Nahuatl Grammar: T M T J, V

NAHUATL GRAMMAR
OF THE TOWNSHIPS OF MECAYAPAN AND

TATAHUICAPAN DE JUREZ, VERACRUZ
Second Edition
(Electronic Version)
by
CARL WOLGEMUTH
Translated by
CHRISTOPHER S. MACKAY
2007 Instituto Lingstico de Verano, A.C.
This translation may be reproduced for non-profit purposes

provided that it is not altered in any way.
1981 First editon 5C ISBN 968-31-0139-9

2002 Second edition 5C ISBN 968-31-0315-4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface to the Translation........................................................................................ix

Preface to the Second Edition of the Nahuatl Grammar ......................................xi
Acknowledgments to the Spanish Edition ............................................................ xii
NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Introduction ................................................................................................................3
Linguistic Relationships ............................................................................................3
Historical Perspective ................................................................................................4
Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................6
Map .......................................................................................................... 6
1. Phonology ......................................................................................................... 9
1.1. Vowels ........................................................................................................ 9
1.1.1 Long and Short Vowels ...................................................................10
1.1.2 Long and Double Vowels................................................................10
1.2. Consonants.................................................................................................12
1.2.1. Ts ...................................................................................................13
1.2.2. ...................................................................................................13
1.2.3. X ...................................................................................................13
1.2.4. Kw .................................................................................................13
1.2.5 H and .........................................................................................13
1.2.6 Semiconsonantal Realization of I ...............................................15
1.3. Spanish Orthography.................................................................................16
1.3.1 Spanish Orthography Used to Spell Nahuatl ............................16
1.3.1.1 K ..................................................................................16
1.3.1.2 Ts ..................................................................................16
1.3.1.3 ..................................................................................16
1.3.1.4 W .................................................................................16
1.3.1.5 Kw ................................................................................17
1.3.1.6 ...................................................................................17
1.3.1.7 H .................................................................................17
1.3.2 Spelling of Spanish Words in Nahuatl .......................................17
1.4 Accentuation ......................................................................................17
iv NAHUATL GRAMMAR
2. The Verb .........................................................................................................21

2.1. Elements of the Verb.................................................................................21
2.2. Tense Endings ..........................................................................................23
2.3. The Thematic Vowel ................................................................................23
2.4. The Tenses of the Verb ............................................................................23
3. The Conjugations, Group 1 .........................................................................25
3.1. The First Conjugation ..............................................................................25
3.1.1. How to Recognize a Verb of the First Conjugation ..................25
3.1.2. Paradigm for the First Conjugation ...........................................26
3.2. The Second Conjugation ..........................................................................27
3.2.1. How to Recognize a Verb of the Second Conjugation .............27
3.2.2. Paradigm for the Second Conjugation .......................................28
4. The Conjugations, Group 2 .........................................................................29
4.1. The Third Conjugation .............................................................................29
4.1.1. How to Recognize a Verb of the Third Conjugation ................29
4.1.2. Paradigm for the Third Conjugation........................................... 30
4.2. The Fourth Conjugation ........................................................................... 31
4.2.1. How to Recognize a Verb of the Fourth Conjugation ............. 31
4.2.2. Paradigm for the Fourth Conjugation......................................... 32
4.3. The Fifth Conjugation .............................................................................. 32
4.3.1. How to Recognize a Verb of the Fifth Conjugation ................. 32
4.3.2. Paradigm for the Fifth Conjugation ......................................... 33
4.4. Comparison of the Tense Endings .......................................................... 34
4.5. An Alternative Classification of the Conjugations ................................ 34
5. The Pronoun.................................................................................................... 37
5.1. Independent Personal Pronouns .............................................................. 37
5.1.1. Basic Forms of the Personal Pronouns ...................................... 37
5.1.2. Variations in the Personal Pronouns .......................................... 38
5.2. Inseparable Prefixes ................................................................................. 38
5.2.1. Subject Prefixes .......................................................................... 39
5.2.2. Object Prefixes ............................................................................ 39
5.3. Other Independent Pronouns ................................................................... 41
5.3.1. Demonstrative Pronouns ............................................................ 41
5.3.2. Possessive Pronouns ................................................................... 41
5.3.3. Relative Pronouns ....................................................................... 41
5.3.4. Indefinite Pronouns ..................................................................... 41
5.3.5. Interrogative Pronouns ............................................................... 42
5.3.6. Indefinite Number Pronouns ...................................................... 42
5.3.7. Definite Number Pronouns ........................................................ 42
6. The Substantive ............................................................................................. 45
6.1. The Nature of the Substantive ................................................................. 45
6.2. Substantives Functioning as Predicates .................................................. 46
6.3. Formation of the Plural ............................................................................ 46
6.3.1. Reduplication in -h ...................................................................... 47
6.3.2. Reduplication with Vowel Lengthening ....................................48
6.3.3. Reduplication with Vowel Shortening ....................................... 48
6.4. Possession in Substantives ....................................................................... 48
6.4.1. Definite Possessive Prefixes ...................................................... 48
v
6.4.2. Further Observations on the Plural

in the Possession of Substantives .............................................. 49
6.4.3. The Indefinite Possessive Prefix te:- ........................................ 49
6.4.4. Dependent Roots ......................................................................... 50
7. Special Forms of the Substantive ................................................................ 53
7.1. Vocative Forms of the Substantive ......................................................... 53
7.1.1. General Vocative ......................................................................... 53
7.1.2. Male Vocative .............................................................................. 53
7.1.3. Conversational Vocative ............................................................. 53
7.2. Diminutive Forms of the Substantive ..................................................... 54
7.2.1. Variant of the Diminutive -t zi:n ................................................. 54
7.2.2. Variants of the Diminutive -i:n and -li:n ................................. 54
7.3. Possessive Forms in -yo,
the Suffix of Inherent Belonging ............................................................. 55
7.3.1. As a Part of the Body .................................................................. 55
7.3.2. As an Integral Part of Some Object ........................................... 55
7.3.3. As a Product ................................................................................ 56
7.3.4. As an Identity .............................................................................. 56
7.3.5. Other Uses of -yo ........................................................................ 56
7.4. Forms with the Ending -yo: ..................................................................... 57
7.5. Formas Describing Places in -yoh ........................................................... 57
7.6. Deverbal Sustantives ................................................................................. 58
7.6.1. The Substantizing Ending -lis .................................................... 58
7.6.2. Other Deverbal Substantives ...................................................... 59
8. The Adjective ................................................................................................. 61
8.1. Determinative Adjectives ........................................................................ 61
8.1.1. Demonstrative Adjectives ........................................................... 61
8.1.2. Number Adjectives ...................................................................... 62
8.1.3. Indefinite Adjectives ................................................................... 62
8.1.4. Possessive Adjectives ................................................................. 63
8.2. Qualifying Adjectives ............................................................................... 63
8.2.1. Independent Qualifying Adjective.............................................. 63
8.2.2. Inseparable Qualifying Adjectives ............................................. 64
8.3. Denominal Adjectives............................................................................... 65
8.3.1. The Ending -yoh Used Substantivally ....................................... 65
8.3.2. The Ending -tah Used Adjectivally .......................................... 65
8.4. Contrast Between Adjectival and Adverbial Forms................................ 66
9. Transitivity in the Verb ................................................................................ 67
9.1. Differences Between Transitive
and Intransitive Verbs .............................................................................. 67
9.2. Intransitive Verb with the Prefix ta- ...................................................... 69
9.3. Transitive or Intransitive Verbs without Change ................................... 70
9.4. Reflexive Verbs ......................................................................................... 71
9.5. Verbs with Inseparable Object ................................................................. 71
9.5.1. Verbs with Inseparable Direct Object ....................................... 71
9.5.2. Verbs with Inseparable Circumstantial Object .......................... 71
9.6. Combination of Subject Prefixes with Object Prefixes ......................... 72
9.7. Stylistic Use of te:- in Place of ne:- ....................................................... 74
vi NAHUATL GRAMMAR
9.8. Intransitive Derivative Verbs in -ti ...................................................... 75

9.8.1. When the Original Form is a Simple Root ................................ 75
9.8.2. When the Original Form is a Compound
Adjective in -tah ......................................................................... 76
9.9. Intransitive Derivative Verbs in -yowi ................................................... 76
9.10. Transitive Derivative Verbs in -yo:ti ................................................... 77
9.11. Transitive Derivative Verbs in -wi ....................................................... 78
9.12. Impersonal Forms of the Verb ................................................................. 79
10. Basic Tenses of the Verb ............................................................................. 81
10.1. Present Tense ............................................................................................ 81
10.2. Future Tense ............................................................................................. 82
10.3. Imperfect Tense ........................................................................................ 83
10.4. Preterite Tense ........................................................................................... 83
10.5. Transitory Preterite Tense ........................................................................ 84
11. Directional Tenses ........................................................................................ 87
11.1. Directional Towards or Away from the Speaker .................................... 87
11.2. Auxiliary Verbs of Movement ................................................................. 88
11.3. The Values of the Directional Tenses ......................................................89
12. The Moods of the Verb ................................................................................91
12.1. The Indicative Mood .................................................................................91
12.2. The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood .........................................................91
12.2.1. The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood:
First Conjugation ........................................................................92
Second Conjugation.....................................................................92
Third Conjugation........................................................................93
12.2.4 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood:
Fourth Conjugation......................................................................93
12.2.5 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood:
Fifth Conjugation.........................................................................93
12.3. The Desiderative Mood ............................................................................94
12.3.1. The Desiderative Mood with a Verbal Root
of the First Conjugation...............................................................94
of the Second Conjugation ..........................................................94
of the Third Conjugation .............................................................95
of the Fourth Conjugation ...........................................................95
of the Fifth Conjugation ..............................................................96
12.3.6. Figurative Use of the Desiderative Mood .................................96
12.3.7. Interpretation of the Endings
-skia:ya and -ski ........................................................................97
13. The Aspects of the Verb ..............................................................................99
13.1. Aspects Consisting of Complx Verbs .....................................................99
13.1.1. The Stative Aspect ....................................................................100
13.1.2. The Progressive Aspect .............................................................. 102
vii
13.1.3. The Progressive Aspect of Approach ........................................ 103

13.2. Aspects with Independent Particles.......................................................... 104
13.2.1. The Particle nemi Used as Auxiliary Verb ................................ 104
13.2.2. The Auxiliary Particle wel ......................................................... 105
14. Applicative and Causative Verbs .............................................................. 107
14.1. Applicative Forms of the Verb ................................................................ 107
14.1.1. Rules for Forming Applicative Verbs ....................................... 107
14.1.2. Changes in the Roots of Applicative Verbs .............................. 108
14.2. Causative Forms of the Verb ................................................................... 108
14.3. Order of the Verbal Endings .................................................................... 109
15. Particles of Conjunction ............................................................................. 111
15.1. Nahuatl Conjunctions................................................................................ 111
15.2. Borrowed Conjunctions ............................................................................ 113
15.3. The Particle in ........................................................................................... 115
16. The Adverb ................................................................................................... 117
16.1. Adverbs of Time ....................................................................................... 117
16.1.1. Interrogative ................................................................................ 117
16.1.2. Relative ........................................................................................ 117
16.1.3. Negative ...................................................................................... 117
16.1.4. Indefinite ..................................................................................... 117
16.1.5. Other adverbs of time ................................................................. 117
16.2. Adverbs of Manner ................................................................................... 118
16.2.1. Interrogative ................................................................................ 118
16.2.2. Relative ........................................................................................ 183
16.2.3. Indefinite ..................................................................................... 118
16.2.4. Demonstrative ............................................................................. 119
16.2.5. Qualifying ................................................................................... 119
16.3. Adverbs of Quantity ................................................................................. 119
16.4. Adverbs of Order ...................................................................................... 119
16.5. Adverbs of Doubt ..................................................................................... 119
16.6. Adverbs of Affirmation ............................................................................ 119
16.7. Adverbs of Negation ................................................................................ 120
16.8. The Special Adverb katka ........................................................................ 121
16.9. Inseparable Qualifying Adverbs............................................................... 122
16.10. Enclitic Adverbial Endings ..................................................................... 123
17. Adverbs of Place ........................................................................................... 127
17.1. Independent Adverbs of Place.................................................................. 127
17.1.1. Interrogative ................................................................................ 127
17.1.2. Relative ........................................................................................ 127
17.1.3. Indefinite ..................................................................................... 127
17.1.4. Negative ...................................................................................... 127
17.1.5. Demonstratives ........................................................................... 127
17.1.5.1. Simple Demonstratives............................................... 127
17.1.5.2. Demonstratives Formed with -iga ............................. 127
17.1.5.3. Demonstratives Formed with -pa ............................. 127
17.2. Independent Adverbs of Place Formed
with a Possessive Prefix ........................................................................... 128
viii NAHUATL GRAMMAR
17.3. Dependent Adverbs of Place .................................................................... 128

17.3.1 -tah where there is much of something or
there is something of interest ................................................... 130
17.3.2. -i:xtah in front of .................................................................... 130
17.3.3 -tepotstah behind .................................................................... 130
17.3.4 -tsi:ntan at the foot of, on the ground attached to,
at the base of .............................................................................. 130
17.3.5 -nakastan at the side of ........................................................... 131
17.3.6 -ikxitan at the feet of ............................................................... 131
17.3.7 -tampa below ........................................................................... 131
17.3.8 -ihti within, inside, in ............................................................ 132
17.3.9 -ihtico inside ........................................................................... 133
17.3.10. -tahko in the middle, center of .............................................. 133
17.3.11 -tsa:la:n among, in the middle of ........................................... 133
17.3.12 -pan upon, in ............................................................................ 133
17.3.13 -yakapan over, on top of ......................................................... 134
17.3.14. -ko inside, in ........................................................................... 135
17.3.15. -wa:n with, together with ....................................................... 135
17.3.16 General Locative Elements -ka:n and -ya:n ............................. 136
17.3.17 -i:xko on top of ....................................................................... 136
18. Irregular Verbs.............................................................................................. 137
18.1. Irregularities in the Preterite .................................................................... 137
18.1.1. Uniform Change of k to g ........................................................... 137
18.2. Apocopated Forms of the Preterite........................................................... 137
18.2.1. Verbs of Group 1 Ending in -h in the Preterite ........................... 138
18.2.2 Verbs Ending in -l in the Preterite ............................................. 138
18.2.3 Verbs Ending in -n in the Preterite ............................................. 139
18.2.4 Verbs Ending in -miqui ............................................................ 139
18.2.5 Apocopated Alternates Ending
in the Glottal Stop ....................................................................... 139
18.3. Special Irregularities ................................................................................ 140
18.3.1. Conjugation of the Verb -ia/ya- to go ................................... 140
18.3.2. Conjugation of the Verb wi:-/wa:l- to come ......................... 142
18.3.3. Conjugation of the Verb ono- to be ....................................... 144
18.3.4. Conjugation of the Verb wahliga to bring ............................. 146
18.4. Dropping the Thematic Vowel in the Plural ........................................... 146
18.4.1. Obligatory Loss ........................................................................... 146
18.4.2. Optional Loss .............................................................................. 147
18.4.3. Prohibited Loss ........................................................................... 148
18.5. Accentuation of the Thematic Vowel ..................................................... 148
18.6. Defective Verbs ........................................................................................ 149
Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 151

ix
Preface to the English Translation
I undertook this translation for my own purposes, imagining that turning the Spanish into
English would help me internalize the grammar of this modern version of Nahuatl better
(I thought that this exercise might prove useful to my knowledge of Classical Nahuatl).
Once I had made some progress with the project, it occurred to me that while most people
who are deeply involved in Nahuatl studies perforce have to be conversant with Spanish,
an English translation might nonetheless prove useful to students of Nahuatl who are
more at home in English than Spanish (for instance, linguists). I wrote to the Instituto
Lingstico de Verano, which has graciously allowed me to make my translation
available under their copyright. I thank the institute for letting me bring the fruits of my
labor to the general public.
For the most part, the translation is straightforward enough. I have converted references
to the pronunciation and grammatical usage of Spanish to ones appropriate for an
English-speaking audience. The most noticeable change that I have introduced has to do
with the orthography. The original text utilized the adapted form of the Spanish alphabet
that is used to record the language locally. Spanish orthography is the obvious choice
under the circumstances (it is the main literary language in the area, and Spanish
orthography has traditionally been used to record Nahuatl since the sixteenth century),
but there are two disadvantages from the point of view of an English-speaking audience.
First, some usages of Spanish, such as hu for w, are not natural for an English speaker.
Second, some aspects of the Spanish system, such as using qu for the velar stop when it
appears before a front vowel, and c when the same sound appears before a back vowel,
may make some sense in Spanish in terms of the Latin etymology of the language, but
have no historical justification for Nahuatl and serve only to obscure the basic phonology
of the language. Hence, I have uniformly replaced the Spanish orthography with a more
logical system based on linguistic principles. The section on accents has also been
simplified by dispensing with certain peculiarities deriving from the Spanish system. This
change in orthography is meant for pedagogical purposes only, and I am saying nothing
about how natives should write their own language. Once the user of this book has
grasped the phonological basis of the language, he or she should have no problem reading
it in Spanish orthography (which is described here). Finally, I have added a few
explanatory footnotes; these appear in square brackets and conclude with my initials in
order to distinguish them clearly from the notes of the original.
Christopher S. Mackay
Edmonton, Alberta
October 21, 2007
xi
Preface to the Second Edition of the Spanish Version of the Nahuatl Grammar
The first edition of this Nahuatl grammar, published in 1981, was entitled Gramtica
nhuatl del municipio de Mecayapan, Veracruz. In the subsequent years, this township
was divided, and the township of Tatahuicapan de Jurez was made a separate political
entity. For this reason, the present, newly published edition bears the title Gramtica
nhuatl (melatjtol) de los municipios de Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Jurez,
Veracruz.
The first edition contained a Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary that has not been included in the
present edition because a new Diccionario nhuatl de los municipios de Mecayapan y
Tatahuicapan de Jurez, Veracruz has recently been published as a separate volume.
This newly publshed edition contains essentially the same grammatical information as the
first, with the addition of a significant number of literal translations placed interlinearly
between the model sentences in Nahuatl and the free translation into Spanish when the
syntactic characeristics of the two languages are compared.
The complete text of this grammar, together with the dictionary, is accessible via the
internet on the website of the Instituto Lingstico de Verano:
http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/familia-nahuatl.html
The author recongizes with gratitude the important assistance provided by the linguistic
advisors Thomas Willet and David Tuggy, the assistance of Adriana Ultreras Ortiz in the
editing of the Spanish, and the enthusiasm of Albert Bickford as director of the
Department of Linguistics.
Acknowledgments of the Spanish Edition
Like every work, this one emerges into the light of day thanks to the interest and support
of many people. Mention is made here of those who collaborated more closely on it.
The first chapters were started in 1972 with the assistence of Genaro Gonzlez Cruz, a
native speaker of the Nahuatl of Mecayapan. The project suffered a number of
interruptions, but the interest that he always showed in seeing it finished and used as a
manual of instruction were a motivation to persevere.
The disinterested and sagacious help of Gonzalo Lorenzo Revilla impelled the work to its
conclusion. He reviewed the Spanish correspondences and added entries of linguistic and
ethnographic interest. He also reviewed the grammatical material and made suggestions
that made it possible to provide a more precise presentation of the information.
Dr. Doris Bartholomew, in her capacity as linguistic consultant, applied her experience to
examining the first draft and discussing the material presented in it.
Dr. Yolanda Lastra was kind enough to read the manuscript and to give us very valuable
suggestions in terms of certain items of nomenclature and to call our attention to certain
deficiencies in the Spanish. Artemisa Echegoyen took care of various points relating to
the editing of the book.
My wife, Marilyn Minter de Wolgemuth, set down roots with me in Mecayapan, learned
to speak Nahuatl, supervised the compilation of the vocabulary, and typed innumerable
pages of text, which expedited the analytical studies laid out here.
The study of this variant of Nahuatl was begun with the vocabulary archive supplied by
Dr. Howard W. Law. He also provided my initial orientation in the language and customs
of Mecayapan
NAHUATL GRAMMAR
OF THE TOWNSHIPS OF MECAYAPAN AND

