
7.2.3 Pre-war National Water Policy
Prior to the imposition of colonial rule, each Somali clan was an independent entity,
which owned water sources and exercised grazing rights (PSAWEN, 2001). During the
colonial and UN Trust Territory period (1880–1960), some systems were started to
supply only the small, ruling and wealthy elite of the towns. Since the 1960s, traditional
dug wells and reservoirs have been constructed and then controlled by individual families
along lineage groups or clans. Drilling of boreholes on a large scale begun in the 1970s
under the authority of different government agencies.
A national water committee was formed comprising various ministries and general
managers of the autonomous Water Development Agency (WDA) and the National
Range Agency. One required their approval before constructing a borehole to ensure that
strategic and environmental concerns were addressed. There were four autonomous
centres in the water sector—Mogadishu, Hargeisa, Kismayo and the WDA—responsible
for rural water supply, while responsibility for urban water supply was given to regional
authorities. In 1978, the responsibility for the urban water supply was transferred to
WDA.
7.3 Role of local and external support agencies
The rate of population growth for humans and livestock far surpasses water supply
capacity from surface and ground water bodies by various governments in Somalia. The
response to this has been the creation of NGOs and the entry of international
organizations to contribute to mitigating water scarcity for various sectoral uses. These
agencies and NGO’s contribute in the mitigation of the problems enumerated above by
57
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addressing other socio-economic issues such as lack of employment, by granting

financial support to job creation within the available programs or projects.
7.4 Roles of government and local community
The role of central government in the water sector is to manage the nation’s water
resources in the public interest and ensure that all citizens have access to adequate water
services. This is achieved through;
• strong and enforced policies and regulations relating to water, land use and
environment
• creating a secure environment for humanitarian interventions & investments
• developing a national strategic plan of for integrated water resource management
(IWRM) (rainwater harvesting, ground water and shallow wells) RWH,GW &
SW) for different uses and users
• coordinating different stakeholders
• ensuring sustainability
The community’s role is to manage shared primary resources—water and pasture—

mainly through conflict resolution at the behest of elders, chieftains and religious leaders.
Members of society who flout rules or regulations governing the use of the shared
resources are penalized by confiscating their domestic animals as compensation. The
community gets assistance from the Diaspora through contributions in gifts and financial
aid.
58
Planning, implementation & monitoring of RWH projects
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of RWH Interventions
The basis for implementing RWH interventions is the principle of integrated water
resources management (IWRM), which states that water is an economic, social and
environmental good, and policies and options that guide water resources management
should be analyzed within a comprehensive framework. IWRM provides a good entry
point for balanced interventions using programmatic rather than project approach to
achieve greater chance of sustainability. Its central objective is to promote efficient,
equitable, and sustainable development using institutional, technical, economical, social
and environmental strategies. The following excerpts adopted from the African
Development Bank (2007) have relevance in the implementation of RWH projects at
various scales.
Having been convinced of the importance of RWH for livelihood support and
environmental conservation, the Governments of Puntland, Somaliland and Southern
Somalia need to develop national masterplans that spell out where, how and what needs
to be done. This can be achieved by engaging expertise drawn locally or abroad. The
experts shall estimate the potential of RWH for given technologies identified here as
RWH for agriculture and livestock, roofwater harvesting, sand and sub-surface dams and
runoff water harvesting; identify suitable areas for implementing such domains; and
advise governments on the investment costs of implementing various RWH programmes
and projects. The governments can use the masterplans as reference documents to solicit
funding through various means such as proposal writing.
The next major step is to establish an institutional structure that will coordinate,
implement and monitor RWH programmes or projects. So far, the Ministries of Water are
taking the lead in streamlining RWH in their programmes. This is a good move that needs
support and strengthening especially in policy formulation, which forms the backbone of
project management. There should be institutional acceptance of RWH as a viable water
supply option in areas with limited water sources. RWH as a water supply option should
feature prominently in national water policies and strategies. Otherwise, the techniques
and use will continue to be restricted to NGOs and sporadic interventions by some
bilateral donors.
Initial RWH interventions should be operationalized from existing policy and consider
legislative, administrative and institutional frameworks. Rainwater harvesting for crop or
animal production should consider providing field extension services, and credit and
marketing facilities, while that for domestic use should consider integrating water supply
sources. Below are examples of specific RWH-related projects at local, national and,
regional levels:
Local level
• Carry out demonstration projects and research on efficiency of RWH
interventions
• Integrate RWH in ongoing projects
• Support farmers developing RWH techniques
59
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• Support communities engaging in RWH activities