TATAHUICAPAN DE JUREZ, VERACRUZ
Introduction
This Nahuatl Grammar of the Townships of Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan de Jurez,

Veracruz is meant to provide, in terms that are not overly technical, an outline of the
grammar of the everyday speech of the inhabitants of Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan in
Veracruz. The Nahuatl of these towns is very similar to what is spoken in the neighboring
township of Pajapan, which was described by Antonio Garca de Len (1976). Both
townships are located near the Gulf coast to the east and northeast of Coatzacoalcos.
In linguistic communities in which communication has been only oral until relatively
recently, such as the townships mentioned above (about 15,000 inhabitants), the rule for
the use of the speech is simply the form in which it is spoken. Consequently, this manual
does not in any way claim to inform the speakers of the language of the grammar in the
popular sense of instructing them in how to speak correctly given that they already
have full command of their speech. When rules are given, the intention is to describe the
actual usage of words and to call attention to the norms, the agreements and the contrasts
inherent in the spoken language. These rules can be considered prescriptive only for
people foreign to the community who dont yet know the language but wish to speak it
like the locals.
It is hoped that this simple work will be of interest to the population of the two townships
as a popular description of their speech and that it will also provide them with a useful
means of expressing in Spanish certain prominent aspects of the complexities of their
language, so that they can explain them to their Spanish-speaking acquaintances, be it
officials who are coming for a visit, traders, or others who seek to know something of
their unique native cultural heritage.
Linguistic Relationships
The diagnostic word list of Swadesh shows that 86 percent of the words in the language
of Pajapan and that of Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan are cognate, a divergence of at least five
centuries.1 The tests for intelligibility carried out by the Instituto Lingstico de Verano
1
[The calculation is based on the concept known as glottochronology. According to this
theory, the most basic words of a language are least subject to change, and the
replacement of such words takes place at a fixed rate across all languages. The number of
deviations in a list of 200 (later reduced to 100) basic lexical items in two related
languages can then be used to determine the length of time since those languages split
and began to develop independently. The validity of this method is widely disputed. The
figures here are based on the work of Mauricio Swadesh. CSM]
4 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
indicate that people from Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan understood 76 percent of the text

from Pajapan, while for their part people from Pajapan understood 83 percent of the text
from Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan (Egland, 1978).
The group of dialects known as Isthmus Nahuatl, which includes the varieties of
Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan and of Pajapan, is rather different from the Classical Nahuatl of
the sixteenth century. The cognates between Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan and Classical
Nahuatl amount to 75 percent; those between Pajapan and Classical Nahuatl amount to
74 percent, a divergence of at least twelve centuries.
Historical Perspective
Across the long history of the geographical area situated in what is known today as the
south of Veracruz no cultural unity can be detected apart from a series of cultural
influences created in distinct epochs by groups that detached themselves from migratory
movements that passed through the area on a journey to other places and established
themselves there. This region is described as the Olmec area, since the Olmecs are the
first inhabitants of whose civilization any traces have been found to date. They created
the so-called mother culture, which could have included a system of writing and the
long count system to date historical events. Their influence made itself felt in all the
later civilizations that occupied the area.
Already in the Early Classical Period, the influence of Teotihuacn began to be felt, as is
revealed to us by archaeological evidence that dates from the centuries A.D. 300 to 500.
Some scholars consider that sites like Matacapan confirm the supposition that the region
had been a stopping or resting place during the journey of the Nahua-Pipil migrations that
were heading for the colonization of the Guatemala highlands. The Nahua-Pipil
colonization in Guatemala can be recognized in places like the ruins of Kaminaljuy. The
migratory route of these Teotihacanians (known later as the Pipiles) is obscure, but it
could also have crossed over the south of Veracruz and left certain groups of people in its
wake. There are those who think that just like their descendants, these groups setting out
from Teotihuacn spoke the Nahuat language characterized by the use of t in positions in
which the Late Classical Nahuatl that flourished after the conquest used tl.
After the burning of Teotihuacn (around A.D. 650), there was another Nahuat emigration
consisting of people who later came to be known as Tajinized Teotihuacanian Pipiles or
Nicarao Pipiles. This migratory movement was greatly influenced by the culture of Tajn
and also by the Maya cultures of the Gulf. It seems that they were more aggressive and
warlike, and those who succeeded in reaching Guatemala put an end to the Classical
culture previously created by their predecessors. It is also very likely that certain groups
separated from this migration and united with the Nahuas already established around
Cerro de las Mesas, Los Tuxtlas and the general area occupied by the groups who in the
present day speak Isthmian Nahuatl. Some people associate these Nahua groups with the
Classical culture of Veracruz characterized by yokes, hatchets and palms.
INTRODUCTION 5
In the early epoch of the Postclassical period, around A.D. 900, there could have been a
return migratory movement towards the north, starting out from the Nahua enclaves on
the Gulf. It is obvious that the styles of pottery and other artifacts known in the south
became popular in the new kingdom of Tula. Later, the real migratory movement that
started out from Tula on account of dissension and wound up in Chichn Itz, could have
brought a new Nahua influence to the south of Veracruz. Therefore, it is possible to find
in that region artifacts associated with the Toltec civilization that is manifested in the
cultures of Tula and Cholula.
Abbreviations
dep. dependent
indeter. indeterminate
indef. indefinite
lit. literally
part. particle
perf. perfect
pers. person
pl. plural
poss. possessive
pres. present
pret. preterite
refl. reflexive
sg. singular
subj. subjunctive
trans. transitory
1. Phonology
The original version of this grammar represented Nahuatl via the Spanish alphabet, as is
the normal practice for spelling texts in Mexico. In the present translation, it has been
decided to replace this system with a more straightforward system. There are a number of
reasons for this decision. In the first place, the sounds of Spanish do not correspond very
well with those of Nahuatl. Second, Spanish orthography itself is subject to variations
that have to do with the way that the spelling of Spanish sounds is affected by the
etymological spelling of the Latin words that give rise to the basic vocabulary of Spanish
(for example, the sound corresponding to English k, a voiceless velar stop, is spelled qu
in front of front vowels and c in front of back vowels, a distinction that is meaningless in
terms of Nahuatl phonology and obscures the phonological system of the language).
Finally, the sounds given to certain letters in Spanish orthography are potentially
confusing to non-Spanish audience for which this translation is intended. For example,
the letter j may be taken to represent the sound of English judge or the more-
linguistically minded may be tempted to interpret it as the sound that appears at the start
of the English word yes, but the value of the initial sound of horse is unlikely to seem
natural to someone who does not speak Spanish (and the Spanish sound represented by
the letter j is actually noticeably different, as the original text is at pains to point out).
Accordingly, the Nahuatl phonological system is first described in terms of a fixed
orthography that will then be used to spell the Nahuatl that follows (Spanish borrowings,
however, will be left in their original form). Next, the peculiarities of the Spanish-based
orthography will be laid out in terms of how certain spellings deviate from the normal
significations of the Latin alphabet.
The aim of the orthography used here is to come up with a single, readily recognizable
graph for each sound without recourse to diacriticals if feasible. That is, the use of two
letters (a digraph) to represent a single sound is avoided. It is hoped that the system used
is a reasonable compromise between the criteria just laid out and practical considerations.
Examples of the sounds of Nahuatl:
a ahko above
b boboso lung
akalin shrimp
d dadapoti warty, mangy
e tsal tender ear of corn
g gakti leather sandal
i ikpal bench (made of a piece of timber)
h he: yes
k kikisi he whistles
10 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
kw kwetax leather
l lamachti soft and fluffy
m mo:sta tomorrow
n nehnentinemi he goes strolling
e:e:pa he cries like a baby
o okoyoh pine grove
p popo:ka it emits smoke
r xo:rpa he sucks noisily
s siwa:tkeh women
t tahta:ga men
ts tsi:ka ant
w wo:pa it roars
x xo:itsitsi:n little flowers
y yegin a while ago (today)
The letters f, k, ll, v, z are found in words of Castilian origin that have been adopted as
part of spoken Nahuatl. Examples:
fogo:n1 stove kilmetro kilometer

llanta tire vaca cow
zapato shoe
1.1 Vowels
The Nahuatl of Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan has four vowels, and these form the
nucleus of the syllable: a, e, i, o. The o includes the elements of both the o and the u of
standard American English and pronunciations intermediate between these two, all
represented only by o.
1.1.1 Long and Short Vowels

An important factor when the vowels are pronounced is the length of the pronunciation.
Each vowel appears in one of two manners: long and short. The following examples
containing long and short vowels demonstrate the difference in meaning or tense that is
established when one pronunciation or the other is used. Long vowels are indicated
through the addition of a colon.
a a: e e:
kipata he changes it xeliwi it diminishes
kipa:ta he softens it xe:liwi it is distributed
kitankeh they ended it kitekilih he cut it for him

kita:nkeh they won it kite:kilih he put him to bed
1
In Nahuatl, the accent in this word falls on the first syllable.
1. PHONOLOGY 11
ista salt tetah its rocky

ista: white te:tah the father
i i: o o:
ii: bitter xoko plum
i:i he nursed xoko: sour
nikakiti Im going to hear him kitokakeh they followed him

nikaki:ti Im going to put it in kito:kakeh they buried/planted it
kipitsah he thinned it tanamakatoya he was selling

kipi:tsah they blow on it tanamakato:ya he was going to sell
The length of the long vowel is equal to that of two short vowels, and for this reason its
pronunciation influences the rhythm at the end of what is being said.
The contrast in length of the long vowel is neutralized when it is placed in front of
another vowel. That is, when two vowels follow in a row, the first is always short even if
it is long in other uses. Examples:
a-ihti in the area of the stream

[a- is a variant of a:-, the dependent root of a: tli water, gully; -ihti in the
area of]
a:sentapal on that side of the stream

[a- is the dependent root of a: ti water, gully, -sentapal that side of]
ne-itakeh they saw me

[ne- is a variant of ne:- me; -itakeh they saw]
ne:makakeh they gave me

[ne:- me; -makakeh they gave]
1.1.2 Long Vowels and Double Vowels

In the orthographic system used in this study,1 long vowels are written with a following
colon. In this way, double vowels are distinguished. Double vowels, that is, two identical
1
Despite there being homonyms that differ solely in the length of the vowel, it is not
essential to represent this distinction in writing. The reader who is a native speaker of the
language recognizes the correct pronunciation in the majority of the cases in which there
can be confusion, just as the reader of Spanish can grasp the meaning of a text written in
all capitals that lacks accents, because the context generally makes the homonyms clear.
For this reason, it will be noted that in materials drawn up by native speakers not all the
long vowels are marked.
12 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
vowels, one following after the other, are separated in pronunciation through a small
cutting off of the voice, two vowels being formed in this way. A long vowel, on the other
hand, is a single syllable, though it counts rhythmically as two beats.
Long vowels Double vowels

a: aa
mata:ki may it bear fruit mataaki may he put things away
e: ee
ne:san around there neehla:n he remembered me
o: oo
mo:hli mole moohwi your path
The separation between two vowels can also be indicated through the use of a dash:
mata-aki ne-ehla:n mo-ohwi
1.2 Consonants
The following chart lays out the fifteen consonants (eighteen with voiced stops) of the
Nahuatl of Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan as expressed in the symbols that are used in this
translation.
The Consonants
Labeo-
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Velar Glottal
Stop1 p/b t/d kw k/g
Affricate ts
Fricative s x h
Approximant l y w
Nasal m n
Nonetheless, it has been considered important to indicate this prosodic feature in a

reference work such as the present one, so that it can provide with greater precision the
real pronunciation of the words and the grammatical forms that relate to them.
1
Nahuatl languages do not naturally have voiced stops, but under limited circumstances
the Nahuatl of Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan does realize the voiceless stop in a voiced
manner.
1. PHONOLOGY 13
The following consonants have more or less the same value as in English and need no
further discussion: p, t, k, g, s, l, y, w, m, n. A brief discussion will be given for each of
the other sounds, which have their own peculiarities of either pronunciation or
orthography.
1.2.1 Ts
This sound is familiar enough from the two consonants ending its, but the Nahuatl usage
has two aspects that are unusual from the English point of view. First, the two sounds are
considered a single consonantal sound. This aspect is indicated by the writing of the s
release as a superscript. Second, the sound appears only as the first consonant of a
syllable, whereas in native English words the sound never appears in this position
(though a Germanic pronunciation of the word zeitgeist begins with the sound ts).
Examples:
tsapo banana tsi:ka ant

tsahtsi shouts tsope:li sweet
1.2.2
This sound is represented in English by the digraph ch, as in chin.
1.2.3 X
This symbol is potentially very misleading. It is the traditional symbol used in Spanish
orthography to represent the sh sound as in the English word ship. It is never used here in
the regular Latin/English usage to represent the consonantal cluster ks. This Nahuatl
usage is unusual even from the point of view of Spanish (it reflects an older
pronuniciation that has long since become obsolete), but it is well established in Nahuatl
studies. Given this situation, this symbol was deemed preferable to the perhaps more
logical (which would correspond with ).
1.2.4 Kw
This symbol represents a single consonant that consists of two sounds articulated at the
same time, namely k and w. This sound is represented by the English digraph qu, as in
quick. This single consonant is represented with the symbol kw. Examples:
kw a kwalo it hurts
kwatampa under the tree
kw e kwesiwi he got mad

kwetax leather
kw i kwi:xin sparrow hawk

okwilin worm
1.2.5 H and
These two sounds are to some extent variants of each other. The h is not in itself
problematical, but it appears at the end of a syllable, a position in which it never appears
in English. is the standard phonetic symbol for the sound known as the glottal stop.
14 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
This sound is produced through the closure of the glottis (the opening between the vocals
chords). This sound appears at the juncture of the two elements in the English
expressions uh-oh and (substandard) a apple. To an English speaker, this brief halt in the
flow of speech is not actually perceived as a sound, but it operates as a consonant in
Nahuatl, appearing only at the end of syllable. Examples:
po:yowi get drunk itanana his gum

itopiyo shoot (of a plant)
The glottal stop marks the preterite tense of certain verbs. Examples:
asi he arrived ki:sa he emerged

siya he has already arrived ki:saya already emerged
The glottal stop appears as a preglottalization of ti at the end of certain substantives.1

Examples:
titi or ti fire teti or te stone

a:ti or a: water
The sound represented by h may appear at the start of a word, which is the only normal
position for it in English:
hekxowa he sneezes hokox warm

he:keh yes indeed
More problematical for the English speaker is the appearance of the sound elsewhere in a
word. The aspiration marked by h at the end of a syllable (which may also mark the end
of a word) seems to be nothing more than a small hiatus in the word whereby a small puff
of air is emitted. It is found in each syllable of the following sentence.
amehwa:n isahpa ihk:n antahtohkeh.

[you early thus spoke]
You spoke like this early.
The pronunciation of h at the end of a word cited by itself is easy to miss because in that
position the aspiration is heard just like the pronunciation of an open syllable in English.
However, words that end with this aspiration contrast with the words that end in a simple
vowel, because when a simple vowel appears at the end of an utterance, it is always
1
Although in almost all the examples of its use, the glottal stop comes at the end of the
syllable, there exist some words in which it appears after a consonant when a vowel has
been dropped through a derivational process, with the result that the glottal stop is left at
the beginning of the syllable. Example:
noyelamaj my grandmother
1. PHONOLOGY 15
pronounced with a brief closure of the throat (less abrupt than the one produced by the
glottal stop).1
The following examples demonstrate the difference in meaning that is produced when a
verb ends in h, in a vowel, and in the glottal stop. The h indicates the plural and the
glottal stop indicates preterite tense.2 Examples:
h nemi nasih we are arriving

nemi ki:sah they are emerging
vowel: nemi nasi I am arriving

nemi ki:sa he is emerging
glottal stop: yegin nasi he arrived a while ago

yegin ki:sa he emerged a while ago
1.2.6 Semiconsonantal Realization of i

i functions as a semiconsonant (equivalent to y) when it forms part of the start of a
syllable whose nucleus is the vowel that follows. Examples:
ia miakeh many
siawi he grew tired
tiawa: rain
io tio:pan church (building)

tiokwawi mahogany
1
[It is to be noted that all forms of Nahuatl have a tendency to devoice or lose final
consonants, and the final h and reflect this process. Historically, the marker for the
plural forms of the verb was a final t, and while this sound is represented with the glottal
stop in Classical Nahuatl, it appears regularly as -h in the following pages (the -t is still
attested in Pipil, a conservative Nahuatl dialect of El Salvador). The Nahuatl of
Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan de Jurez continues this process of weakening a final
consonant into the glottal stop, as in the verbal form ono (see Section 18.3.3), which
corresponds to the Classical Nahuatl onok, and verbs corresponding to Class 2 of
Classical Nahuatl that end in a velar stop (see Section 18.2.6). A voiceless articulation of
syllable-final consonants is known in Classical Nahuatl, for example the spelling uc is
used in place of the syllable-initial form cu (equivalent to kw in this text), and our form of
Nahuatl shows a similar process with other consonants. The word-final sound s weakens
to h in the singular of preterite and future forms of Group 2 verbs reappears in the plural
(e.g., takwa:h vs. takwa:skeh), and the last syllable of the nominal root kal- house is
weakened to h before the absolute ending (i.e., kah-li) but reappears in the possessed
form (no-kal my house). CSM]
2
In an unaccented syllable at the end of a word, the h at times causes the vowel of this
syllable to assume a voiceless pronunciation, and this absence of voicing may be the only
manifestation of the phoneme h.
16 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
pioteksis chicken egg
When i appears as the nucleus of a syllable and is placed in front of another vowel in the
same word, the two vowels are separated in pronunciation by means of a small cutting off
of the voice. This separation is represented in writing through the use of a dash.
Examples:
ni-a:taneki I am thirsty
ni-o:memeh we are two
ati-esyoh you are anemic
The use of the dash to indicate glottal separation between two contiguous vowels is also
seen in the following examples:
ta-ihti inside
xika-o wait a moment
no-i:xtah in front of me
to-a: our water
1.3 Spanish Orthography

1.3.1 Spanish Orthography Used to Spell Nahuatl
The original text of this grammar used an orthography based on the way that the Latin
alphabet is adapted to represent Spanish language. To assist the reader of this grammar in
reading Nahuatl texts written according to this convention, the salient points of deviation
are described under headings listed according to the usage of this version. For each sound
an example of a word in the orthography used here is followed by the same word in
Spanish orthography.
1.3.1.1 K
This sound has a twofold representation. In front of the front vowels e and i, it appears as
qu. In front of the back vowels a and o, it appears as c.
kika:wa quicahua he leaves it
1.3.1.2 Ts
This sound is represented with the digraph tz.
tsi:ka tzica ant
1.3.1.3
This sound is represented with the digraph ch.
ii: chichi bitter
1.3.1.4 W
This sound is represented with the digraph hu.
1. PHONOLOGY 17
we:weh huehuej old man
1.3.1.5 Kw
This sound is represented with the diagraph cu.
kwi:xin cuixin sparrow hawk
1.3.1.6
This sound is represented by an apostrophe ().
mopata mopata he changed
1.3.1.7 H
This sound is represented by the letter j.
mopatakeh mopataquej they changed
1.3.2 Spelling of Spanish Words in Nahuatl

Older borrowings of Spanish words have generally been adopted to the different
phonological system of Nahuatl, and the new sound is represented according to the
principals of Nahuatl orthography. More recent borrowings, however, have been
incorporated into Nahuatl without phonetic modification and retain their Spanish
spelling. Examples:
Older borrowings:
Nahuatl Spanish
a:ko:xah aguja (needle)
kawa:yoh caballo (horse)
kompa:leh compadre (godfather of one's child)
mui:nah mohina (displeasure)
More recent borrowings:
bien (well)
diez (ten)
fiado (credit)
mircoles (Wednesday)
viernes (Friday)
bueno (good)
dueo (owner)
luego (then)
puente (bridge)
1.4 Accentuation
The rules of accentuation are straightforward. Words of two syllable or more are assumed
to be accented on the second syllable from the end (that is, that syllable is pronouned
18 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
with greater intensity).1 If the accent falls on a different syllable, this one is marked out
with an acute accent (). Monosyllables are not normally written with an accent.
Exceptions:
With certain conjunctions that can be used as in either an interrogative or relative

sense, the interrogative forms are given an accent to distinguish them (see
Sections 16.1, 2; 17.1). This principle is applied regardless of the number of
syllables in the word.
The pronoun yh is distinguished from the similar relative pronoun yeh by its
accent (see Section 5.1.1).
In certain other instances, the accent is used to distinguish two forms (see Section
17.3.5).
All examples of words with the accent three or more syllables from the end bear
one or more enclitic particles.An enclitic is a word that has no accent of its own
and attaches itself to the end of a word that does have an accent (though such a
word can have more than one enclitic). The position of the accent of the
independent word to which one or more enclitic is attached does not change, and
its place is always indicated by the orthographic accent.
Words with regular accent:

ima: his/her hand
timo:yo: spark
opanwa:s broom
ayoh gourd
italax his belly
oki male, man
s
it onkal his/her hair
wi:pi:l clothing
lama:r the sea
Words distinguished by accent:

ka:n where (relative)
k:n where (interrogative)
ke:man when (relative)
k:man when (interrogative)
iw:n and
1
[The original text followed the principles of the accentuation of Spanish by assuming
that forms ending in l or r have the prosodic accent on the last syllable unless otherwise
noted with an orthographic accent. This convention has no relevance to Nahuatl (that is,
there is no reason to expect such forms should be accented any differently from other
forms), and so has been ignored here. Hence, whereas in the original text a form like
t:nal takes the accent to indicate that it is not accented on the last syllable, here it is
written to:nal on the assumption that all two-syllable nouns are accented on the next-to-
last syllable. CSM]
1. PHONOLOGY 19
wa:n with him
Words accented on the last syllable

awl he cannot
ihk:n in this way
ihk:n in that way
nikpi I have it
nikpih we have it
sehs: sehs: one by one
Words that have the accent on the last syllable as a result of contraction include:
kit he cut it
kim he gave it
Words Accented before the Next-to-Last Syllable

niktaya I have seen it already
sligo newborn
pnisan shallow
n:siki it resembles
:ma:xti underwear
fue:rhbapa outwards
siyawa truly he has now arrived
yhkiyaki they say that he has left
ompgapaya now towards there
In addition, observe the difference in meaning between the following two words:
Penultimate accent: iyi:xko on top
Antepenultimate accent: yi:xko in his eye

2. The Verb
The verb is the most variable element in Nahuatl speech, and it can express action or
inaction, state, change of state, characteristics, relationships and a persons inner
processes. Examples:
action motalowa he runs

kahkokwi he lifts it up
inaction ka:wi it is left

mose:wi he is resting
state kawa:ni he has a fever

maya:na he is hungry
change of state ali:mpati it gets small

miki he dies
characteristics/ xo:ta it shines

qualities tamati he is wise
relationships kipi he has it

itatki-ihya he becomes owner of
inner processes tama:lita he hates

kimai:li he feels it
The verb consists of a verbal root to which are attached prefixes of person and mood,
endings indicating tense, aspect, number and derivation, as well as sense-bearing
reduplicated syllables. There are endings that specify movement that accompanies the
primary action, and there is one that marks out an action as being one of a subordinate
character that explains the main topic. The diversity of verbal markers is so great that a
single root may give rise to more than a thousand variations.
2.1 The Elements of the Verb

In the following synopsis of verb forms, the element in the middle, which is marked out
in boldface, is the root, which is the basic part of the verb. In this synopsis, all the words
are formed from the same root, which means to emerge. It is the first and the last
elements that vary.
Singular
22 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
1st person niki:sa I emerge

2nd person tiki:sa you (sg.) emerge
3rd person ki:sa he/she/it emerges
Plural
1st person excl. niki:sah we emerge
1st person incl. tiki:sah we emerge
2nd person anki:sah you (pl.) emerge
3rd person ki:sah they emerge
In general, the root of the verb can be realized in speech only with the addition of at least
one ending.
The first element, the personal prefix, indicates something about the person who carries
out the action, that is, the subject of the verb, and it varies according to the grammatical
person.
The final element varies according to the grammatical number. When the subject is a
single person, the verb is in the singular form (unless it bears a plural object). When there
are two or more people who carry out the action, the verb bears a plural ending. A more
detailed discussion of verbs that bear plural objects is given in Section 9.1.
In summary, the primary verb in Nahuatl consists of three elements: the prefix, the root
and the ending.
The elements of the verb anki:sah you (pl.) emerge are:
an- -ki:s- -ah

[pref. root ending]
It is noted that when the subject of the verb corresponds to the third person, it bears no
overt prefix:
-ki:s- -ah
[pref. root ending]
ki:sah they emerge
The lack of a prefix is in fact significant, because its absence indicates the third person.
To reflect the fact that the absence of any overt prefix serves as the marker of the third
person, this non-prefix is indicated with the null set symbol .
A fuller presentation of the subject prefixes and the independent pronouns will be given
in the appropriate place. Nonetheless, let us pay attention to the endings of the verb
forms.
2. THE VERB 23
2.2 Tense Endings

The ending of the verb, which is called the tense ending, conveys an idea of when the
action takes place. Note the variation between the endings of the verbal forms in the
following list.
mopata it changes
mopatas it will change
mopataya it would change, used to change
mopata it changed
mopataka it changed (but did not stay changed)
All the words in this list are in the third person singular, but the endings vary by the tense
of the action.
There are other variations in tense among the plural endings.
mopatah they change

mopataskeh they changed
mopatayah they would change, used to change
mopatakeh they changed
mopatakah they changed (but did not remain changed)
2.3 The Thematic Vowel

Now that we have looked at the differences among certain tense endings, it is necessary
for us to pay attention to the first vowel of the ending and note that in the preceding
examples, this vowel does not change despite the changes in tense. This is called the
thematic vowel. We will emphasize the concept of the thematic vowel because of its
utility in the classification of verbs, which we will have occasion to examine below.
2.4 The Tenses of the Verb

Although there are many different tenses and aspects of the verb in Nahuatl, let us begin
with five basic tenses: the present, future, imperfect, preterite, and transitory preterite. In
the following chart the words laid out above are shown in the third person, and on the left
are placed the terms by which each tense is named. The basic root means to change.
Singular Plural
Present mopata mopatah
Future mopatas mopataskeh
Imperfect mopataya mopatayah
Preterite mopata moptakeh
Transitory mopataka mopatakah
Preterite
Conjugation:
Now compare the tense endings of two synopses of verbs in the singular:
24 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
isa- to wake up tisi- to grind
Present isa he wakes up tisi he grinds

Future isas he will wake up tisis he will grind
Imperfect isaya he would wake up tisia:ya he would grind
Preterite isa he woke up tisi he ground
Trans. Pret. isaka he woke up tisika he ground
(but did not (but the work
remain awake) was of no use)
Both sets of endings vary by the thematic vowel and by the distinction that there is in the
marker of the imperfect.
Present -a -i
Future -as -is
Imperfect -aya -ia:ya
Preterite -a -i
Trans. Pret. -aka -ika
Because of these variations we say that there are distinct verbal conjugations.
We call the synopsis of tense endings that are taken by the verb isa the first conjugation,
and we call those taken by the verb tisi the second conjugation.
There are five verbal conjugations, which are classified by the tense endings that
constitute them, and now an analysis of each will be given.
3. The Conjugations, Group 1
The five conjugations are presented in two groups. Group 1 consists of the first and
second, which share certain traits in common that distinguish them from the other
conjugations. A comparison of the two synopses given in Section 2.4 reveals the
following characteristics shared by the two conjugations in Group 1:
The ending of the present singular is the thematic vowel and nothing else.
The thematic vowel is not lengthened in any of the endings.
The future singular ends in s.
The preterite singular ends in the glottal stop ().
Here we are dealing with the regular conjugations; there are differences between these
and the irregular conjugations, which are presented in Section 18.0.
3.1 The First Conjugation

Verbs that take the same pattern of endings belong to the same conjugation. For example,
from the observation that the verb mopata he changes and the verb isa he wakes up take
the same tense endings it is known that they belong to the same conjugation.
3.1.1 How to Recognize a Verb of the First Conjugation

The verbs that end in -a in the present singular of the indicative mood and in -as in the
future singular of the indicative belong to the first conjugation. (An explanation will be
given below of the meaning of the term indicative mood.)
Pay attention to the following list of verbs. They all belong to the first conjugation, and
they all end -a, which is the thematic vowel.
isa he wakes up
ki:sa he emerges
tacowa he buys
moketsa he stands up
mopata he changes
mo-ita he sees himself
tena he moans
Note that the same verbs end in -as in the future singular:
isas he will wake up

ki:sas he will emerge
tacowas he will buy
26 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
moketsas he will stand up

mopatas he will change
mo-itas he will see himself
tenas he will moan
All these verbs are understood to belong to the first conjugation because they have the
ending -as in the future tense. Any verb that does not end in -as in the future does not
belong to the first conjugation, even if it takes -a in the present.
Rule:
ALL VERBS THAT END IN -a IN THE PRESENT SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND
ALSO END IN -as IN THE FUTURE SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE BELONG TO THE FIRST
CONJUGATION.
The following are the endings that are used to form the basic tenses for all the persons of
the regular verbs of the first conjugation.
Singular Plural
Present -a -ah
Future -as -askeh
Imperfect -aya -ayah
Preterite -a -akeh
Trans. Pret. -aka -akah
We now present a verb to serve as a model for the endings of the first conjugation. We
call it a paradigm because it is presented as a model for all the regular verbs that take the
same endings.
3.1.2 Paradigm for the First Conjugation

The verb that serves as the model for the first conjugation is mopata he changes. In this
section it is enough to present it in the third person because the endings do not vary by
person. Note that they take the endings already laid out in Section 3.1.1.
Paradigm in the Third Person

for the First Conjugation
Singular
Present mopata he changes
Future mopatas he will change
Imperfect mopataya he would change
Preterite mopata he changed
Trans. Pret. mopataka he changed
(but did not
remain changed)
3. THE CONJUGATIONS, GROUP 1 27
Plural
Present mopatah they change
Future mopataskeh they will change
Imperfect mopatayah they would change
Preterite mopatakeh they changed
Trans. Pret. mopatakah they changed
(but did not
remain changed)
3.2 The Second Conjugation

3.2.1 How to Recognize a Verb of the Second Conjugation
All the verbs in the following list belong to the second conjugation. Note that they all end
in -i, which is the thematic vowel.
tisi he grinds
ne:si he appears
te:mi it becomes full
tso:pi it gets finished
kikwi he seize (by the hand)
kawa:ni he has a fever
mahmawi he is afraid
Look at the endings of the same verbs in the future:
tisis he will grind

ne:sis he will appear
te:mis he will become full
tso:pis he will become finished
kikwis he will seize (by the hand)
kawa:nis he will have a fever
mahmawis he will be afraid
They all end in -is in the future.
Rule:
ALL VERBS THAT END IN -i IN THE PRESENT SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND
ALSO END IN -is IN THE FUTURE SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE BELONG TO THE SECOND
CONJUGATION.
The verbs of the second conjugation take the following basic tense endings in the
indicative.
Singular Plural
Present -i -ih
Future -is -iskeh
28 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Imperfect -ia:ya -ia:yah

Preterite -i -ikeh
Trans. Pret. -ika -ikah
3.2.2 Paradigm for the Second Conjugation

The verb tisi he grinds serves as the model for the tense endings that are used in the
second conjugation. Note that they take the endings already laid out in the preceding
chart.

for the Second Conjugation
Singular
Present tisi he grinds
Future tisis he will grind
Imperfect tisia:ya he would grind
Preterite tisi he ground
Trans. Pret. tisika he ground
Plural
Present tisih they grind
Future tisiskeh they will grind
Imperfect tisia:yah they would grind
Preterite tisikeh they ground
Trans. Pret. tisikah they ground
Variant forms of the imperfect

In verbs of the second conjugation, the endings of the imperfect tense can be pronounced
in a contracted manner. Examples:
Singular Plural
asia:ya or asi asia:yah or asih
tisia:ya or tisi tisia:yah or tisih
4. The Conjugations, Group 2
Group 2 consists of the third, fourth and fifth conjugations. The three synopses of endings
that are presented next share the following characteristics.
The preterite singular ends in h, and this is not dropped in the plural or in the
transitory preterite.
The ending of the future admits two possible pronunciations: one that ends in h
and another that ends in s. The h ending is used more frequently.
The thematic vowel is long in the future tense.
Within Group 2 there is a subgroup that consists of the third and fourth conjugation. The
trait that they share in common is that they attach to the present a specific ending in
addition to the thematic vowel, while the fifth conjugation lacks this ending.
4.1 The Third Conjugation

4.1.1 How to Recognize a Verb of the Third Conjugation
All the verbs in the following list belong to the third conjugation. Note that they all end in
-i. The thematic vowel is i.
ma:lti he bathes
mooni it is drunk
mo-ilpi he is bound
mota:li he sits down
mose:wi he rests
mihto:ti he dances
mona:mikti he gets married
Look at the endings of these same verbs in the future tense:
ma:lti:h he will bathe

mooni:h it will be drunk
mo-ilpi:h he will be bound
mota:li:h he will sit down
mose:wi:h he will rest
mihto:ti:h he will dance
mona:mikti:h he will get married
They all end in -i:h in the future singular.

30 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Rule:
ALL VERBS THAT END IN -i IN THE PRESENT SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND
ALSO END IN -i:h IN THE FUTURE SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE BELONG TO THE THIRD
CONJUGATION.
A not very common variant of the future singular is -i:s. One can, for example, say
ma:lti:h or ma:lti:s, but the second form is rare. The ending -i:h of the third conjugation
is distinct from the -is of the second.
Any verb that does not end in -i:h or -i:s in the future does not belong to the third
conjugation, even though it ends in -i in the present. For example, the verb kipi he
holds it, even though it ends in -i, belongs not to the third conjugation, but to the first,
because its form in the future is kipis and not kipi:h.
The following basic temporal endings are used to conjugate the verbs of the third
conjugation.
Singular Plural
Present -i -ih
Future -i:h -i:skeh
Imperfect -ia:ya -ia:yah
Preterite -ih -ihkeh
Trans. Pret. -ihka -ihkah
These are the endings that are used to form the basic tenses of the indicative for all the
persons of regular verbs in the third conjugation.
4.1.2 Paradigm for the Third Conjugation

The verb ma:lti he bathes serves as the model for the basic tense endings that are used
in the third conjugation. In this section it is enough to present it in the third person
because the endings do not vary by person. Note that they take the same endings as
appear in the preceding chart.

for the Third Conjugation
Singular
Present ma:lti he bathes
Future ma:lti:h he will bathe
Imperfect ma:ltia:ya he would bathe
Preterite ma:ltih he bathed
Trans. Pret. ma:ltihka he bathed (with only temporary effect)
Plural
Present ma:ltih they bathe
Future ma:lti:skeh they will bathe

Imperfect ma:ltia:yah they would bathe
Preterite ma:ltihkeh they bathed
Trans. Pret. ma:ltihkah they bathed (with only temporary effect)
4.2 The Fourth Conjugation

4.2.1 How to Recognize a Verb of the Fourth Conjugation
All the verbs in the following list belong to the fourth conjugation. Note that they all end
in -owa. The thematic vowel is o.
temowa he descends
hekxowa he sneezes
moskowa it warms up
tahtowa he speaks
motalowa he runs
tekipanowa he works
mototoowa he bows
Look at the endings of these same verbs in the future:
temo:h he will descend

hekxo:h he will sneeze
mosko:h it will warm up
tahto:h he will speak
motalo:h he will run
tekipano:h he will work
mototoo:h he will bow
They all end in -o:h in the future singular.
Rule:
ALL VERBS THAT END IN -owa IN THE PRESENT SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD
AND ALSO END IN -o:h IN THE FUTURE SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE BELONG TO THE
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
A not very common variant of the future singular is -o:s. It is correct to say, for example,
tahto:h or tahto:s, but the second form is rare.
Any verb that does not end in -o:h or -o:s in the future does not belong to the fourth
conjugation, even though it ends in -owa in the present. For example, the verb takowa he
buys, even though it ends in -owa, belongs not to the fourth conjugation, but to the first,
because its form in the future is takowas and not tako:h.
The verbs of the fourth conjugation take the following endings in the basic tenses of the
indicative:
32 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Singular Plural
Present -owa -owah
Future -o:h -o:skeh
Imperfect -owa:ya -owa:yah
Preterite -oh -ohkeh
Trans. Pret. -ohka -ohkah
These are the endings that are used to form the basic tenses of the indicative for all the
persons of regular verbs in the fourth conjugation.
4.2.2 Paradigm for the Fourth Conjugation

The verb ta:htowa he speaks serves as the model for the use of the basic tense endings in
the fourth conjugation.

for the Fourth Conjugation
Singular
Present tahtowa he speaks
Future tahto:h he will speak
Imperfect tahtowa:ya he would speak
Preterite tahtoh he spoke
Trans. Pret. tahtohka he spoke (without effect)
Plural
Present tahtowah they speak
Future tahto:skeh they will speak
Imperfect tahtowa:yah they would speak
Preterite tahtohkeh they spoke
Trans. Pret. tahtohkah they spoke (without effect)
4.3 The Fifth Conjugation

4.3.1 How to Recognize a Verb of the Fifth Conjugation
The following verbs belong to the fifth conjugation. Note that they all end in -a, which is
the thematic vowel.
takwa he eats
tatankwa he bites
kinawa he embraces her
kima:ma he carries it (on his back)
kimahma he catches it (by hunting or fishing)
Look at the endings of these same verbs in the future tense:

takwa:h he will eat

tatankwa:h he will bite
kinawa:h he will embrace her
kima:ma:h he will carry it (on his back)
kimahma:h he will catch it
They all end in -a:h in the future singular.
Rule:
ALL VERBS THAT END IN -a IN THE PRESENT SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND
ALSO END IN -a:h IN THE FUTURE SINGULAR OF THE INDICATIVE BELONG TO THE FIFTH
CONJUGATION.
The verbs of the fifth conjugation take the following endings in the basic tenses of the
indicative:
Singular Plural
Present -a -ah
Future -a:h -a:skeh
Imperfect -a:ya -a:yah
Preterite -ah -ahkeh
Trans. Pret. -ahka -ahkah
4.3.2 Paradigm for the Fifth Conjugation

The verb takwa he eats serves as the model for the use of the basic tense endings in the
fifth conjugation.

for the Fifth Conjugation
Singular
Present takwa he eats
Future takwa:h he will eat
Imperfect takwa:ya he would eat
Preterite takwah he ate
Trans. Pret. takwahka he ate (but later vomited)
Plural
Present takwah they eat
Future takwa:skeh they will eat
Imperfect takwa:yah they would eat
Preterite takwahkeh they ate
Trans. Pret. takwahkah they ate (but later vomited)
This conjugation includes fewer verbs than the others.