• Improve extension services and training on RWH
• Improve/ensure access to markets for the necessary RWH materials.
• Build capacity of local authorities on RWH
National and regional level
• Map traditional RWH practices and experiences
• Map potential of RWH
• Support policy analysis and implementation strategy formulation related to RWH
• Include RWH in national policies in water, agriculture, land, livestock, rural
development, urban development and environment
• Operationalise and institutionalise policies, and formulate regulations and
legislation
• Provide enabling environment for RWH and water-related businesses
• Develop frameworks for standard designs for RWH systems
• Develop RWH curriculum for technical educational institutions
• Support the development of efficient monitoring systems on performance of
RWH.
• Support a networking knowledge base among stakeholders on RWH
8.1 RWH projects implementation
From the mapping of RWH technologies, it is easy to decide on which areas or

technologies to introduce in selected areas. Once this is done, the community needs to be
sensitized and their approval sought. The government should organise or conduct a
training needs assessment (TNA). The TNA report will be useful in developing staff and
community training curricula and manuals which can later be used to build capacity of
extension personnel, artisans, fabricators and farmers.
In introducing RWH in a given locality, specific sites for scaling up best practices should
be identified using GIS tools. With support of external agencies, the government should
procure a quickbird image to expedite hydrologic delineation of the selected area as well
as develop a digital elevation model and describe its biophysical features. These are
important baseline data for the planning of RWH projects.
Local ownership and participation are important issues when seeking to establish
sustainable RWH measures. Sustainable RWH technologies are those that are developed
and managed by local farmers themselves. These farmers must be involved in identifying
technically feasible, sustainable and acceptable technologies. One of the main
prerequisites is social and economic sustainability that considers cost recovery and
willingness of the community to contribute cash or labour. Central to involving
communities is the inclusion of gender issues in planning and implementing projects.
Women play a crucial role in water provision as they are the ones who fetch water. They
will often have the greatest interest and the most to gain from water supply projects, thus
their views and conditions must be included in the implementation activities.
60
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Specialists such as engineers will need these baseline data to design particular
interventions identified from the map earlier developed. Technicians and artisans will use
these costed designs to introduce these technologies to community members and provide
them with skills training for future uptake and sustainability.
8.2 RWH projects monitoring and evaluation
During implementation of RWH interventions, data should be continuously collected on

amounts, quality and utilization of harvested rainwater through testing of the designs.
Reports from monitoring missions will be useful in preparing follow-up plans and
providing technical backstopping or adjusting various techniques to improve their
performance. From these reports, precise operational and maintenance plans can be
developed.
Monitoring of roof catchment systems

For roof water harvesting systems, trees planted close to buildings should be monitored to
ensure that leafy branches do not spread towards or over the roofs. If this happens,
organic matter will be deposited on the roofs that and may impede conveyance of runoff
water. Such branches should be trimmed. Just before the onset of rains, the roofs and
gutters should be cleaned. Gutter gradient should be evaluated by measuring the slope
that has to conform to the original design and checked for any leakages and consequently
repaired.
During the rainy season manual foul flush mechanisms have to be carried out to drain the
dirty runoff water after every each rainfall event.
Storage tanks should be monitored for any leaks that may arise from poor concrete
workmanship or faulty pipes (taps or drainage plugs). If noticed, repairs should be done
immediately. To monitor water quality, random samples should be taken at least once a
year for analysis and where necessary appropriate treatment mechanisms put in place.
Overall, the entire system should be evaluated for its sufficiency and cost effectiveness.
Monitoring of agricultural systems