34 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
4.4 Comparison of the Tense Endings

Compare the basic tense endings for all the conjugations:
Group 1 Group 2
Singular First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Present -a -i -i -owa -a
Future -as -is -i:h -o:h -a:h
Imperfect -aya -ia:ya -ia:ya -owa:ya -a:ya
Preterite -a -i -ih -oh -ah

Trans. Preterite -aka -ika -ihka -ohka -ahka
Plural
Present -ah -ih -ia:h -owah -ah
Future -askeh -iskeh -i:skeh -o:skeh -a:skeh
Imperfect -ayah -ia:ya -ia:ya -owayah -a:yah
Preterite -akeh -ikeh -ihkeh -ohkeh -ahkeh
Trans. Preterite -akah -ikah -ihkah -ohkah -ahkah
4.5 An Alternative Classification of the Conjugations

Because of the obvious similarities that they display, the conjugations of Group 1 can be
considered a single conjugation. If the rules for the formation of the preterite are applied
and the thematic vowel is omitted as a part of the root, the following synopsis of the
endings would result:
Singular Plural
Present -h
Future -s -skeh
Imperfect -ya/-a:ya -yah/-a:yah
Preterite - -keh
Trans. Pret. -ka -kah
Similarly, the conjugations of Group 2 would be reduced to a single one by applying the
rules for the formation of the present and the imperfect. The following synopsis would be
the result:
Singular Plural
Present -/-wa -h/-wah/-h
Future -:h -:skeh
Imperfect -:ya -yah
Preterite -h -hkeh
Trans. Pret. -hka -hkah
For the imperfect singular, the ending laid out here would necessarily be placed after the
ending of the present singular. Note that the colon (:) signifies the lengthening of the
preceding vowel.1
Nonetheless, the choice was made to present them as five conjugations because in this
way it is easier to show in a concrete way the interaction of the ending with the thematic
vowel, including vowel lengthening that takes place in the future and imperfect tenses, as
well as in the directionals (see Chapter 11) and in the imperative plural of the verbs of
Group 2. I consider that the distribution of the verbs into five conjugations is in full
agreement with the level of concreteness seen in the traditional treatment of Spanish
verbs, which could also be reduced to fewer conjugations through the application of
morphophonemic rules.
1
[It is to be noted that the alternative analysis corresponds to the now standard division
of the verbs of Classical Nahuatl into four classes on the basis of the preterite stem, a
system first introduced by J. Richard Andrews and popularized by James Lockhart (the
former using capital letters to designate the classes and the latter using numbers). The
first and second conjugations here correspond to Class 1 (or A), the third and fourth to
Class 1 (or B), and the fifth to Class 4 (or D). Class 2 (or B) corresponds to the category
described here as apocopated (or morphophonemically irregular) verbs (see Section
18.2). CSM]
5. The Pronominal Forms
5.1 Independent Personal Pronouns
5.1.1 Basic Forms of the Personal Pronouns
The independent personal pronouns are:
neh I
teh you (sg.)
yh he, she
nehame:n we (excl.)
tehame:n we (incl.)
amehwa:n you (pl.)
yehame:n they
Observe that:
1. Unlike the case with English, there is a clear distinction between the singular and
plural in the second person.
2. There is no marking of gender in the personal pronouns: yh can signify either
he/him or she/her.
3. The personal pronoun yh is accented in order to distinguish it from the relative
pronoun yeh.
4. There are two ways of saying we depending on whether or not the person being
addressed, that is, the listener, is meant to be included. Nehame:n and tehame:n
are the two forms for saying we/us, but they do not mean the same thing. We use
nehame:n when we wish to say we and not you. That is, nehame:n excludes
those with whom we are speaking. For this reason, nehame:n is called the
exclusive form. Tehame:n is used when we wish to include those being addressed
in saying we. This form is called inclusive.1
For example, if my family and I are thinking of going somewhere, and I am

telling you that we are leaving tomorrow, I would use the word nehame:n to say
we because you are not coming with us. If, on ther other hand, I say directly to my
1
[It is to be noted that calling this form the inclusive first person plural is to interpret it
from the perspective of Spanish and English as a form of the first person. Clearly, the
exclusive plural is the pluralized form of the first person singular, while the inclusive
form is the pluralized form of the second person singular. That is, in origin the so-called
inclusive first person plural actually signifies you (sg.) and others, the others being
understood in context as the speaker (with or without further people). CSM]
38 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
wife, We are leaving tomorrow, I would use the form tehame:n because she is
included among those of us who will be going.
The distinction can be expressed by means of the following formula:
nehame:n (1st pers. excl.) first person plural

excluding the person being addressed
tehame:n (1st pers. incl.) first person plural

including the person being addressed
5.1.2 Variations in the Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns admit stylistic changes or differences in pronunciation according
to the taste of the speaker. The variants for each one are:
neh, nehwa I
teh, tehwa you (sg.)
yh, yehwa he/she/it
nehame:n, neheme:n, nehameh, nehemeh we (excl.)

tehame:n, teheme:n, tehameh, tehemeh we (incl.)
amehwa:n, amehame:n, ameheme:n,
amehameh, amehemeh you (pl.)
yehame:n, yeheme:n, yehameh, yehemeh they
The plural pronouns also have contracted variants1 that are used very often:
nehm, nehm we (excl.)

tehm, tehm we (incl.)
amehm, amehm you (pl.)
yehm, yehm they
See Section 18.2.6, in which apocopation and the contraction are described.
5.2 Pronominal Prefixes

The personal pronouns already presented in this section are those called independent
pronouns. There are other forms that are called pronominal prefixes. These have the
function of the personal pronouns of English, but they are not words in themselves.
Instead, they appear in front of the root of the verb. They form a variable element in the
1
These reduced forms are derived from the ones that end in -meh. The m is always
bilabial, and in addition, because of the dropping of the final -h, it has a voiceless
pronunciation. In the orthography, no distinction has been made between voiceless and
voiced nasals, but such a difference does exist in daily speech.
5. THE PRONOMINAL FORMS 39
verb, and indicate the person or persons who carry out the action, and the person or
persons who are the object of the verb (see Section 9.6).
5.2.1 Subject Prefixes

The following forms show the personal pronouns and the corresponding subject prefixes,
which indicate the person who is carrying out the action.
Note that the third person is marked by the lack of a subject prefix, and this significant
absence is marked in the grammatical analysis with the null group sign , which does
not of course appear in actual writing.
Singular
st
1 person neh I nikoi I sleep
2nd person teh you (sg.) tikoi you (sg.) sleep
3rd person yh he/she/it koi he sleeps
Plural
st
1 pers. excl. nehame:n we nikoih we sleep
1st pers. incl. tehame:n we tikoih we sleep
2nd person amehwa:n you (pl.) ankoih you (pl.) sleep
3rd person yehame:n they koih they sleep
Variant Forms of the Subject Prefixes

The following examples show the variant forms of the subject prefixes that are used when
the root of the verb begins with a vowel:
Singular Plural
nasi I arrive nasih we (excl.) arrive
tasih we (incl.) arrive
tasi you (sg.) arrive amasih you (pl.) arrive
asi he arrives asih they arrive
Here is the paradigm of the subject prefixes. The plural forms of the verb always bear
some ending specific to the plural, which is indicated between the parentheses and will be
explained next.
Singular Plural
st
1 person ni- or n- (excl.) ni- or n- (h)
(incl.) ti- or t- (h)
2nd person ti- or t- an- or am- (h)
3rd person (h)
5.2.2 Object Prefixes

Another variable element of the verb is the object prefix. Every transitive verb takes an
object prefixwhether for the direct or the indirect objectwhich varies by the
40 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
grammatical person of the object. The use of the object prefixes is shown in the following
chart of forms whose subject is in the third person singular.1
Singular object prefix

ne:kaki he hears me ne:-
mitskaki he hears you (sg.) mits:-
kikaki he hears him ki-
Plural object prefix

ne:kakih he hears us (excl.) ne:-
te:kaki2 he hears us (incl.) te:-
mitskakih he hears you (pl.) mits-
kikakih he hears them ki-
Variant Forms for the Object Prefixes

The following examples show the variant forms for the object prefixes that are used when
the root of the verb begins with a vowel:
Singular Plural
neasi he finds me neasih he finds us (excl.)
teasi he finds us (incl.)
mitsasi he finds you (sg.) mitsasih he finds you (pl.)
kasi he finds him kasih he finds them
Compare the independent pronouns with the corresponding prefixes. The possessive
prefixes, which will be explained in Section 6.4, are also included.
Independent Verbal Verbal Nominal

Pronoun Subject Object Possessive
Prefix Prefix Prefix
Person
Singular
1st neh ni-/n- ne:-/ne- no-
2nd teh ti-/t- mits- mo-
3rd yh - k(i) i-
1
When the examples require an indication of gender in English, this is given in the
masculine, even though in Nahuatl the gender is not specified.
2
Note that te:kaki is the only example of a plural object prefix that does not have a
plural ending. See Section 9.1.
Plural
1st exclusive nehame:n ni-/n- ne:-/ne- no-
1st inclusive tehame:n ti-/t- te:-/te- to-
2nd amehwa:n an-/am- mits- amo-
3rd yehame:n - k(i) i-
5.3 Other Independent Pronouns

5.3.1 Demonstrative Pronouns
in:n this ini:meh these
in:n that ino:meh those
ine:pa that (one) ine:pameh those (ones)
over there over there
5.3.2 Possessive Pronouns

The possessive pronouns are formed from the root -tatki, which is an indicator of
possession, preceded by a possessive prefix (see Section 6.4).
notatki mine notatkimeh ours (excl.)

totatkimeh ours (incl.)
motatki yours (sg.) amotatki yours (pl.)
itatki his itatkimeh theirs
5.3.3 Relative Pronouns
yeh who, that Nehwa nia niki:sati iwn san in:n

notsotsol yeh nikakihto
So Ill go out with just this clothing
that Im wearing.
ke who, that Quita ke nepa wi: un hombre a caballo

He saw that a man on horseback is coming here.
ke: how much Xikwi ke: tikneki.

Take as much as you want.
te: which, what Mawi:ki te: wi:

May what is coming come!
5.3.4 Indefinite Pronouns
agah someone, Anca agah kikahteh.

anyone Perhaps someone left it.
ayagah no one Miya:nato ka:n ayagah asi.

42 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
He left to hide where no one goes.
san a: whoever Kirrecibi:rowa san a: ne:sis.

He receives whoever presents himself.
teht: something Anca tikmantoya teht:

Perhaps you were cooking something.
at: nothing At: kikwa.

He eats nothing.
nit nothing Anikasi nit.

I found nothing.
5.3.5 Interrogative Pronouns
t:, t what T in tiki:wa?

What are you doing?
kati which In:n, kati gobierno kipertenese:rowa?

Which government does that belong to?
k:ski, ke: how many K:ski mopilowa:n tikpi?

k: How many children do you have?
K: mopilowa:n tikpi?
How many children do you have?
a: yh who Nikmtiya a: yh in mitsketsaltih.

I already know who detained you.
5.3.6 Indefinite Number Pronouns

The adverbial root noi all is converted into an indefinite number pronoun through the
addition of possessive prefixes (see Section 6.4) and the ending -n, along with the
lengthening of the vowel i.
nonoi:n all of us (excl.)

tonoi:n all of us (incl.)
amonoi:n all of you (pl.)
inoi:n all of them
5.3.7 Definite Number Pronouns

There are three groups of definite number pronouns. One group is derived from the
dependent root -se:l- sole, only plus the possessive prefixes and the ending -ti.
nose:lti I alone
mose:lti you (sg.) alone
ise:lti he alone
nose:ltimeh we (excl.) alone
tose:lti or tose:ltimeh we (incl.) alone
amose:lti or amose:ltimeh you (pl.) alone
ise:ltimeh they alone
Another group of definite number pronouns is derived from the number two and higher.
These are presented in two subgroups. It is impossible to distinguish the difference in
meaning between the two sorts of derivation.
no:me:n or no:memeh the two of us (excl.)

to:me:n or to:memeh the two of us (incl.)
amo:me:n or amo:memeh the two of you
o:me:n or o:memeh the two of them
ne:yi:n or ne:yimeh the three of us (excl.)

te:yi:n or te:yimeh the three of us (incl.)
ame:yi:n or ame:yimeh the three of you (pl.)
e:yi:n or e:yimeh the three of them
nina:wi:n or nina:wimeh the four of us (excl.)

tina:wi:n or tina:wimeh the four of us (incl.)
anna:wi:n or anna:wimeh the four of you (pl.)
na:wi:n or na:wimeh the four of them
nisi:nkohmeh the five of us (excl.)

tisi:nkohmeh the five of us (incl.)
ansi:nkohmeh the five of you (pl.)
si:nkohmeh the five of them
niseyismeh the six of us (excl.)

etc.
The following group is limited to the numbers from two to four.
no:mexti:n the two of us (excl.)

to:mexti:n the two of us (incl.)
amo:mexti:n the two of you (pl.)
o:mexti:n the two of them
ne:yixti:n the three of us (excl.)

te:yixti:n the three of us (incl.)
ame:yixti:n the three of you (pl.)
e:yixti:n the three of them
44 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
nina:wixti:n the four of us (excl.)

tina:wixti:n the four of us (incl.)
anna:wixti:n the four of you (pl.)
na:wixti:n the four of them
6. The Substantive
6.1 The Nature of the Substantive
The substantive is one of the variable elements in speech, and beings, things, feelings and
abstract ideas are named with it. It is also called a substantive noun or simply noun. Its
function in the sentence is to form part of the subject and the object of the verb, and in
many instances it is accompanied by other words and particles that modify it.
The Nahuatl substantive varies with respect to the grammatical categories of number,
diminutive endings, and other derivational forms. Note the following characteristics:
1. It does not vary according to the grammatical category of gender.

2. It is modified by markers of possession (both prefixes and suffixes).
3. It takes markers of predication, including prefixes of person and negation and
adverbial clitics.
Note the substantives in the following narrative. A more or less literal translation is given
for each word in the Nahuatl text. The substantives are printed in boldface. Also note that
one of them (tatayil) is translated as a verbal phrase, which shows that there is not an
exact correspondence between the one language and the other.
Kn iga moto:ca aha:yo:

How are beans sowed?
Aha:yo: moto:ka ipan el mes de septiembre.

[beans are sowed in-it the month of September]
Beans are sowed in the month of September.
Iw:n moto:ka ipan mi:hli ca:n aya moposteki sinti.

[and is sown in-it the field where not yet doubles itself the corn]
It is sown in a field in which the corn has not been doubled over.
Sin-ihti moto:ka. Mocohcoyo:nti xapo ,

[corn-within it-is-sown it-is-dug-going along hole]
It is sown among the cornstalks. Holes get dug one after another,
iwa:n se: kixi:nti aha:yo: .

[and one goes-along-dropping-them the beans]
and someone goes along droppings the beans.
46 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Tmisan in:n kito:ka, se lugar yawi kito:kati.

[as soon as he ends that he-sows-it another place he-goes he-goes-to-sow-it]
As soon as he finishes sowing there, he goes to another place.
Si ka:n aya tatayil, ato yawi.

[If where not-yet what-has-been-tilled first he-goes]
If it is a place where there has not yet been tilling, first
kitayiti iga wel mamoto:ka aha:yo: .

[he-goes-to-till-it so-that it-can that-they-are-sown the beans]
he will have to go till it, so that it is possible for the beans to be sown.
Hiplito Hernndez Hernndez
The substantives found in the preceding narrative are:
aha:yo: beans
mes month
septiembre September
mi:hli field
sinti corn
sin- corn (dependent root)
xapo hole
lugar place
tatayil what has been weeded/tilled
6.2 Substantives Functioning as Predicates

A substantive can serve as a grammatical phrase. The idea of person is inherent in the
Nahuatl substantive, and the result of this is that a substantive cited by itself can be
specifed as a predicate. It is taken for granted that it is in the third person if it does not
bear any other personal prefix.1 Examples:
ta:ga man Ta:ga. It is a man.

kahli house Kahli. It is a house.
The following examples bear personal prefixes and other markers of predication.
Nita:ga. I am a man. Tit:gaya. You are now a man.

Tita:ga. You are a man. Atita:ga. You are not a man.
6.3 Formation of the Plural

The majority of substantives take the ending -meh in the plural. Examples:
1
[I.e., the subject is the null set symbol ; see Section 2.1. CSM]
6. THE SUBSTANTIVE 47
Singular Plural
kahli house kahlimeh houses
tepe:yoh mountainous tepe:yohmeh mountainous
area areas
aha:wil toy aha:wilmeh toys
xi:kama jicama xi:kamameh jicamas
(edibile root)
When the singular ends in the glottal stop () or in - ti, this final element is dropped with
the plural is formed in -meh.
Singular Plural
a:ma paper a:mameh papers
a:ti water, stream a:meh streams/rivers
teti stone temeh stones
xo:i flower xo:imeh flowers
There are three substantives whose plural is formed in such a way that the final element
changes to -t and -keh is added to this.
Singular Plural
we:weh1 old man we:wetkeh old men
ilamah old woman ilamatkeh old women
siwa: woman siwa:tkeh women
Some nouns form the plural by varying the word by means of reduplication, that is, by
repeating one part of the word. There are three forms of reduplication.
6.3.1 Reduplication in -h
In this category of reduplication, the vowel of the syllable placed in front is always short,
and in addition -h- is added to it. Examples:
Singular Plural
ta:ga man tahta:ga2 men
noyi:x my eye nohnoyix3 my eyes
moma: your hand momahma: your hands
inakas their ear inahnakas their ears
1
The plural of we:weh can also be we:wehmeh.
2
The substantive tahta:ga men is the only one whose plural is formed in this way in the
absolute (i.e., non-possessed) form. The plural can also be formed with the ending -meh:
tahta:gameh or ta:gameh.
3
In the case of nohnyi:x my eyes, the reduplication includes the possessive prefix.
48 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
6.3.2 Reduplication with Vowel Lengthening

In this category of reduplication, the vowel of the syllable placed in front is long and
without aspiration (-h). Only one substantive that forms its plural in this way is attested.
Singular Plural
cone: child co:cone children
6.3.3 Reduplication with Vowel Shortening

Substantives with the diminutive ending -tsi:n form the plural by reduplicating the
ending. The vowel of the syllable put in front is short and without aspiration (-h).
Examples:
Singular Plural
a:ltepe:tsi:n small town a:ltepe:tsitsi:n small towns
xo:itsi:n small flower xo:itsitsi:n small flowers
A fuller explanation of diminutive substantives will be given below in Section 7.2.
6.4 Possession in Substantives

6.4.1 Definite Possessive Prefixes
The possession of a substantive is indicated by adding a possessive prefix. The possessive
prefixes can be specified as follows:
Possessive Singular Possessive Plural

nono- (excl.)
1st Person
to- (incl.)
2nd Person mo- amo-
3rd Person i- i-
Like the independent pronouns, the possessive prefixes do not reflect the gender of the
substantive. The following chart shows the use of the definite possessive prefixes. Note
that the prefixes no- and i- are used in both the singular and plural, and that when the
possessor to whom the possessive refers is plural, the possessive obligatorily includes the
plural marker -meh as the plural of the possessor.
Possessive Singular Possessive Plural

nokal my house nokalmeh our (excl.) house
tokal our (incl.) house
mokal your (sg.) house amokal your (pl.) house

ikal his/her house ikalmeh their house
6.4.2 Further Observations on the Plural in the Possession of the Substantive