Agricultural systems are a lot more complex than the domestic ones. Monitoring them
requires a good understanding of land use and hydrologic processes that influence
generation of runoff. The catchment area is often beyond the control of the user. Its
misuse therefore results in externalities that may pose big challenges to the reservoir’s
life. If communally owned, however, then inhabitants may come up with conservation
measures. Land-use trends should therefore be keenly monitored.
Conveyance mechanisms that include waterways, channels and silt traps should be
closely monitored to ensure that siltation is reduced or impeded. Re-designs and repairs
should be done carried out before the onset of rains.
Regarding storage, losses due to seepage and evaporation have to be monitored

constantly. Monitoring can be enhanced by carrying out a water balance audit to monitor
61
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water use for irrigation or livestock. The siltation rate should also be evaluated to plan for
frequency of desiltation.
62
Conclusion and recommendations
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. Conclusions and recommendations
1. There is inadequate capacity in the designing, constructing on and maintaining

rainwater-harvesting infrastructure. Local and international NGOs complain of
frequent cases of collapsing infrastructure. There is need to develop a capacity-
building framework that looks at all aspects of training and skills development for
various components of RWH as well as for the different categories of practitioners. In
particular, capacity building for government officials on formulating and regulating
RWH policy should be considered.
2. The inter-ministerial efforts by various governments on to develop policy
development are laudable and should be supported. Support to policy formulation and
implementation should be provided through developing guidelines, standards, and
procedures and, study tours, and through identifying demonstration sites for RWH
best practices.
3. Due to inadequate rainfall and population data, it was not possible to produce maps
that show areas suitable for particular RWH technologies. Instead, mapping was done
for the broad categories of agricultural and domestic water use. FAO-SWALIM
should continue with compiling hydro-physical and climatic data to be used for this
purpose.
4. RWH associations should be established and linked to regional, continental and
global networks: The Southern and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SearNet)
could should assist with information on how such networks are established. Interim
committees’ should be formed to follow up on the establishment of these
associations. In Somaliland, proposed names interim officials for the of national
watershed management policy networking are: Ali Ismail (Interim Chairman),
Abdirashid D. Farah and Sadia Musse Ahmed and, Abdirahman Abdisalan. Puntland
and S. Somalia should also name interim officials.
5. FAO-SWALIM in collaboration with the relevant government ministries should take
the lead in sharing pertinent information on monitoring hydro-climatic data. They
should also continue supporting capacity building to generate improved data sets.
FAO-SWALIM should compile data on average rainfall intensities for Somalia to
enable the development of a guide for designing RWH infrastructure.
6. FAO-SWALIM should commission a study on cost- benefit analysis for the current
rainwater practices in Somalia. Information gathered from such studies will be useful
in the assessing the viability of RWH projects or practices as well as acting as
reference material for planning and re-designing RWH technologies.
63
References
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References
[AfDB] African Development Bank. 2007. Assessment of best practices and experiences
in rainwater harvesting. Rainwater Harvesting Handbook. AfDB, Tunis, Tunisia.
Bekele Tessema. 2007. Profitable agroforestry innovations for eastern Africa:
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Uganda. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya
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McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Erik Nissen-Petersen E. 2007. A handbook for technicians and builders on survey,
design, construction and maintenance of roof catchments. Danish International
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FAO. 1997. Information System on Water and Agriculture. Somaliland.
www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquast/countries/somalia/index.stm
UN Habitat. 2005. Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization. Blue Drop Series. Book 2:
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Hutchinson, P. and Polishchouk, O. 1989. The Agroclimatology of Somalia.
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[UNECA] United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. 2000. Global
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Kammer D and Tin Win. 1987. Rainwater harvesting in Somalia: preliminary results of
observations at four rural reservoirs. National Water Centre, Ministry of Mineral and
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Nele Foerch. 2003. Draft berkad report for northwest Somalia. Caritas, Switzerland
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Kenya. UNESCO, Institute for Water Education and Delft University of Technology.
PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
Maimbo, M.M. Oduor, A.R., Rood, O. J,. Okioga, T. M., Gathenya, J. In press. Urban
rainwater harvesting handbook. World Agroforestry Centre and UN Habitat, Nairobi,
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Oduor A.R and Maimbo M. M. (Eds). 2005. Managing Water for food self-sufficiency.
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(RELMA-in-ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya, Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). 103 p + x p;
includes bibliography.
[SIWI] Stockholm International Water Institute. 2001. Water harvesting for upgrading
rainfed agriculture: problem analysis and research needs. SIWI Report No. 11.
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SWALIM. 2007. Water Resources of Somalia. Project Report No. W-01. (October 2007).
SWALIM, Nairobi, Kenya
64
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[PSAWEN] Puntland State for Water, Energy and Natural Resources 2001. Water
Supply Policy Green Paper: A discussion paper for review. PSAWEN, Puntland
Peden D., Tadesse G., and Mulugeta. 2002. Improving the water productivity of livestock:
an opportunity for poverty reduction. International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
[RELMA] Regional Land Management Unit. 2005. Water from ponds, pans and dams: a
manual on planning, design and maintenance. Technical Handbook no. 32. Regional
Land RELMA and World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya.
Muiriithi M. 2007. ICRAF Progress report for Ministry of Agriculture and Animal
Resources Rwanda MINAGRI. World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
Ogada W. 2007. Evaluating the best alternative source of water supply for Runda water
company in Nairobi city. Student Attachement Report. Kenya
65
Annexes
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Annexes
Annex 1: Mean annual, rainfall distribution for Somalia
66
Annexes
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Annex 2: Deyr seasonal rainfall for Somalia
67
Annexes
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Annex 3: Gu seasonal rainfall for Somalia
68
Annexes
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Annex 4: Monthly rainfall distribution patterns for Somalia: January to June
69
Annexes
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Annex 5: Monthly rainfall distribution patterns for Somalia: July to December
70
Annexes
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Annex 6: Agro-ecological Zone map for Somalia
71
Annexes
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Annex 7: Legend of the AEZ map for Somalia
72
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 8: Criteria for mapping of RWH technologies

Development Criteria Classes Comments
domain
1. Rooftop • Presence of Rainfall Obtain base maps
settlement Desert: 0 – 200 mm for:
• Population Low 200 – 400 mm • Rainfall
2
density >10/km Medium 400 – 800 mm • Human
• Rainfall in Population2 settlement
sufficient Low 10/km
amount Medium 10 - 100/km2
High > 100/km2
Development domains
Compute areas for:
Low rainfall low
population
Low rainfall medium
population Compute RWHpot
Low rainfall high and RfWHpot (see
population notes below)
Medium rainfall low
population
Medium rainfall medium
population
Medium rainfall high
population
2. Ponds, • Rainfall > 200 Rainfall Obtain base maps
pans & mm Desert: 0 – 200 mm for:
small earth • Slope Low 200 – 400 mm • Rainfall
dams • May include Medium 400 – 800 mm • Digital
areas with low Slope Elevation
human Flat: < 2% Models
population but Undulating: 2 – 8 %
having livestock Steep > 8%
& wildlife Development domains
Compute areas for:
Flat & low rainfall
Flat & medium rainfall
Undulating & low rainfall Compute RWHpot
Undulating & medium and RnWHpot (see
rainfall notes below)
Steep & low rainfall
Steep & medium rainfall
73
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Development Criteria Classes Comments