In general, the ending -meh with substantives that are possessed marks the plurality of
the possessor, and the plural number of the possessed substantive is not marked.
Nonetheless, there are certain formats to indicate the plural of the possessed.
a. In the case of a substantive with the prefix of the second person singular mo-, because
of the fact that this form is clearly singular, the plural -meh indicates the plurality of the
possessed and not the possessor. Example: mokalmeh your (sg.) houses.
b. When the substantive has a diminutive suffix, this is reduplicated to express the
plurality of the possessed. Examples with a:ma paper and the diminutive -tsi:n:
Singular Possessor Plural Possessor
Singular noa:matsi:n noa:matsi:nmeh

Substantive my little paper our little paper
Plural noa:matsitsi:n noa:matsitsi:nmeh
Substantive my little papers our little papers
c. In the case of substantives whose plural is formed by reduplicating the root, the
reduplication indicates the plurality of the possessed. Examples with kone: : child and
the reduplicated plural ko:kone: children:
Singular Possessor Plural Possessor
Singular nokone: nokone:meh

Substantive my child our child
Plural noko:kone: noko:kone:meh
Substantive my children our children
d. The plural of certain substantives of familial relationship are normally indicated with
the ending -wa:n. Examples:
noko:ko noko:komeh
my elder brother our elder brother
noco:cowa:n noko:kowa:nmeh
my elder brothers our elder brothers
6.4.3 The Indefinite Possessive Prefix te:-

Some substantives of familial relationships obligatorily bear a possessive prefix. When
one wishes to use such words without specifying the possessor, the prefix te:- is used.
te:tah the father

te:ye: the mother
50 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
te:piltsi:n the child

te:co:co the elder brother
The prefix te-, a variant form of te:-, appears in an idiomatic expression:
te-ihikni:n good people (lit. everyones brother)

[-ih- reduplicated syllable; -ikni:n brother]
6.4.4 Dependent Roots

Many substantives lose an element of their ending when they are combined with a
possessive prefix.1
For example, in the following substantives, the last syllable is dropped to get the
dependent root.
ikiwi basket noiki my basket

ko:ska necklace noko:s my necklace
In the following substantives, the last syllable, which begins with m, is reduced to n to
form the dependent root.
atimi louse/lice noatin my louse/lice

tekoma tecomate notekon my tecomate
In substantives ending in -hli, the ending is reduced to -l.
kahli house nokal my house

xa:hli sand noxa:l my sand
In the following examples, the last syllable is reduced to the glottal stop.
meta metate nome my metate

peta sleeping mat nope my sleeping mat
kwe:yi skirt nokwe: my skirt
In other substantives, the glottal stop or final - ti is dropped.
a:ma paper noa:ma my paper

teti stone note my stone
1
[In Classical Nahuatl, the non-possessed noun is said to be in the absolute form, which
is analyzed as consisting of an absolute ending that is added to the stem of the noun. The
analysis here takes the absolute ending to be an element of the substantive itself,
considering that this element is dropped in the possessed form. It is worth noting that the
ending -ti is the most common form of the absolute ending. CSM]
Here is the word ohti path, in which the ending -ti is exchanged for -wi in its possessed
form.
ohti path noohwi my path
To form the dependent root, however, the entire ending is dropped:
ohtsi:n little path, trail
Note that the same form of the root, oh-, appears as part of a verb.
neohmaga he showed me the way

[ne- variant form of ne:- me; -maga gave]
7. Special Forms of the Substantive
7.1 Vocative Forms of the Substantive
The vocative forms are the ones used to mark out the person to whom the word is
directed. There are three forms: two that are used to call from afar and one that used in
conversation. The first serves to call to a person of any status, the second is used by
males to call to someone of the same or lesser status, and the third is used in
conversations with people of any status.
7.1.1 General Vocative

-w is added to a substantive and the last syllable is accented.
Notw! (My) father! [notah my father]

Nopw! (My) child! [nopiltsi:n my child]
Nopi:pw! (My) aunt! (My) [nopih my aunt or elder sister]
elder sister!
Konw! Child! [kone: child]
Pe:drw! Peter! [Pedro Peter]
Mariyw! Mary! [Maria Mary]
7.1.2 Male Vocative

-i is added to the name of a person.
Pe:droi! Peter!
Pa:bloi! Paul!
Juani:yohi! Little John!
Jo:liohi! Julius!
7.1.3 Conversational Vocative

The voice is raised and the last syllable of the name is accented.
Also, -h is added if the word does not have it.
Conversational vocative form Original form
Pe:drh! Peter Pe:dro

Pa:blh! Paul Pa:blo
Jo:lih Julius Jo:lioh
Mariyh Mary Mariyah
Kn, Pe:droh? How are you, Peter?

Vi:th, nemi mitsno:tsah. Victor, theyre calling you.
54 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
7.2 Diminutive Forms of the Substantive

7.2.1 Variant of the Diminutive -tsi:n
With the ending -tsi:n are formed derivative diminutive substantives, and these designate
persons, animals or things that are smaller than those named by the original substantives.
With the addition of -tsi:n, a final glottal stop or -t i is lost.
tetsi:n little stone [teti stone]

a:tsi:n little stream [a:ti water, stream]
to:to:tsi:n little bird [to:to: bird]
Sometimes the diminutive indicates affection.
we:wehtsi:n little old man [we:weh old man]

notahwe:wehtsi:n my little grandfather [notahwe:weh my grandfather]
ilamahtsi:n little old woman [ilamah old woman]
noyelamahtsi:n my little grandmother [noyelamah my grandmother]
There are words that do not appear in the singular without the diminutive ending.
nopiltsi:n my child
okotsi:n a young man
takotsi:n a young woman
The first of the preceding words takes an irregular plural.
nopilowa:n my children
In addition, the diminutive plural is formed by adding -tsitsi:n to the plural ending -wa:n.
nopilowa:ntsitsi:n my little children
The plurals of ocotsi:n and tacotsi:n are regular.
okomeh young men okotsitsi:n young boys

takomeh young women takotsitsi:n young girls
7.2.2 Variants of the diminutive, -i:n and -li:n

The following words exhibit the characteristics of diminutives in terms of their meaning
and the manner of forming their plural, and they can perhaps be considered as variants of
the diminutive ending.
taoi:n little girl taoii:n little girls

taoli:n little girl taolili:n little girls
ooi:n little boy ooii:n little boys
ooli:n little boy oolili:n little boys
7. SPECIAL FORMS OF THE SUBSTANTIVE 55
Nonetheless, those that end in -li:n can still take the diminutive -tsi:n.
taoli:ntsi:n little girl taoli:ntsitsi:n little girls

ooli:ntsi:n little boy ooli:ntsitsi:n little boys
The word akali:n shrimp admits two variants in the diminutive plural. Note that the -l of
the root is not dropped even when it is followed by another l.
akali:n shrimp akal-lili:n little shrimps

akaltsi:n little shrimp akaltsitsi:n little shrimps
7.3 Possessive Forms in -yo, the Suffix of Intrinsic Belonging

When added to the possessed substantive, the ending -yo1 generally indicates that the
substantive forms an intrinsic part of the possessed noun or is in physical contact with it,
or that this substantive is something directly identified with it and not merely a
possession.
7.3.1 As a Part of the Body

By means of the ending -yo a distinction is made between that which forms part of ones
own body and that which counts as a possession. Examples:
naka flesh
Possession nonaka my meat (distinct from my body)
Part of the body nonakayo my flesh (part of my body)
omi bone
Possession noomi my bone (distinct from my body)
Part of the body noomiyo my bone (part of my body)
Note that the majority of the parts of the body do not take -yo. It is only added to those
that could have a double meaning: either a part of the body or a possession distinct from
the body. Examples that do not take -yo:
notsontekon my head
noxa:ya my face
noke my neck
noma: my arms, my hands
nokxi my legs, my feet
1
The suffix -yo is the substantival possessive form of a group of endings of inherent
belonging that includes the absolute substantive form -yo: , the adjectival form -yoh (see
Section 8.3.1), and the verbal forms -yowi and -yo:ti (see Sections 9.10 and 9.11).
56 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
7.3.2 As an Integral Part of Some Object

With the ending -yo a distinction is also made between things possessed by someone and
things that form a part of something. Examples:
kwawi timber, stick

ikwa his timber (someones possession)
w
ik ayo its handle (part of a tool made of wood)
tsohmi cover
itsohmi his cover (someones possession)
itsohmiyo its fur
7.3.3 As a Product
Be means of the ending -yo a distinction is made between what is possessed by someone
and what is produced by something. Examples:
nexti lime, ash

inex his lime (someones possession)
inexyo its ash (product of something like shells)
tomi:n money
itomi:n his money (someones possession)
itomi:nyo its money (product of something that is sold)
7.3.4 As an Identity
Another interesting usage of -yo relates to the identity of persons or things. While it is
impossible to come up with a literal translation, the grammatical mechanism suggests that
the identity of the person or thing is considered to be something possessed. Examples:
Things:
T ixo:iyo i:n? What type of flower is this?
[t variant of t: what?; i- possessive pref.; xo:i- dependent form
of flower; i:n this]
T itsapoyo i:n? What sort of banana is this?

[tsapo- dependent form of tsapo banana]
Persons:
T i-Pe:droyo? Which Peter? (What is his name?)
T ikoronelyo? Which colonel? (What is he called?)
7.3.5 Other Uses of -yo

Other uses of -yo are:
soki mud
isokiyo his griminess (something that covers the body)
a:ti water
iya:yo its sap (of a plant), its juice (of a fruit)
i:po tick
ii:poyo his tick (something attached to his body)
xapo hole, cave

ixapoyo its cave (place where it lives, intimately identified
with the animal)
xe:to a fool
ixe:tokyo his foolishness (action that manifests his character)
7.4 Forms with the Ending -yo:

The ending -yo: , the absolute suffix of intrinsic belonging, generally appears in words
that are not possessed, just as -yo (without either lengthening of the vowel or the glottal
stop) is used with words that are possessed. Nonetheless, there are few words ending in
-yo: whose derivation is clear and obvious.
ahko tall
ahkoyo: loft (lit. high part)
iyahkoyo kahli the loft of the house
owa cane
owaa:yo: cane juice (lit. cane water part)
iya:yo owa the juice of the cane
There are other examples whose derivation remains obscure:
ihiyo: breath
pakiyo: woof (of a fabric)
7.5 Forms in -yoh Describing Places

The suffix -yoh is used to form substantives describing places. When added to a
substantival root, -yoh signifies an area characterized by an abundance of the thing
indicated by the root.
a:wayoh stand of oak trees [a:wa oak]

aha:yo:yoh bean patch [aha:yo: beans]
sakayoh hay field, grassland [saka hay, grass]
teyoh stony terrain [teti stone]
tepe:yoh mountainous area [tepe: mountain]
The plural is formed with -meh.

58 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
teyohmeh stony areas

tepe:yohmeh mountainous areas
The substantival character of this class of words ending in -yoh1 is evident in the
following examples:
as object of a preposition
ipan a:wayoh in the stand of oak trees
as nucleus of a compound with a postposition

kwayohihti inside the forest
as nucleus of a phrase with a demonstrative adjectival

in:n tepe:yoh that mountainous area over there
7.6 Substantives Derived from Verbs

7.6.1 The Substantivalizing Ending -lis
Constructions with the ending -lis refer for the most part to the occasion on which the
action represented by the verbal root is carried out. The enclitic substantive ending -ti is
optionally added to it.2 Examples:
takwalis or takwlisti a meal, a banquet

[takwa he eats]
tatalis or tatlisti fire, burning

[tata it burns]
tapixkalis or tapixklisti harvest (of corn)

[tapixka harvest corn]
owatekilis or owateklisti cane cutting

[owa sugarcane; quiteki he cuts it]
o:kalis or o:klisti weeping

[o:ka weep]
ta:tapowalis or ta:tapowlisti conversation, chat

[ta:tapowa he converses, chats]
In certain cases, the occasion referred to is an extended period of time.
to:nalis or to:nlisti dog days
1
The substantival ending -yoh described here is distinct from the adjectival ending -yoh
(see Section 8.3.1).
2
[As noted before, -ti is the most common absolute ending for nouns. CSM]
[to:na its sunny]
There are some examples of verbal substantives ending in -lis that have an abstract
meaning. For the most part, these are possessive forms.
ima:lnemilis his bad behavior

[ma:lnemi he lives badly]
ita-ikne:lis his compassion

[ta-ikne:li he loves, is compassionate]
7.6.2 Other Deverbal Substantives

Other examples of substantives derived from verbs are:
notapi: my bundle [kipi:ki he wraps it up]

notatsoyo:n my fritters [kitsoyo:na he fries it]
kwahkwawil firewood [kwahkwawi he cuts firewood]
tahto:l word, statement [tahtowa he speaks]
ite:ntsakka its lid [mote:ntsakwa it gets covered]
ikwa:tsakwaya her veil [mokwa:tsakwa she veils herself]
8. The Adjective
The adjective is another variable part of the sentence. The adjectives qualify substantives
or specify the extent to which their meaning is understood.
8.1 Determinative Adjectives

Determinative adjectives are normally classified into four groups: demonstrative,
numerical (number adjectives), indefinite and possessive. In Nahuatl, the demonstratives,
the number adjectives and the indefinites are independent words, while the possessives
are inseparable prefixes.
8.1.1 Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives are:
Singular Plural
in:n this ini:meh these
ini:mpa like this in:mehpa like these
in:n that ino:meh those

ino:mpa like that in:mehpa like those
a:n this much (non- aha:n this many

countable thing) (countable things)
ai:mpa such a large (thing) ahaimpa this size (things)
a:n that much (non- aha:n so many (non-

countable thing) (countable things)
ao:mpa that size (thing) ahao:mpa things that size
ine:pa that (one) over there ine:pameh those (ones) over there
in:bapa like that one
The demonstrative adjective1 is placed in front of the substantive.
in:n ilwi this festival

ino:meh siwa:tkeh thse women
ine:pa okotsi:n that child over there
1
When the demonstrative adjective replaces a substantive, it is called a demonstrative
pronoun, which is presented in Section 5.3.1
62 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
8.1.2 Number Adjectives

The numbers are determinative adjectives that serve the purpose of counting. The
numerical system of Spanish is mostly used, but there are four special numbers that are
used very frequently:
se: one o:me two e:yi three na:wi four
Both the meaning and the function of the number change when the first syllable is
reduplicated.
sehs: by ones, one by one, one at a time

oho:me by twos, two by two, two at a time
ehe:yi by threes, three by three, three at a time
nahna:wi by fours, four by four, four at a time
The number becomes a number pronoun when it replaces people. In the numbers from
two to four, the vowel of the last syllable is lengthened and -n is added to it. Examples:
o:me:n the two of them e:yi:n the three of them

na:wi:n the four of them
For the numbers five and higher, which are borrowings from Spanish, a comparable
mechanism is used to form the number pronouns. -meh or -hmeh is added, and the
borrowing undergoes the same changes of pronunciation typical of such borrowings.
si:nkohmeh five people

seyismeh six people
die:hmeh ten people
Like the other pronouns, the numbers can take a personal prefix (see Sections 5.3.6 and
5.3.7).
no:me:n or no:memeh we are two (excl.)

ame:yi:n or ame:yimeh you (pl.) are three
8.1.3 Indefinite Adjectives

The indefinite adjectives specify the substantive in a vague manner. They can be
interpreted as masculine or feminine without the form of the adjective varying in Nahuatl.
al:n small amount amayi:n many

kati what inewi all
mia much nis: none
ke:ski so much sewo other
se other te: what
In addition, borrowings from Spanish are used: varios, algn, ningn, todo, etc.
8. THE ADJECTIVE 63
The indefinite adjectives also act as interrogatives. Examples:
t hora? what time?

k:ski aos how many years?
kati ohti? which way?
When the indefinite adjective replaces a substantive it becomes a pronoun (see Sections
5.3.3 and 5.3.5).
8.1.4 Possessive Adjectives

The possessive adjectives of Nahuatl are not independent words, but appear as particles
bound to the substantive. They are called possessive prefixes, and always form a part of
the compound substantive. The possessive prefixes are:
no- my no- our (excl.)

to- our (incl.)
mo- your (sg.) amo- your (pl.)
i- his/her/its i- their
These are exlained more fully in Section 6.4.
8.2 Qualifying Adjectives

8.2.1 Independent Qualifying Adjectives
The qualifying adjectives indicate what persons, animals and things are like. Like
substantives, adjectives in Nahuatl lack indicators of gender, and for this reason all the
translations are given in the masculine.
eti: heavy wehkapan tall

takwakti hard weya long
sese: cold tsope:li sweet
we:li tasty ik: ripe, mature
The plural is generally formed by reduplicating the first syllable.
Singular Plural
i ihi bitter
weyi wehweyi big
xamoti xahxamoti toasted, crunchy
ali:mpa ahali:mpa small
The independent qualifying adjective can function as a statement, taking personal

prefixes and number markers. If it bears no personal prefix, it is understood to be in the
third person (see Section 2.1).
64 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Singular
Niapati. I am chubby.
Tiapati. You (sg.) are chubby.
apati. He is chubby.
To form the plural of adjectives that end in -i , the glottal stop is dropped and -keh is
added. It may or may not have reduplication.
Plural
Niapatikeh. or We (excl.) are chubby.
Niahapatikeh.
Tiapatikeh. or We (incl.) are chubby.
Tiahapatikeh.
Anapatikeh. or You (pl.) are chubby.
Anahapatikeh.
apatikeh. or They are chubby.
ahapatikeh.
If the adjective ends in -i: , the plural is formed by adding -meh, with the glottal stop
becoming k in front of the -meh.
Singular neti: Im heavy

Plural neti:kmeh or neheti:kmeh We (excl.) are heavy
If the adjective ends in -n, this ending is dropped and -meh added.
Singular niwehkapan Im tall

Plural niwehkapameh or
niwehwehkapameh We (excl.) are tall
8.2.2 Inseparable Qualifying Adjectives

The inseparable adjective is placed in front of the substantive stem to form a compound
substantive, like the English blackbird. Examples:
yama:nikta:l soft earth

[yama:nik- variant of yama:ni soft;
-ta:l dependent root of ta:hli earth]
selito:to:tsi:n tender little bird

[seli - tender; -to:to:- dependent root of to:to: bird;
-tsi:n diminutive]
petstaxkal simple tortilla

[pets- dependent root of petsti simple; -taxkal tortilla]
8. THE ADJECTIVE 65
na:mo:lkwawi regular tree

[na:mo:l- ordinary, common; -kwawi timber, tree]
8.3 Denominal Adjectives

8.3.1 The Ending -yoh Used Adjectivally
When attached to certain nouns, the suffix -yoh to be full of something or to have
something turns them into adjectives.
okwilyoh wormy
[okwil- dependent root of okwilin worm]
a:yoh juicy, watery

[a:- dependent root of a: ti water]
tanyoh toothed, with teeth

[tan- dependent root of tanti tooth]
tahyoh having a father

[tah- dependent root of te:tah father]
The adjectival ending -yoh described here corresponds to the ending -yo of intrinsic
belonging and to the derivative verbal endings -yowi and -yo:ti, as can be seen in the
following examples:
original substantive naka flesh

derived substantive nonakayo my body, my muscles
adjective nakayoh corpulent, muscular
intransitive verb nakayowi fatten up, have growing muscles
transitive verb kinakayo:ti fatten him, make his muscles grow
There is another ending -yoh that is of a substantival nature, and it is described in Section
7.5.
8.3.2 The Ending -tah Used Adjectivally

The ending -tah is used to form adjectives derived from nouns, and these are used to
qualify the circumstance of time or place. They give the sense that there is an abundance
of the thing signified by the substantive root. Their function is predicative, never
substantival. Examples:
tetah rocky
[te- dependent root of te ti rock]
sokitah muddy
[soki- dependent root of soki mud]
ta:lpino:ltah dusty
[ta:l- dependent root of ta:hli earth; pino:l dust]
66 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
tiawa:tah rainy
[tiawa:- dependent root of tiawa: rain]
tekpintah with fleas

[tekpin flea]
When the circumstance is general or extensive in time, the adjective can take the prefix
ta- everywhere without changing the sense of the word.
tasokitah muddy everywhere

tatiawa:tah rainy everywhere
8.4 Contrast between Adjectival and Adverbial Forms

Compound words formed with -tah that are used adjectivally are distinguished from
compounds with the same ending that are used as locatival adverbs (see Section 17.3.1).
To function locativally, the adjectives have to have the relative adverb ka:n placed in
front of them. The adverbial words do not have this requirement. Examples:
Adjectival forms
Ninenkeh ka:n tetah.
[we-went where it-is-rocky]
We went to a place where there are many rocks.
Ninenkeh ka:n sokitah.