domain
3. In-situ Landuse Rainfall Obtain base maps
RWH Desert: 0 – 200 mm for:
systems Rainfall Low 200 – 400 mm • Rainfall
(All types Medium 400 – 800 mm • Landuse maps
of on-farm High > 800 mm depicting all
sytems, Land use agricultural
micro and Agricultural lands, YES activities
macro Other lands, NO
catchments Development domains
Compute areas for:
Flat & low rainfall
Flat & medium rainfall
Undulating & low rainfall
Undulating & medium Compute RWHpot
rainfall and RnWHpot (see
Steep & low rainfall notes below)
Steep & medium rainfall
4. Rock • Rainfall Rainfall Obtain base maps
catchment • Rock outcrops Desert: 0 – 200 mm for:
systems • May include Low 200 – 400 mm • Rainfall
areas with low Medium 400 – 800 mm • Rock outcrops
human
population but Development domains
having livestock Compute areas for: Compute RWHpot
& wildlife Rock outcrops in desert and RkWHpot (see
conditions notes below)
Rock outcrops with low
rainfall
Rock outcrops with
medium rainfall
5. Sand dams Ephemeral sand Ephemeral rivers: Yes Obtain base maps
& Sub- river beds suited Drylands P/ET < 60% for:
surface to drylands Wetlands P/ET > 60% • Rainfall
dams • Rock outcrops
Compute RWHpot
and RkWHpot (see
notes below)
Source: Adopted from Mati et.al., 2006.
74
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 9: Potential evapotranspiration for Somalia
75
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 10: Mean annual temperatures for Somalia
76
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 11: Somalia Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
77
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 12: Somalia landforms
78
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 13: Rainwater harvesting systems for domestic, agricultural & livestock use
Technological Option by use
RWH Component Domestic Agricultural (Crops) Livestock
Catchment Roof cover Ground Open ground

GI sheets Roads Roofs
Grass Paths Rock
Tiles Cropland Treated ground
Asbestos Open ground
Rock catchment Terraces
Open ground
Treated ground
Roof pitch
Conveyance Gutters Waterways Waterways

Chains Trenches Trenches
Ropes Pipes Pipes
Soil profile
Storage Cylindrical Tanks Ponds/pans Ponds/pans

Ferrocement Small earth dams Small earth dams
Brick tank Soil profile Soil profile
Rubble stone Sausage tanks Sausage tanks
Sausage tanks Spherical tanks Spherical tanks
Spherical tanks Plastic lined tanks Plastic lined tanks
Wells Cylindrical tanks
Wells
Treatment Mechanical Silt traps As in Agricultural

Foul flush by-pass Waterways and domestic use
Bio-physical Grasses
Sand filters Stone pitching
Chemical Tractor tread patterns
Aluminium sulphate
Chlorine
Abstraction Gravity Gravity As in Agricultural

Pumping Rope & Washer pump and domestic use
Treadle pump
Siphoning
Utilization Drinking Crop production Livestock production

Cooking Agro-industries Ground water recharge
Kitchen gardening Ground water recharge
Sanitation
79
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 14: Factors to consider in the planning, design, and implementation of

agricultural RWH systems
Factors to consider in
RWH Component Planning Design Implementation
Catchment Catchment conservation Catchment area Catchment committees
In-situ vs. Ex-situ systems Runoff coefficient Policy on conservation
Rainfall regime/characteristics Catchment characteristics Community participation
Estimation of the potential Runoff generation in afforestation
Conveyance Availability of labour/skills on Availability of labour/skills on

conveyance mechanisms conveyance mechanisms
Storage Water quality Livestock water use Artisan entrepreneurship