[we went where it-is-muddy]
We went to a place where there is a lot of mud.
Adverbial forms
Ninenkeh ilwitah.
[we walked to-the-festival]
We walked to the festival.
Ninenkeh okotah
[we walked to-the-pine-grove]
We walked to the pine grove.
The prefix ta- is obligatory in the formation of the predicative adjective with the root
-mix- clouds.
tamixtah there are many clouds, it is cloudy
Compound adjectives in -tah that are derived from nouns are turned into verbs by having
derivative verbal endings added to them (see Section 9.8.2).
9. Transitivity in the Verb
9.1 Differences between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive verbs are those that appear with an object prefix and express an action that can
pass from one person or thing to another. Examples:
nimitsita I see you (sg.) [-it(a) to see]

te-i:xmati he knows us [-i:xmat(i) to know]
kino:tsa she calls him [-no:ts(a) to call]
tine:teowa you (sg.) meet me [-te(o) to meet]
Intransitive verbs are those that do not bear an object prefix and whose action does not
happen to another person or object. Examples:
panowa it passes [-pan(o) to pass]

tinemi you (sg.) go [-nem(i) to go]
xo:ta it is burning [-xo:t(a) to burn]
nisa I awake [-is(a) to wake up]
Many verbal roots can be transitive or intransitive. In general, the transitive form (which
take an object) bears separate endings from those of the intransitive verbs, that is, there is
a change of conjugation. The more common differences between the endings of the
intransitive verb and those of the corresponding transitive one are:
Intransitive Transitive
-i (first conjugation) -a (second conjugation)
-i (first conjugation) -i (third conjugation)
-iwi (first conjugation) -owa (fourth conjugation)
Note the correspondence between the intransitive and the transitive forms in the
following examples:1
1
In terms of their meaning, all the intransitive forms laid out here deal with a change in
state, and the corresponding transitive forms are in reality of a causative type; each one of
the examples could be translated with the phrase to make it... For example, kika:wa he
leaves it or he makes it remain.
68 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
-i -a
ka:wi it remains kika:wa he leaves it
xitomi it unties kixitoma he unties it
tso:pi it ends kits:opa he ends it
pa:ti it dissolves kipa:ta he dissolves it
-i -i
te:mi it fills up kite:mi he fills it
tami it finishes kitami he finishes it
pahti it heals kipahti he cures it
se:wi it goes out (fire) kise:wi he extinguishes it
-iwi -owa
poliwi it gets lost kipolowa he loses it
kwesiwi he is annoyed, angry kikwesowa he annoys him
paiwi he calms down kipaowa he calms him
sosoliwi it comes apart kisosolowa he takes it apart
Other Intransitive/Transitive Pairs

-a i
tata it burns kitati he burns it
-owa -owi
temowa it comes down kitemowi he lowers it
-owi -owa
tapowi it opens kitapowa he opens it
Rules for the formation of the plural of transitive verbs

The use of the prefixes ne:-, mits-, and ki- in the plural requires a plural termination
given that these prefixes do not themselves mark grammatical number, but can be used in
both a singular and a plural sense. The general rules are:
a. The transitive verb takes a plural ending

1. if the subject is plural
2. if the object is plural (unless this is indicated with the prefix te:-)
3. if the subject and the object are plural.
b. The transitive verbs that include te:- do not take a plural ending if the subject is
singular.
9. TRANSITIVITY IN THE VERB 69
The plural form of a verb with one of the endings ne:-, mits-, and ki- can have three
meanings. Examples:
ne:kakih he hears us (plural object)

they hear us (plural subject and object)
they hear me (plural subject)
In any event, the meaning is determined by the context in which the phrase appears. For
example, the inclusion of an independent pronoun in the clause can serve to indicate
which element is in the singular, thereby making it clear that the other is in the plural.
Examples:
Neh ne:kakih They hear me.

Yh ne:kakih He hears us.
9.2 Intransitive Verbs with the Prefix ta-

Another type of intransitive verb is derived from transitive verbs through the use of the
generalizing prefix ta-, which replaces the object prefix. Examples:
tahtowa he speaks kihtowa he says it
tama:lita he hates kima:lita he hates it
takwa he eats kikwa he eats it
takaki he hears kikaki he hears it
The prefix ta- serves various functions, and one of these is to make transitive verbs
intransitive. When it is used in this manner, the verb lacks direct objects.1 The meaning of
an intransitive verb derived in this manner is always that of an action carried out by the
subject, which performs the role of agent. On the other hand, the original meaning of the
intransitive verb is commonly a change of state, something that happens to the subject or
that the subject does to himself. Examples:
Intransitive (original) temowa he comes down

Transitive (causative) kitemowi he lowers it (makes it comes down)
Intransitive (derivative
of the causative) tatemowi he brings a load down
1
[It might be clearer to call ta- the indefinite object marker, which is the terminology
used for Classical Nahuatl. That is, all transitive verbs in Nahuatl need to have an object
marker, and ta- is used if the speaker has no particular object in mind. This usage differs
from that of English, which can use a transitive verb without an expressed object, for
example he eats sloppily. It would be better to describe such a usage as absolute rather
than intransitive (after all, the verb eat does have an object but this is omitted as being
unnecessary to the thought). CSM]
70 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Intransitive (original) kwesiwi she gets annoyed

Transitive (causative) kikwesowa he bothers her
Intransitive (derivative
of the causative) takwesowa he is bothersome (causes annoyance)
We make a distinction between the prefix ta- and the object prefixes for the following
reasons:
1. When ta- replaces the direct object prefix, the verb becomes
intransitive (as explained before).
2. The prefix ta- is one of the first rank, that is, other elements do not
intervene between ta- and the root, while the object prefixes are not
bound to the root so intimately. Example:
kipoxkwa he eats it too much [kikwa he eats it]

poxtakwa he eats too much [takwa he eats]
3. It is also possible to add to the verbs that take ta- an object prefix that
reflects the indirect object in applicative constructions (see Section
14.1). (The Nahuatl verb cannot take more than one object prefix.)
Examples:
With direct object With indirect object
kipa:ka he washes it kipa:kili he washes it for her
With generalizing prefix With indirect object and

generalizing prefix
tapa:ka he does the washing kitapa:kili he does the washing for her
9.3 Transitive or Intransitive Verbs without Change

Certain verbs can be transitive or intransitive without changing conjugation. The third-
person object is formed by adding ki- to the root.
taksa he steps kitaksa he steps on it
tayi he weeds kitayi he weeds it
pixka he harvests kipixka he harvests it
tisi he grinds kitisi he grinds it
to:ka he sows kito:ka he sows it
ta:wi it shines kita:wi he lights it
asi he arrives kasi he comes upon it
ma:na he stretches kima:na he stretches it

posteki it breaks kiposteki he breaks it
toto:ni it warms up kitoto:ni he warms it
9.4 Reflexive Verbs

Reflexive verbs are those that take the object prefix mo-. The action of the verb is put
into operation by the subject, and it happens to this same subject.
nimota:li I seat myself

timota:li you (sg.) seat yourself
mota:li he seats himself
nimota:lih we (excl.) seat ourselves

timota:lih we (incl.) seat ourselves
anmota:lih you (pl.) seat yourselves
mota:lih they seat themselves
When the context indicates, this type of construction can be interpreted in a reciprocal
sense whereby two or more subjects carry out the action and do it to each other.
Examples:
Momagakeh. They struck each other.
Timonekih You and I want each other.
9.5 Verbs with Inseparable Object

Certain substantive roots are combined with verbal roots to form compound verbs that
contain an object.
9.5.1 Verbs with Inseparable Direct Object

When the verb is composed of a transitive verbal root and a substantive as direct object,
the compound appears as an intransitive form since it does not admit an object prefix or
an independent object. Examples:
mi:li:wa he makes a field

[mi:l- dependent root of mi:hli field; -iwa to make]
tikwi it catches on fire

[ti- dependent root of ti ti fire; -kwi to catch]
kalahkokwih raise a house

[kal- dependent root of kahli house; -ahkokwi to raise; -h plural]
9.5.2 Verbs with Inseparable Circumstantial Object

When the verb is composed of a substantive root as circumstantial complement and a
transitive verbal root, the compound is transitive or reflexive. This usage is comparable to
English verbs like to pistol-whip or spoon-feed someone. Examples:
72 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
kitaxkalkimilowa he wraps it in a tortilla

[ki- third-person object prefix; -taxkal tortilla; -kimilowa to wrap]
mokwa:wi:teki he hits himself in the head

[mo- reflexive prefix; -kwa:- dependent root signifying head;
-wi:teki to strike]
kiko:nkwa he eats it from a pot

[ki- third-person object prefix; -ko:n- dependent root of ko:mi pot;
-kwa to eat]
9.6 Combination of Subject Prefixes with Object Prefixes

Next is a presentation of all the possible combinations of subject and object prefixes, with
the plural element indicated with -h. It is necessary to bear in mind that the tenses not
presented here take other endings in the plural. The plural of the imperative-subjunctive
mood ends in -ca:n (see Section 12.2).
First-person subject
nimits I (do the action) to you (sg.)
nik I to him1
nimits h I to you (pl.)

we (excl.) to you (pl.)
we (incl.) to you (sg.)
nik h I to them
we (excl.) to them
we (excl.) to him
nimo I to myself
nimo h we (excl.) to ourselves
First-person inclusive plural subject
tic h we (incl.) to them

we (incl.) to him
1
To simplify the presentation, when the examples require an indication of gender in
English, only the masculine is given, even though the gender is not specified in the
Nahuatl.
timo h we (incl.) to ourselves
Second-person subject
tine: you (sg.) to me
tik you (sg.) to him
anne: h you (sg.) to us (excl.)

you (pl.) to me1
you (pl.) to us (excl.)
anki h you (sg.) to them

you (pl.) to him
you (pl.) to them
timo you (sg.) to yourself
anmo h you (pl.) to yourselves
Third-person subject
ne: he to me
mits he to you (sg.)
ki he to him
ne: h he to us (excl.)
they to us (excl.)
they to me
te: he to us (incl.)
te: h they to us (incl.)
mits h they to you (sg.)

he to you (pl.)
they to you (pl.)
1
[Note that the plurality of the object has led to the use of the second person plural
subject marker for a singular subject, ti- being reserved for the inclusive first person
plural. CSM]
74 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
ki h he to them
they to them
they to him
mo he to himself
mo h they to themselves
Imperative forms
xine: you (sg.) to me
xine: ka:n you (pl.) to me

you (pl.) to us (excl.)
you (sg.) to us (excl.)
xik you (sg.) to him
xik ka:n you (sg.) to them

you (pl.) to him
you (pl.) to them
ximo you (sg.) to yourself
ximo ka:n you (pl.) to yourselves
9.7 Stylistic Use of te:- in Place of ne:-

For reasons of preference and style, the object prefix te:- can replace ne:- in contexts in
which the idea of the exclusive plural is taken for granted or the exclusive/inclusive
contrast is of no importance. In this usage, the grammatical number of te:- is
indeterminate.
Combinations
tite: you (sg.) to me
ante: h you (sg.) to us

you (pl.) to me
you (pl.) to us
Imperative forms
xite: you to me
xite: ka:n you (sg.) to us

you (pl.) to me
you (pl.) to us
Examples:
Ay: ante:wi:gayah no:? or Ay: anne:wi:gayah no:?

Wouldnt you take me too? (by car)
Ai xite:pale:wi. or Ai xine:pale:wi.
Help me a little.
9.8 Intransitive Derivative Verbs in -ti

When added to a substantival, adjectival or adverbial root, the derivational ending -ti
converts the root into a verb that expresses the idea that the subject is modified by taking
on the character expressed by the root. Verbs derived in this way are always intransitive.
9.8.1 When the Original Form is a Simple Root
weyiti he is getting bigger [weyi big]

tayowati night comes on [tayowa night]
aiti he gets a bit better [ai a little]
a:ti it becomes watery [a:- dep. root of a: ti water]
o:meti it divides in two [o:me two]
wehkapanti it becomes high [wehkapan high]
xi:lo:ti it becomes green corn [xi:lo:- dep. root of xi:lo: green corn]
The tense endings of intransitive verbs in -ti are those of the first conjugation.
Singular
Present weyiti it is getting bigger
Future weyitis it will be getting bigger
Imperfect weyitia:ya it used to get bigger
Preterite weyiti it got bigger
Trans. Pret. weyitiaka it had gotten bigger
Subjunctive Mood maweyiti may it get bigger
76 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Plural
Present weyiti h they are getting bigger
Future weyitiskeh they will getting bigger
Imperfect weyitia:yah they used to getting bigger
Preterite weyitiakeh they got bigger
Trans. Pret. weyitiakah they had gotten bigger
Subjunctive Mood maweyitiaka:n may they get bigger
9.8.2 When the Original Form is a Compound Adjective in -tah

The compound adjectives in -tah, which are derived from substantives, are turned into
verbs through the addition of the intransitive ending -ti. Examples:
Original form Derivational verbal form

tamixtah it is cloudy tamixtahti it is clouding over
tamixtahtis it will cloud over
tamixtahtia:ya it would cloud over
tamixtahti it clouded over
tamixtahtiaka it had clouded over
A stative form is derived by adding the ending -to or one of the markers that
corresponds to it. Examples:
tamixtahtito it is cloudy
tamixtahtitos it will be cloudy
tamixtahtitoya it used to be cloudy
9.9 Intransitive Derivative Verbs in -yowi

When added to a substantival root, the derivational ending -yowi (second conjugation)
converts the root into an intransitive verb that signifies that the subject undergoes a
change by acquiring what is indicated by the root. This verbal ending corresponds to the
adjectival ending -yoh, which was described in Section 8.3.1.
Verbal form Adjectival form

sokiyowi it gets dirty, muddy sokiyoh it is dirty, muddy
okwilyowi it gets wormy okwilyoh it has worms
po:yowi it becomes smoked po:yoh it is smoked
ma:yowi it becomes branched ma:yoh it has branches, arms
Original substantival form

soki mud [dep. root: soki-]
okwilin worm [dep. root: okwil-]
po:kti smoke [dep. root: po:k- or po: ]
(i)ma: (his) hand, arm, branch [dep. root: -ma:-]
It is conjugated with the tense endings of the second conjugation.
Singular
Present sokiyowi he gets muddy
Future sokiyowis he will get muddy
Imperfect sokiyowia:ya he used to get muddy
Preterite sokiyowi he got muddy
Trans. Pret. sokiyowika he had gotten muddy
Subjunctive Mood masokiyowi may he get muddy
Plural
Present sokiyowih they get muddy
Future sokiyowiskeh they will get muddy
Imperfect sokiyowia:yah they used to get muddy
Preterite sokiyowikeh they got muddy
Trans. Pret. sokiyowikah they had gotten muddy
Subjunctive Mood masokiyowika:n may they get muddy
9.10 Transitive Derivative Verbs in -yo:ti

When added to a substantival root, the derivational ending -yo:ti (third conjugation)
converts the root into a transitive verb that signifies that the subject affects the object by
adding to it what is indicated by the substantive root. The original substantive normally
appears in the possessed form, with the ending of intrinsic belonging.
Verbal form
kimekayo:ti He adds a cord to it
ki-a:yo:ti He fills it with liquid (gas in the tank)
kikwayo:ti He adds a handle (of wood) to it
kitanyo:ti He makes notches in it (in a trunk as steps)
Possessed substantival form

imekayo his cord, cable
i-a:yo its juice, liquid
ikwayo its handle
itanyo its notches
Original substantival form

meka cord, string [dep. root: -meka-]
a:ti water [dep. root: -a:-]
kwawi wood, stake [dep. root: -kwa]
tanti tooth [dep. root: -tan-]
It is conjugated with the endings of the third conjugation.

78 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Singular
Present kimekayo:ti he adds a cord to it
Future kimekayo:ti:h he will add a cord to it
Imperfect kimekayo:tia:ya he used to add a cord to it
Preterite kimekayo:tih he added a cord to it
Trans. Pret. kimekayo:tihka he had added a cord to it
Subjunctive Mood makimekayo:ti may he add a cord to it
Plural
Present kimekayo:tih they add a cord to it
Future kimekayo:ti:skeh they will add a cord to it
Imperfect kimekayo:tia:yah they used to add a cord to it
Preterite kimekayo:tijkeh they added a cord to it
Trans. Pret. kimekayo:tihkah they had added a cord to it
Subjunctive Mood makimekayo:ti:ka:n may they add a cord to it
9.11 Derivative Transitive Verbs in -wi

When added to a substantival root, the derivational ending -wi (third conjugation)
converts the root into a transitive verb that signifies that the original substantive affects
the object in some manner. Examples:
Derivative verbs Original substantive

kito:nalwi he suns it [to:nal sunlight]
ki-ehekawi he aired it [eheka wind]
ki-istawi he salts it [ista salt]
kinexwi he spreads lime on it [nexti lime]
kito:ka:wi he names, calls him [ito:ka: his name]
It conjugates with the endings of the third conjugation.
Singular
Present kito:nalwi he suns it
Future kito:nalwi:h he will sun it
Imperfect kito:nalwia:ya he used to sun it
Preterite kito:nalwih he sunned it
Trans. Pret. kito:nalwihka he had sunned it
Subjunctive Mood makito:nalwi may he sun it
Plural
Present kito:nalwih they sun it
Future kito:nalwi:skeh they will sun it
Imperfect kito:nalwia:yah they used to sun it
Preterite kito:nalwihkeh they had sunned it
Trans. Pret. kito:nalwihkah they had sunned it
Subjunctive Mood makito:nalwi:ka:n may they sun it
9.12 Impersonal Forms of the Verb

The impersonal forms of the verb are special forms that are used when there is no need to
specify the subject or the object and it is important to specify only that the activity takes
place.
When added to the verbal root, the ending -lo make the verb impersonal. It is conjugated
with special tense endings. Verbs of a transitive character appear with the generalizing
prefix ta-, which makes them intransitive, or with the reflexive mo-. With the exception
of mo-, the impersonal verb never takes a personal prefix. The impersonal forms can be
translated into English with the phrase there is plus a substantive derived from the
appropriate verb or with the subject one. Examples:
kalakilo there is entry, one enters [kalaki he enters]

o:kalo there is weeping, one weeps [o:ka he weeps]
takwalo there is eating, one eats [takwa he eats]
mikilo there is dying, one dies [miki he dies]
momati:lo there is studying, one studies [momati he studies]
In the conjugation of the impersonal forms, the ending of the present is used when the
tense is indeterminate, and the ending of the preterite is used as a present. The transitory
preterite and the plural forms are lacking. Examples:
Indet. pres. kalakilo there is entry, one enters

Pret. as pres. kalakilo: there is entry, one enters
Future kalakilo:h there will be entry, one will enter
Imperfect kalakilowa:ya there was entry, one would enter
Subjunctive Mood makalakilo may there be entry, may one
enter
10. Basic Tenses of the Verb
The basic tenses already laid out are: present, future, imperfect, preterite and transitory
preterite. Examples of the use of each of these are presented below. Underneath most of
the entire sentences, a literal translation of each word is given in square brackets.
10.1 Present Tense

The present in Nahuatl is used as in English to express truths of an indeterminate time
and habitual acts. Examples:
In:n aha:yo: kiki:xtih, todo kita:lih en venta.

[That bean(s) they-take-it-out, all they-will-place-it on sale]
They will take those beans out and place them all on sale.
Nigah yawi sinti bonito. Ay: i:ikotehkawi.

[Here it-goes (grows) corn good-looking. Not it-crooked-rise.]
Good-looking corn grows here. It doesnt grow uneven.
In:n xi:lo: kanah se: mano kita:li.

[That green-corn somewhere one hand it-puts-it]
That green corn in places produces five.1
In:n remedio nokta pxsanya iga mokowa.

[This medicine certainly much-part. of emphasis-now that it-buys-itself]
This medicine certainly gets bought a lot now.
In:mpaki aye:kti iga tikwah.

[That-part. of explication-part. of hearsay its not a good thing that we-eat-it]
Reportedly, as for that thing, it is not good for us to eat it.
Tehame:n atimomakah de kwenta2 kn iga wetsi kiawa:.

[We not-we-give-ourselves -account how that it-falls rain]
We don't know how it is that the rain falls.
1
[The Spanish borrowing mano (lit. hand) is used to signify a group of five (apparently
ears of corn). CSM]
2
[The phrase timomakah de kwenta is a calque of the Spanish idiom nos damos de
cuenta. CSM]
82 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Neh yeh ihko:mpa pox ne:kwehkwesowa.

[I who thus-part. of explication much-he-annoys-me]
Anyone who acts like that annoys me a great deal.
10.2 Future Tense

The future is used in some cases like the future of English. Examples:
Kn nikihli:h? How will I tell him?

Tikmatis t iga mitsno:tsa. You will know why he is calling you.
In Nahuatl, the future is used more frequently and in a greater variety of contexts than in
English. For example, the following sentence contains three futures, one translated into
English with a future, one with a participle, and one with a present.
Iga ikw: tamis nikpili:nas, knya niki:was?

[That when it-will-stop I-will-spin how-now I-will-make-it]
When I stop spinning, how will I do it then?
The future is used to describe something of which one imagines that it can happen. The
following paragraph contains three verbs in the future.
Si ke:man tipohpoliwis ipan se: kwayoh, entonces in:n fruta,

[If some day you-will-lose-yourself on-it one forest, then that fruit]
If you get lost in a forset some time, then that fruit
wel tictahkotapa:nas. Entonces en seguida tiki:sas ipan inn kwayoh.

[it-can you-will-split-it. Then at once you-will-pass on-it that mountain]
youll be able to split it. Then you will get out of that mountain quickly.
The future is often used in exhortations meant to keep someone from doing something by
accident or through carelessness, although the translation does not always reflect this.
Amo tiwetsis!
(Make sure you) dont fall!
Teh in:n timona:mikti iw:n notakotsi:n.

[You (sg.) now you-will-marry with-her my daughter]
Pero amo tikmagas ke:man.

[But not you-will-hit-her some day.]
Today you are marrying my daughter. But (make sure you) dont ever hit her!
10. BASIC TENSES OF THE VERB 83
10.3 Imperfect Tense

The imperfect tense in Nahuatl corresponds for the most part to the imperfect in Spanish.
The use of this tense gives the verbal action the aspect of duration or habit (English was
doing X, would do X or used to do X). The endings -aya and -a:ya indicate this tense.
Ya:ya mi:lkoiti cada da.

[He-was-going he-goes-to-sleep-in-field every day.]
He would go every day to sleep in (his) field.
Tayowaka:n ki:sayah ma:paimeh.

[At night they-would-emerge the raccoons]
The raccoons would come out at night.
The imperfect can also indicate actions started but not finished or those that one desired
to carry out but did not.
Nikowaya tsapo pero anikasi.

[I-was-buying bananas but I-did-not-find-them]
I tried to buy bananas but I didnt find any.
Nita:tapowaya mowa:n pero animitsteoh.

[I-was-chatting with-you but not-I-reach-you]
I wanted to chat with you but I didnt find you.
The imperfect is also used in a conditional sense.
Ma iga nikipiaya tomi:n, nikowaya.1

[If that I-had-it money, I-would-buy-it.]
If I had the money, I would buy it.
10.4 Preterite Tense

The preterite is the form for the past, expressing completed action.
Kiwi:ga ia:n.
[He-took-him his-home.]
He took him home.
In:n owa yeh kito:ga mopiltsi:n yawi xo:owati.

[This cane that he-planted-it your-child it-is-going it-is-going-to-bloom.]
This cane that your child planted is going to bloom.
1
[On the last form, the object prefix -k- is apparently omitted for phonological reasons;
see Section 12.2.2 with footnote. CSM]
84 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Tine:-i:tih a:ti pxsanya,

[You (sg.)-gave-me-to-take water much-part.-now
este nonahnagas-ihti ki:sa a:ti.

until my-ears-within emerges water]
You gave me a lot of water until the water came out of my ears.
Ni agah atahtoh.
[Nor someone not-he-spoke]
Nobody said anything.
The character of the preterite is distinguished from the transitory preterite in terms of the
effect or result of their respective actions. Unless the verb has an inherently transitory
aspect, like kita I saw it or nitakwi:ga I sang, the preterite signifies not only that the
action was put into effect but that the result of this action endures until the present.
10.5 Transitory Preterite

The transitory preterite, on the other hand, signifies that the result of the action has been
reversed in some way and that it did not endure until the present. This tense is used to
express acts whose effect has turned out to be transitory. The ending -ka indicates the
transitory preterite.1
Kiwi:gaka ia:n.
[He-took-it his house]
He took it home. (Implication: but he no longer has it there.)
Wa:lka la comisin.
[The commission arrived.] (Implication: but it has left.)
Niksohka tsotsol.
[I-hung-it-out the clothes]
I hung out the clothes. (Implication: but but took them back in)
Wa:kika a:ti.
[It-dried-up water]
The water dried up. (Implication: but there is water again.)
The transitory preterite is normally translated into English with the pluperfect or the
simple past, so that the preceding examples can be translated as follows.
1
The use of the transitory preterite says nothing about how much time has elapsed since
the action was put into effect. It may have happened a moment or a long time ago. Given
this fact, we do not use the term remote preterite that has been given to it in various other
dialects of Nahuatl.
10. BASIC TENSES OF THE VERB 85
He had taken it home.
The commission had arrived.
He had hung out the clothes.
The water had dried up.
The transitory preterite is also used to signify interrupted actions whose realization
almost happened but was avoided. Examples:
Nimikika. I almost died. (Implication: I was on the point of dying but got better.)
Tiwetsika.1 You almost fell. (Implication: You began to fall but caught yourself.)
Conditional uses
The transitory preterite is also used in conditions.
ma iga ay: tikwaligakah tonyiloh, tipa:tsiwikah.

[If that not we-had-it-brought our-raincoat, we-would-dampen-ourselves]
If we hadnt brought our raincoats, we would have gotten wet.
1
The word tiwetska you almost fell is normally said as an immediate reaction when one
sees a companion stumble.
11. Directional Tenses
11.1 Direction Towards or Away from the Speaker
There are two groups of endings that combine the idea of direction with that of tense, and
they are used when the action of the verb implies that the subject changes location in
relation to the speaker.
A distinction is made between two movements: (1) towards there (in that the subject
departs from the speaker) and (2) towards here (in that the subject approaches the
speaker). There are three tenses: (1) present-future, (2) preterite, and (3) transitory
preterite; the meaning of these will be discussed in detail later. Examples:
Direction towards there

takowati he goes or will go to make purchases
takowato he went to make purchases
takowato:ya he went and made purchases (and returned)
Direction towards here

takowaki he comes or will come to make purchases
takowako he came to make purchases
takowako:ya he came and made purchases (and returned)
Verbs belonging to the conjugations of Group 2 lengthen the thematic vowel when they
take the endings of the directional tense. It can be said that the directional tenses are
formed with the same stem as the future is, if the thematic vowel is considered to be a
part of the stem.
Present (basic) ma:lti he bathes

Future (basic) ma:lti:h he will bathe
Directional tense towards there

Present and future ma:lti:ti he goes to bathe
Preterite ma:lti:to he went to bathe
Transitory Pret. ma:lti:to:ya he went and bathed (and returned)
Directional tense towards here

Present and future ma:lti:ki he comes to bathe
Preterite ma:lti:ko he came to bathe
Transitory Pret. ma:lti:ko:ya he came and bathed (and returned)
To form the plurals of the directional tenses, -h is added to the ending.

88 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Direction towards there Singular Plural

Present and future -ti -tih
Preterite -to -toh
Transitory Pret. -to:ya -to:yah
Direction towards here Singular Plural

Present and future -ki -kih
Preterite -ko -koh
Transitory Pret. -ko:ya -ko:yah
11.2 Auxiliary Verbs of Movement

Verbs with the directional ending are normally accompanied by an independent auxiliary
verb of movement, such as one of the following:
ya:h he will go
yawi he goes
yahki he went (and has not yet returned)
yahka he went (and has already returned)
wi: he will come, is coming

wa:lah he came (and is still here)
wa:lka he came (and left again)
Together with the verb of movement, the construction is formed as follows:
Singular
ya:h takowati he will go to make purchases
yawi takowati he is going to make purchases
yahki takowato he went to make purchases
yahka takowato:ya he went and made purchases
wi: takowaki he will come or is coming to make purchases

wa:lah takowako he came to make purchases
wa:lka takowako:ya he came and made purchases
Plural
ya:skeh takowatih they will go to make purchases
yawih takowatih they is going to make purchases
yahkih takowatoh they went to make purchases
yahkah takowato:yah they went and made purchases
wi:tseh takowakih they will come or is coming to make purchases

wa:lkeh takowakoh they came to make purchases
wa:lkah takowako:yah they came and made purchases
11. DIRECTIONAL TENSES 89
11.3 The Values of the Directional Tenses

In the use of the endings of the directional tenses, the selection of the ending depends on
the direction of the movement of the subject and the place in his path in which he is
found, from the point of view of the speaker. Here is a summary of the values for each
tense:
Present and future impending or started movement

action of the verb: future tense
Preterite completed movement (in one direction)

action of the verb: time undefined
Transitory preterite movement returned

action of the verb: past time
The following charts illustrate the correlation among these values. The vertical line
represents an imaginary division between here and there, and the arrows mark the path of
the subject. The points where these cross over a line determine the changes in tense,
which are indicated by the horizontal lines.

Dividing line between
here and there
HERE THERE
-ti Present and When he has
Future not yet gone
-to Preterite When he has already Action

gone but not yet Realized
returned
-to:ya Transitory When he has already

preterite returned
90 NAHUATL GRAMMAR

Dividing line between
here and there
THERE HERE
-ki Present and When he has
Future not yet come
-ko Preterite When he has already Action

arrived but not yet Realized
returned
-ko:ya Transitory When he has already

preterite gone
Here is a complete list of the endings that are used in the directional tenses, together with
the thematic vowel for each conjugation.
Singular
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Present-fut. -ati -iti -i:ti -o:ti -a:ti
Preterite -ato -ito -i:to -o:to -a:to
Trans. Pret. -ato:ya -ito:ya -i:to:ya -o:to:ya -a:to:ya
Plural
st nd
1 2 3rd 4th 5th

Present-fut. -akih -ikih -i:kih -o:kih -a:kih
Preterite -akoh -ikoh -i:koh -o:koh -a:koh
Trans. Pret. -ako:yah -iko:yah -i:ko:yah -o:ko:yah -a:ko:yah
12. The Moods of the Verb
In the conjugation of the verb, there are certain variations that indicate whether the
signification of the verb is expressed as a simple fact or is considered in a different
manner, for instance, as an order. In Nahuatl, the verbs not only belong to one of the five
conjugations, but each form can also be classified according to the mood in which it is
found. There are three moods: indicative, imperative-subjunctive, and desiderative.
12.1 The Indicative Mood

The verbs that have been presented in the preceding pages are in the indicative mood, as
in the following expressions:
Kiihkeh ikalmeh. They built their houses.

Akipi tomi:n He has no money.
Te:no:tsakoh seh. They came to call us again.
In these expressions, the verbal idea is expressed as a fact or the negation of a fact, and in
this way we say that they belong to the indicative mood.
12.2 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood

In the following expressions, the forms of the verb express a command, advice, request or
authorization. They are in the imperative mood.
Ximota:li! Sit (sg.)!

Ximotalo! Run (sg.)!
Xine:pale:wi! Help (sg.) me!
Mania:ka:n! Lets (excl.) go!
Matia:ka:n! Lets (incl.) go!
Xah! Go (sg.)!
mpaya maka:wi.
[There-now let-him-wait]
Let him wait there now.
Atakaki ni que1 xikihli buen razn.

[not-he-pays-attention nor that you-tell-him good reason]
He pays no attention even though you are giving him good reasoning.
1
[Ni que: borrowed Spanish conjunction. CSM]
92 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Xikwi:ga mo:sta noburro iga xisakatekiti.

[Take-him tomorrow my-donkey that you-should-go-to-cut-hay.]
Take my donkey tomorrow so that you can go cut hay.
The prefixes of the imperative-subjunctive are:
ma- first and third person (placed in front of the person prefix)
xi- or x- second person (replaces the personal prefix1)
In all the conjugations, unless the verb appears with a directional suffix, the singular
forms in the imperative-subjunctive end with the thematic vowel, and the suffix -ka:n is
added to the plural. Examples:
12.2.1 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood: First Conjugation
-ita to see, kita he sees him/her/it

manikita may I see it
xikita see (sg.) it, may you see it
makita may he see it
manikitaka:n may we (excl.) see it

matikitaka:n may we (incl.) see it
xikitaka:n see (pl.) it, may you see it
makitaka:n may they see it
12.2.2 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood: Second Conjugation
-kwi to seize, kikwi he seizes it

manikwi2 may I seize it
w
xik i seize (sg.) him, may you seize it
makikwi may he seize it
manikwika:n may we (excl.) seize it

matikwika:n may we (incl.) seize it
xikwika:n seize (pl.) it, may you seize it
makikwika:n may they seize it
1
[Actually, x(i)- is an alternative form of the second person singular subject prefix that is
used only in the imperative-subjunctive mood. CSM]
2
[In the conjugation of a stem beginning with k-, when the object prefix -k- appears after
a subject prefix ending in a vowel (i.e., all persons apart from the third), the resulting
double -kk- is simplified to a single k (i.e., the object prefix is omitted). CSM]
12. THE MOODS OF THE VERB 93
12.2.3 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood: Third Conjugation
-ta:li to set down, mota:li he sits down (lit. sets himself down)
manimota:li may I sit down
ximota:li sit (sg.) down, may you sit down
mamota:li may he sit down
manimota:li:ka:n may we (excl.) sit down

matimota:li:ka:n may we (incl.) sit down
ximota:li:ka:n sit (pl.) down, may you sit down
mamota:li:ka:n may they sit down
12.2.4 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood: Fourth Conjugation
-temo to lower, temowa he descends

manitemo may I descend
xitemo descend (sg.), may you descend
matemo may he descend
manitemo:ka:n may we (excl.) descend

matitemo:ka:n may we (incl.) descend
xitemo:ka:n descend (pl.), may you descend
matemo:ka:n may they descend
12.2.5 The Imperative-Subjunctive Mood: Fifth Conjugation
-kwa to eat, takwa he eats

manitakwa may I eat
xitakwa eat (sg.), may you eat
matakwa may he eat
manitakwa:ka:n may we (excl.) eat

matitakwa:ka:n may we (incl.) eat
xitakwa:ka:n eat (pl.), may you eat
matakwa:ka:n may they eat
The verb in the imperative-subjunctive mood can take endings of the present directional.
In the plural, the directional endings -tih and -kih replace the ending -ka:n. Examples:
manikitati may I go to see it

xikitati go (sg.) to see it, may you go to see it
makitati may he go to see it
manikitatih may we (excl.) go to see it

matikitatih may we (incl.) go to see it
xikitatih go (pl.) to see it
makitatih may they go to see it
94 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
manikitaki may I come to see it

xikitaki come (sg.) to see it, may you come to see it
makitaki may he come to see it
manikitakih may we (excl.) come to see it

matikitakih may we (incl.) come to see it
xikitakih come (pl.) to see it, may you come to see it
makitakih may they come to see it
12.3 The Desiderative Mood

In the following expressions, the idea is that the person wishes to do what is signified by
the root of the verb. Examples:
Kii:hnekih ikalmeh They want to build their houses.