Capacity optimization (cost/m3) Crop water requirement Community contributions
Rainfall regime/characteristics Rainfall esp in labour & local mtrls
Labour imlications Evaporation Machinery hire construction
Technical know-how cascading systems
Suitability mapping
Treatment Health of livestock Silt traps Tractor hire to desilt
Reduced siltation of reservoirs Water ways Human labour for desiltation
Abstraction Water resources prospecting Consider: Training of Technicians
Costs comparisons in abstraction Mechanical (Treadle pump) and pump fabricators
Gravity
Fuel driven & cost implications
Supply management
Entire system Awareness creation/study tours Potential estimation Demonstrations
CIG formation Suitability mapping Upscaling
Training/capacity building maintanance
Institutional arrangements Technical backstopping
Monitoring & Evaluation
80
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 2: Factors to consider in the planning, design, and implementation of

domestic RWH systems
Factors to consider in
RWH Component Planning Design Implementation
Catchment Catchment type Catchment area Artisan entrepreneurship

Water demand Runoff coefficient
Catchment design to maximize harvest Roof pitch (domestic)
Cost implications Rainfall characteristics
Ground slope (Agric/livestock)
Conveyance Technological option Optimum gutter width (50-70mm) Artisan entrepreneurship

Conveyance type/material Cross sectional area Fabricator entrepreneurship
Cost implications Roughness coefficient
training of technicians/fabricators Conveyance gradient
Storage Water quality Reservoir/hydraulic pressures Artisan entrepreneurship

Capacity optimization Potential storage/estimations Community contributions
Rainfall regime/characteristics Reservoir capacity, Volume (V)
Cost implications V=A*Roof Pitch*Cr*P
Artisan training Mass curve analysis
Suitability mapping
Treatment Skill/training needs Knowledge on chemistry As in Agricultural
Cost implications of treatment agents and domestic use
Health implications/hazards Knowledge on mechanics
of foul flush gadgets & filters
Abstraction Water resources prospecting Consider: Training of Technicians
Costs comparisons in abstraction Mechanical (Treadle pump) and pump fabricators
Gravity
Fuel driven & cost implications
Supply management
Utilization Consumer demand information Demand management Awareness creation on
Population/demographic data Rationing water conservancy
Lifestyles
DRWH = Domestic Rainwater Harvesting
81
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 163 Analysis for Borama 20mm Rainfall threshold

Number of days with rainfall more than 20mm
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
1967 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 1 0 0 7
1968 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 6
1969 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 m m
1970 m m m 1 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 m
1971 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 7
1972 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 8
1973 0 m m 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 m
1974 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3
1975 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 6
1976 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 4
1977 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2
1978 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 5 1 0 0 12
1979 1 0 1 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 8
1980 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2
1981 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 7
1982 0 0 3 0 3 1 0 1 4 0 0 0 12
1983 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 5
1984 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 5
1985 0 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 7
1986 0 m 0 3 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 m
Total rainfall with more than 20 mm

1967 0 0 20 22.7 22 11.5 124.4 183 62.7 26.5 27.5 0 500.3
1968 0 101.3 0 122.8 17.5 60 43.5 91.9 52.5 0 20.5 0 510
1969 0 77.5 17.5 74 43.5 11 65 122.5 16.5 10.5 12 m m
1970 m m m 33.5 0 0 117 134.5 32 0 0 0 m
1971 0 0 31 108.5 66 18.8 31 85.5 84 0 12 0 436.8
1972 0 32 52 102.5 91 5 38 63.5 55.5 5 0 0 444.5
1973 0 m m 124 47.5 29.5 59.5 91.5 30.5 19 0 0 m
1974 0 0 114 0 41 45 59 62 43.5 0 0 0 364.5
1975 0 0 37 135 5 24.5 37 106.5 84 6 0 0 435
1976 12 0 0 103 39 34 87 111 16 28 50 0 480
1977 0 6 10 54.5 40 10 45 119 40 57 0 0 381.5
1978 0 133 0 0 0 22 157 76 210 29 0 0 627
1979 74 0 69 78 143 31 42 89 64 0 0 0 590
1980 0 0 0 18 23 8 80 91 55 15 8 0 298
1981 0 7 97.5 98.1 40.5 6 57 172.6 125 0 0 0 603.7
1982 5 15 150 71.2 117.9 50 51 107.6 123.6 25.7 0 0 717
1983 0 0 0 127.7 131.7 23 20.9 67.9 91.7 63.4 20.9 0 547.2
1984 0 0 0 26.4 122.7 0 13.5 0 31.4 0 0 77.5 271.5
1985 0 0 55.8 253.4 55.4 0 31.7 103.7 76.8 0 0 0 576.8
1986 0 m 15.2 138.7 43 32.9 16.3 112.1 82.3 0 0 0 m
82
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex17: Required watershed area for collecting 1,000 m3
Source: Senay G. B., Verdin J. P. 2004.
83
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 18 Analysis for Borama 5 mm Rainfall threshold
Number of days with rainfall more than 5 mm

1967 0 0 1 1 1 1 9 11 4 1 4 0 33
1968 0 8 0 7 1 3 3 10 3 0 1 0 36
1969 0 5 1 5 3 1 6 8 2 1 1 m m
1970 m m m 1 0 0 7 8 3 0 0 0 m
1971 0 0 3 4 5 3 2 7 3 0 1 0 28
1972 0 1 3 7 3 0 2 4 4 0 0 0 24
1973 0 m m 8 2 2 6 7 3 1 0 0 m
1974 0 0 7 0 4 3 3 4 3 0 0 0 24
1975 0 0 1 7 0 2 3 5 4 1 0 0 23
1976 1 0 0 6 4 3 7 7 1 1 2 0 32
1977 0 1 1 4 3 1 4 7 4 4 0 0 29
1978 0 6 0 0 0 2 10 4 10 1 0 0 33
1979 6 0 2 2 8 2 3 6 4 0 0 0 33
1980 0 0 0 1 1 1 5 6 4 1 1 0 20
1981 0 1 8 5 3 1 3 11 10 0 0 0 42
1982 0 1 3 5 5 3 3 8 5 2 0 0 35
1983 0 0 0 8 6 1 3 6 5 3 3 0 35
1984 0 0 0 1 6 0 2 0 2 0 0 3 14
1985 0 0 2 8 4 0 4 8 5 0 0 0 31
1986 0 m 1 8 2 3 2 8 6 0 0 0 m
Total rainfall with more than 5 mm

1967 0 0 20 22.7 22 11.5 124.4 183 62.7 26.5 27.5 0 500.3
1968 0 101.3 0 122.8 17.5 60 43.5 91.9 52.5 0 20.5 0 510
1969 0 77.5 17.5 74 43.5 11 65 122.5 16.5 10.5 12 m m
1970 m m m 33.5 0 0 117 134.5 32 0 0 0 m
1971 0 0 31 108.5 66 18.8 31 85.5 84 0 12 0 436.8
1972 0 32 52 102.5 91 5 38 63.5 55.5 5 0 0 444.5
1973 0 m m 124 47.5 29.5 59.5 91.5 30.5 19 0 0 m
1974 0 0 114 0 41 45 59 62 43.5 0 0 0 364.5
1975 0 0 37 135 5 24.5 37 106.5 84 6 0 0 435
1976 12 0 0 103 39 34 87 111 16 28 50 0 480
1977 0 6 10 54.5 40 10 45 119 40 57 0 0 381.5
1978 0 133 0 0 0 22 157 76 210 29 0 0 627
1979 74 0 69 78 143 31 42 89 64 0 0 0 590
1980 0 0 0 18 23 8 80 91 55 15 8 0 298
1981 0 7 97.5 98.1 40.5 6 57 172.6 125 0 0 0 603.7
1982 5 15 150 71.2 117.9 50 51 107.6 123.6 25.7 0 0 717
1983 0 0 0 127.7 131.7 23 20.9 67.9 91.7 63.4 20.9 0 547.2
1984 0 0 0 26.4 122.7 0 13.5 0 31.4 0 0 77.5 271.5
1985 0 0 55.8 253.4 55.4 0 31.7 103.7 76.8 0 0 0 576.8
1986 0 m 15.2 138.7 43 32.9 16.3 112.1 82.3 0 0 0 m
84
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 4: Runoff water harvesting potential for agriculture and rangelands
85
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 20: Runoff water domains for agricultural areas
86
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 21: Runoff water domains for rangelands
87
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 5: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Garoowe
88
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 6: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Garowe
89
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 7: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Hargeisa
90
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 8: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Borama
91
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 9: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Borama
92
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 10: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Bossaso
93
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 11: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Bossaso
94
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 12: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Jowhar
95
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 30: Rainwater Harvesting Potential for Jowhar
96
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 13: Streams feeding into for Somalia
97
Annexes
______________________________________________________________________________________
Annex 32 Participats in consultative workshops
Baidoa
Hargeisa
Garowe
98

Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in Somalia

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Potential of Rainwater Harvesting in Somalia

A Planning, Design, Implementation and

Technical Report No. W-09

Somalia Water and Land Information Management

The document should be cited as follows:

• collecting data needed for water and land resources management

In March 2007, FAO-SWALIM signed a memorandum of understanding with ICRAF

2. Climatic and Hydro-physical Factors Influencing Rainwater Harvesting in

3. Historical Development and Technological Options of RWH in Somalia............. 11

4. Design of RWH Systems............................................................................................. 21

5. Quality Aspects of Stored Rainwater........................................................................ 44

6. Assessment of RWH Potential for Somalia .............................................................. 53

7. Institutional and Policy Aspects in RWH Projects .................................................. 56

8. Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of RWH Interventions....................... 59

9. Conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................... 63

Figure 1: Change in construction quality over time............................................................ 5

Table 1: Nomenclature of water sources in various regions of Somalia ......................... 11

ACZ Agro-climatic Zone

berkad A concrete-lined reservoir roofed either with corrugated iron sheets or

xurfad Either a water pond or earth dam.

ceel A hand-dug well.

berkad guri Roof water harvesting.

majaroor Roof water harvesting.

naxaroor Soil bunds constructed to conserve both soil and water.

xadhig Soil bunds constructed to conserve both soil and water.

doox xidh A sub-surface dam constructed in sandy rivers

mugsid An underground reservoir

Section on Agro forestry

Indigenous knowledge compilation

English editing support:

Definition of rainwater harvesting and management systems

1.2 Problem statement

1.3 Objectives of the assessment

• Producing a rainwater harvesting classification scheme;

Consultative meetings and workshops

Plate 1: Participants during consultative workshops in Garowe, Hargeisa and Baidoa

Outcome of the consultative meetings and workshops

To benefit in the cross-fertilization of knowledge and experiences, the governments of

Classification of RWH and conservation technologies for Somalia

Design of RWH systems

1.5 Challenges, opportunities and benefits of RWH in Somalia

Figure 1: Change in construction quality over time

Rainwater harvesting is mostly practised by NGOs and UN agencies show-casing or

1.6 Expected outcome

2. Climatic and Hydro-physical Factors Influencing Rainwater Harvesting in

Figure 2: Area per region

Figure 3: Rainwater potential per region prior to partitioning

Figure 4: Rainwater potential per unit area

2.2 Potential evaporatranspiration

2.3 Air temperature and wind speed

Monthly Wind Speed In Somalia

Figure 5: Wind speed at some stations

2.4 Landforms and vegetation cover

2.5 Soil types

3. Historical Development and Technological Options of RWH in Somalia

Table 1: Nomenclature of water sources in various regions of Somalia

3.2 Indegenous technologies

3.3 Current RWH technologies in Somalia

Rainwater harvesting and management systems in Somalia are classified according to

RWH and Management