Kipiasnegi tomi:n He wanted to have money.
Te:no:tsasnekih They wanted to call us.
Verbs in the desiderative mood consist of the future form of the singular of whatever
verbal root plus -neki to want. The temporal endings of the second conjugation are used.
The examples here appear in the third person to simplify the presentation.
12.3.1 The Desiderative Mood with a Verbal Root of the First Conjugation
-ita- to see
Singular
Present kitasneki he wants to see it
Future kitasnekis he will want to see it
Imperfect kitasnekia:ya he would want to see it
Preterite kitasnegi he wanted to see it
Trans. Pret. kitasnekika he had wanted to see it
Plural
Present kitasnekih they want to see it
Future kitasnekiskeh they will want to see it
Imperfect kitasnekia:yah they would want to see it
Preterite kitasnekikeh they wanted to see it
Trans. Pret. kitasnekikah they had wanted to see it
12.3.2 The Desiderative Mood with a Verbal Root of the Second Conjugation
-mati- to know
Singular
Present kimatisneki he wants to know it
Future kimatisnekis he will want to know it
Imperfect kimatisnekia:ya he would want to know it
Preterite kimatisnegi he wanted to know it

Trans. Pret. kimatisnekika he had wanted to know it
Plural
Present kimatisnekih they want to know it
Future kimatisnekiskeh they will want to know it
Imperfect kimatisnekia:yah they would want to know it
Preterite kimatisnekikeh they wanted to know it
Trans. Pret. kimatisnekikah they had wanted to know it
12.3.3 The Desiderative Mood with a Verbal Root of the Third Conjugation
-ilpi- to bind
Singular
Present kilpi:hneki he wants to bind it
Future kilpi:hnekis he will want to bind it
Imperfect kilpi:hnekia:ya he would want to bind it
Preterite kilpi:hnegi he wanted to bind it
Trans. Pret. kilpi:hnekika he had wanted to bind it
Plural
Present kilpi:hnekih they want to bind it
Future kilpi:hnekiskeh they will want to bind it
Imperfect kilpi:hnekia:yah they would want to bind it
Preterite kilpi:hnekikeh they wanted to bind it
Trans. Pret. kilpi:hnekikah they had wanted to bind it
12.3.4 The Desiderative Mood with a Verbal Root of the Fourth Conjugation
-ahto- to speak
Singular
Present tato:hneki he wants to speak
Future tato:hnekis he will want to speak
Imperfect tato:hnekia:ya he would want to speak
Preterite tato:hnegi he wanted to speak
Trans. Pret. tato:hnekika he had wanted to speak
Plural
Present tato:hnekih they want to speak
Future tato:hnekiskeh they will want to speak
Imperfect tato:hnekia:yah they would want to speak
Preterite tato:hnekikeh they wanted to speak
Trans. Pret. tato:hnekikah they had wanted to speak
96 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
12.3.5 The Desiderative Mood with a Verbal Root of the Fifth Conjugation
-kwa- to eat
Singular
Present takwa:hneki he wants to eat
Future takwa:hnekis he will want to eat
Imperfect takwa:hnekia:ya he would want to eat
Preterite takwa:hnegi he wanted to eat
Trans. Pret. takwa:hnekika he had wanted to eat
Plural
w
Present tak a:hnekih they want to eat
Future takwa:hnekiskeh they will want to eat
Imperfect takwa:hnekia:yah they would want to eat
Preterite takwa:hnekikeh they wanted to eat
Trans. Pret. takwa:hnekikah they had wanted to eat
12.3.6 Figurative Use of the Desiderative Mood

The desiderative mood is also used in the sense of the imminent future, expressing what
to all appearances is likely to happen. Examples:
Wi:neki tiawa: Wetsisneki nokal

[it-wants-to-come rain] [it-wants-to-fall my-house]
Its about to rain. My house is about to fall down.
12.3.7 Interpretation of the Endings -skia:ya and -ski

There are verbal endings, -skia:ya and -ski, which have been interpreted as belonging to
a postpreterite tense. I allow myself the liberty of proposing that these endings are a
variety of the desiderative mood. According to my analysis of their meaning and of the
rules of apocope that are manifested in the Nahuatl speech of Mecayapan and
Tatahuicapan, the verbs that take these endings have to be considered as apocopated and
contracted forms of the imperfect tense of the desiderative.1 The following table shows
the relationship between them. Note that the h that is placed in front of the n in examples
3-5 turns into s in front of k.
1
Although the verbs in the desiderative mood could be considered as special forms in the
indicative mood, I have assigned them to their own mood because they are differentiated
from the other types of complex verbs in two of their characteristics: 1) they include a
unique mechanism of derivation on the basis of the future tense, and 2) they lack
imperative-subjunctive forms.
Complete forms Apocopated Contracted Meaning

forms apocopated
forms
1. kitasnekia:ya kitaskia:ya kitaski he wanted to see him
2. kimatisnekia:ya kimatiskia:ya kimatiski he wanted to know it
3. kilpi:hnekia:ya kilpi:skia:ya kilpi:ski he wanted to bind him
4. tahto:hnekia:ya tahto:skia:ya tahto:ski he wanted to speak
5. takwa:hnekia:ya takwa:skia:ya takwa:ski he wanted to eat

13. The Aspects of the Verb
The aspect of the verb indicates the manner in which the action is brought to an end,
whether this action takes place suddenly, is now in progress, or is related to some other
action. In English, such aspects are mostly expressed by means of compound expressions
of two or more words. In Nahuatl, the aspects are expressed not only with phrases of two
or more independent words but also with a compound verb consisting of two or more
verbal roots.
13.1 Aspects Consisting of Complex Verbs

Complex aspectual verbs contain a nuclear root plus an aspectual root. In most cases, the
nuclear root takes the form of the preterite of the plural without the ending -keh followed
by -t or -ti plus some aspectual verbal root.1 The aspectual root consists of a variant of an
independent verb, and this takes the endings of tense and number. Examples:
isato he is awoken (stative aspect)

[isa to awaken; -o variant of ono to be2]
ki:stiawih they go emerging (progressive aspect)

[ki:s dep. root of ki:sa to emerge; -iawi variant of yawi to go]
asitiwi: he comes arriving (progressive aspect of approach)

[asi to arrive; -wi: to come]
Other aspects without classification:
ta:tahtohtinemi he walks speaking

[ta:- reduplicated syllable; tahtoh- form of the dep. root of tahtowa to
speak; nemi to walk]
ilpitika:wi he stayed bound

[-ilpi- dep. root of kilpi to bind; ka:wi to remain]
1
[The statement that the verbal nucleus consists of the preterite plural minus the ending
-keh is really just a mechanical way of indicating that it is simply the preterite stem
(which sometimes undergoes phonetic change at the end and is regularly preserved in its
original form in front of the plural marker. CSM]
2
[Etymologically, this verb (see Section 18.3.3) means to lie. In historical terms, the verb
is a monosyllable, and Classical Nahuatl has a tendency to add the directional prefix on-
to short verbs like this to give them greater substance. CSM]
100 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
kilpitikahkeh they left him bound

[ki- him; -ilpi- dep. root of kilpi to bind; -kahkeh they left]
ne:tai:lihtiki:sa they began to look at me

[ne:- me; -tai:li to look at; ki:sa to emerge]
motalohtasi he arrived running

[motalo- verbal root of motalowa to run; asi to arrive]
The compounds in -te:wa are translated in various senses (-te:wa does not appear as an
independent form1).
olohte:wa he fled suddenly

[olo- dep. root of olowa to flee]
mitsitste:wa he saw you while passing by

[mits- you; -its- variant of the verbal root -ita- to see]
takwahte:wa he ate and left

[takwa- to eat]
The preceding examples have been selected with an eye towards representing the variety
of compounds that are formed in this way. Next, three of the aspectual forms used more
frequently will be given in a more detailed presentation, since they bear irregular endings.
13.1.1 The Stative Aspect

The stative aspect is one of the aspects relating to continued action. Its meaning is to
present the action as a situation or as a state in which the subject finds itself. The preterite
is used as the present.
Nitakwahto. I am eating. (My situation is to be eating.)
Nitapa:nto. I am sweeping. (My situation is to be sweeping.)
Nikitsto. I am seeing him. (My situation is to be seeing him.)
The preceding words have an active sense, and are translated with the word be plus the
present participle. They indicate that the subject is engaged in putting the action into
effect.
It is necessary to distinguish another meaning that a verb in the stative aspect can have.
This is the passive sense, when it signifies that the subject is in the state that results from
the action or from the vebal idea. If the verb is transitive, this form is generally translated
1
[The verb e:wa to depart is well attested in Classical Nahuatl. CSM]
13. THE ASPECTS OF THE VERB 101
in English with the verb to be plus the past participle.1 If the verb is intransitive, it may
also appear in this form in English, although sometimes it is more idiomatic to translate it
with the perfect tense. Note the following examples:
Nikwesito. Im annoyed
Niwetsto. Im lying (i.e., recumbent, on my side).
Nisiato. Im tired.
Here are some examples of the conjugation of the third person of the verb wetsi- in the
stative aspect of the indicative mood. Note that while in the other forms, this verb
signifies to 'fall', that is, move from a vertical to a horizontal position, in the stative it
signifies the result of this action, that is to 'be lying (down)', for rest or sleep. Verbs in the
stative aspect conjugate like the irregular verb ono to be.
wetsi- to fall
Indicative mood:
Singular
Tense
Indeterminate wetsto to be lying
Preterite as present wetsto he is lying
Future wetstos he will be lying
Imperfect wetstoya he used to be lying
With direction towards there:

Present and Future wetstoti he goes or will go to be lying
Preterite wetstoto he went to be lying
Transitory Pret. wetstoto:ya he went and was lying for a while
With direction towards here:

Present and Future wetstoki he comes to be lying
Preterite wetstoko he came to be lying
Transitory Pret. wetstoco:ya he came and was lying for a while
1
[In English, one must clearly distinguish between the use of the adjectival past
participle with the verb to be, which indicates a state, on the one hand and the formally
indistinguishable use of the past participle with the verb to be as the periphrastic passive
on the other: i.e., the door is open meaning it was opened up by someone in the past and
is now standing open vs. the door is opened when necessary meaning it normally
remains closed and it is opened up by someone when entry is required. The first
sentence refers to the passive state, the second to the periphrastic passive (i.e, it signifies
the performance of the action rather than its result). CSM]
102 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Plural
Tense
Indeterminate wetstoh to be lying
Preterite as present wetstokeh they are lying
Future wetstoskeh they will be lying
Imperfect wetstoyah they used to be lying

Present and Future wetstotih they go or will go to be lying
Preterite wetstotoh they went to be lying
Transitory Pret. wetstoto:yah they went and were lying for a while

Present and Future wetstokih they come to be lying
Preterite wetstokoh they came to be lying
Transitory Pret. wetstoko:yah they came and were lying for a time
Next, examples are presented of the conjugation of the same stative verb in the
imperative-subjunctive mood:
Imperative-subjunctive mood:
mawetsto may he be lying
s
xiwet to may you (sg.) be lying
mawetstoka:n may they be lying
xiwetstoka:n may you (pl.) be lying

mawetstoti may he go to be lying
xiwetstoti may you (sg.) go to be lying
s
mawet totih may they go to be lying
xiwetstotih may you (pl.) go to be lying

mawetstoki may he come to be lying
xiwetstoki may you (sg.) come to be lying
mawetstokih may they come to be lying
s
xiwet tokih may you (pl.)come to be lying
13.1.2 The Progressive Aspect

The progressive aspect gives the idea that the action is effected progressively, as an
ongoing process, a series of actions, or an action that takes place when the subject is
headed in some direction. It is translated with the verb to go plus the present participle or,
in certain cases, the past participles. Examples:
Subject in motion:
Kitapohtiawih ohti. They go clearing the way.
Kwesiti. He goes annoyed.

ipi:nti. He goes dripping.
Isi:kti. He goes panting/wheezing.
Ongoing process
Mo-ihkititi ikiwi. He goes (on) weaving the basket.
Kihkwilohti icarta. He goes (on) writing his letter.
Kitehte:ntekti a:ma. He goes (on) clipping the edge of the paper.
Verbs in the progressive aspect are compound words, and their last element is the
irregular verb -ia- to go. They are conjugated with the regular endings of this root (see
Section 18.3.1).
Singular
Present takwi:kti he goes (on) singing

Future takwi:ktia:h he will go (on) singing
Imperfect takwi:ktia:ya he would go (on) singing
Preterite takwi:ktiahki he went (on) singing
Transitory Pret. takwi:ktiahka he had gone (on) singing
Plural
Present takwi:ktiawih they go (on) singing

Future takwi:ktia:skeh they will go (on) singing
Imperfect takwi:ktia:yah they would go (on) singing
Preterite takwi:ktiahkih they went (on) singing
Transitory Pret. takwi:ktiahkah they had gone (on) singing
13.1.3 The Progressive Aspect of Approach

The progressive aspect of approach is normally used to specify that the verbal idea is put
into effect when the subject advances towards here. In certain contexts, the sense refers to
the advance of time towards the present moment.
The subject in motion towards here:

Kwesitiwi:. He comes annoyed.
ipi:ntiwi:. He comes dripping.
Isi:ktiwi:. He comes panting/wheezing.
The process ongoing towards the present moment:

Kiihtiwi: kahli.
[he-comes-making-it house]
He comes making houses (has been doing so for a while).
In:n nikita que takomeh mona:miktihtiwi:tseh de doce aos.

[now I-see-it that girls they-come-marrying at twelve years.]
I see now that the girls are getting married at the age of twelve.
104 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Verbs in the progressive aspect of approach are composed of two or more verbal roots,
the last of which is the irregular verb -wi: to come and conjugates in the manner
appropriate to that verb (see Section 18.3.2).
Singular
Present or Future takwi:ktiwi: he comes singing
Imperfect takwi:ktiwi:tsia:ya he would come singing
Preterite takwi:ktiwa:lah he came singing
Transitory Pret. takwi:ktiwa:lka he had come singing
Plural
Present or Future tak i:ktiwi:tseh
w
they come singing
Imperfect takwi:ktiwi:tsia:yah they would come singing
Preterite takwi:ktiwa:lkeh they came singing
Transitory Pret. takwi:ktiwa:lkah they had come singing
13.2 Aspects with Independent Particles

13.2.1 The Particles nemi Used as Auxiliary Verb
Verbal constructions with the auxiliary particle nemi signify an action in progress in the
present moment or at the same time as another action takes place. The auxiliary does not
change while the principal verb takes the markers of person, tense and number.
Examples:
nemi nitakwa I am eating

nemi titakwa you (sg.) are eating
nemi takwa he is eating
nemi nitakwah we (excl.) are eating

nemi titakwah we (incl.) are eating
nemi antakwah you (pl.) are eating
nemi takwah they are eating
It is also used in the imperfect.
nemi nitakwa:ya I was eating

nemi titakwa:ya you (sg.) were eating
In this sort of construction, the present or the imperfect can be used to refer to continuous
actions that are correlated with other past acts. Example:
Yehame:n tikitakeh ka:n nemi tekipanowah.

[them we-saw-them where in-progress they-work]
or
Yehame:n tikitakeh ka:n nemi tekipanowa:yah.
[them we-saw-them where in-progress they-were-working]
Them we saw when they were working.
The constructions with nemi can have the meaning of the present or progressive perfect
in English. Examples:
Anemi nikita.
[no-in-progress I-se-it]
I havent seen it.
Yawi:pta nmiya tata a:ka:walyoh.

[for-days-now now-in-progress burns abandoned-land]
For days now the abandoned field has already been burning.
Note that the ending -ya on nemi corresponds to the temporal ya and not to the suffix
-aya of the imperfect.
13.2.2 The Auxiliary Particle wel

The particle wel can and the negative form awel cant are used as auxiliaries with
conjugated verbs. The auxiliary does not change, while the principle verb takes the
markers of person, tense and number.
The following example consists of the auxiliary with the verb -i:wa to do/make.
wel niki:wa I can do it

wel tiki:wa you (sg.) can do it
wel kii:wa he can do it
wel niki:wah we (excl.) can do it

wel tiki:wah we (incl.) can do it
wel ankii:wah you (pl.) can do it
wel kii:wah they can do it
It also appears in other tenses.
wel niki:was I will be able to do it

wel niki:waya I could do it
wel nikih I was able to do it
wel nikihka I could have done it
14. Applicative and Causative Verbs
14.1 Applicative Forms of the Verb
Applicative verbs are those that bear an ending formed with the applicative morpheme
-li-, which indicates that the object prefix refers to a non-direct object to which the action
of the verb is applied. When the primary meaning of the verb is transitive, the direct
object is taken for granted, even though it is not marked within the verb, since the verb
never bears two object prefixes.1
Applicative verbs take endings of the third conjugation.
Singular Plural
Present -li -lih
Future -li:h -li:skeh
Imperfect -lia:ya -lia:yah
Preterite -lih -lihkeh
Transitory Pret. -lihka -lihkah
14.1.1 Rules for Forming Applicative Verbs
Roots of the first conjugation. To form the applicative verb, the thematic vowel
changes to i, and -li- is added to this. Examples:
ne:pa:kili he washes it for me [kipa:ka he washes it]

ne:kowili he buys it for me [kikowa he buys it]
ne:patili he changes it for me [kipata he changes it]
ne-e:nili he guards it for me [ke:na he guards it]
Exceptions: The thematic vowel does not change in the following verbs:
ne-itali he sees it for me [kita he see it]

ne:piali he holds it for me [kipi he holds it]
Roots of the second conjugation. To form the applicative verb, -li- is added to
the thematic vowel. Examples:
1
[That is, a verb can take only one object, and if the verb has the applicative ending, the
object prefix is governed by that ending and the object of the verb itself is omitted as
something that can be understood. CSM]
108 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
ne:tisili he grinds it for me [kitisi he grinds it]

ne:mahmawili he's afraid of me [mahmawi he has fear]
ne:tayili he weeds it for me [kitayi he weeds it]
ne:tekili he cuts it for me [kiteki he cuts it]
Roots of the third conjugation. To form the applicative verb, -li- is added to the
thematic vowel, with the -a of the present tense dropped. Examples:
ne:ta:lili he places it for me [kita:li he places it]

ne:te:mili he fills it for me [kite:mi he fills it]
ne:ki:tskili he seizes it for me [kiki:tski he seizes it]
ne-ilpili he binds it for me [kilpi he binds it]
Roots of the fourth conjugation. To form the applicative verb, -wa changes into
-wi, and -li- is added to this. Examples:
ne:tahtowili he speaks on my behalf [tahtowa he speaks]

ne:paowili he calms him for me [kipaowa he calms him]
ne:kimilowili he wraps it up for me [kikimilowa he wraps it up]
ne:tapowili he opens it for me [kitapowa he opens it]
Roots of the fifth conjugation. To form the applicative verb, -li- is added to the
thematic vowel, which is lengthened. Example:
ne:kwa:li he eats my portion [kikwa he eats it]
14.1.2 Changes in the Root of Applicative Verbs

Some verbs undergo changes in their root, whether the dropping of a syllable, the
lengthenting of a vowel, or both. In one example, s turns into x. Examples:
ne:kwi:li he takes it from me [kikwi he takes it]

ne-ihli he tells it to me [kihtowa he says it]
ne:temo:li he lowers it for me [kitemowi he lowers it]
ne:tai:li he looks towards me [ta he looks]
neaxili he reaches me [asi he arrives]
14.2 Causative Forms of the Verb

When added to a verbal root, the causative ending -ti or -lti (third conjugation) turns
the root into a causative verb. The character of these verbs is always transitive, and it
signifies that the subject of the verb causes or instigates the object to do what is indicated
by the original verb. Note that in some cases there is a change in the root of the causative
form compared to the original (including the dropping or lengthening of the thematic
vowel). Examples:
nimitsmati I instruct you [tikmati you know it]

mitskwalti he gives you somethng to eat [tikwa you eat it]
kikoti he puts him to sleep [koi he sleeps]
14. APPLICATIVE AND CAUSATIVE VERBS 109
ne:ki:xti he takes me out [niki:sa I emerge]

kiweyalti he makes it grow [wey it grows]
kiolo:lti he puts him to flight [olowa he flees]
kimikti he kills him [miki he dies]
The tense endings of the causative verbs are those of the third conjugation. Examples:
Singular
Present nimitsmati I instruct you (sg.)
Future nimitsmati:h I will instruct you (sg.)
Imperfect nimitsmatia:ya I used to instruct you (sg.)
Preterite nimitsmatih I instructed you (sg.)
Trans. Pret. nimitsmatihka I had instructed you (sg.)
Subjunctive Mood manimitsmati may I instruct you (sg.)
Plural
Present nimitsmatih we instruct you (sg. or pl.)
Future nimitsmati:skeh we will instruct you (sg. or pl.)
Imperfect nimitsmatia:yah we used to instruct you (sg. or pl.)
Preterite nimitsmatihkeh we instructed you (sg. or pl.)
Trans. Pret. nimitsmatihkah we had instructed you (sg. or pl.)
Subjunctive Mood manimitsmati:ka:n may we instruct you (sg. or pl.)
14.3 Order of the Verbal Endings

Here is a table that shows and illustrates the order in which the causative, applicative,
aspectual and temporal endings are added to a verbal root in the indicative mood. In the
fourth column a basic temporal ending or a directional one can appear. The following
examples show the present-future directional away from the speaker for the verb tisi to
grind.
Order of the endings
1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Root +
Object thematic Causative Applicative Aspectual Temporal
vowel
tisi- -iti A
ki- -tisi- -l- -i:ti B
ki- -tisi- -lt- -i:ti C
ki- -tisi- -lti- -l- -i:ti D
tisi- -tinem- -iti E
110 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
ki- -tisi- -ltih- -tinem- -iti F

ki- -tisi- -lih- -tinem- -iti G
ki- -tisi- -lti- -lih- -tinem- -iti H
A tisiti He is going to grind

B kitisili:ti He is going to grind it for him
C kitisilti:ti He is going to make him grind
D kitisiltili:ti He is going to make him grind it for him (someone else)
E tisitinemiti He is going to go (around) grinding
F kitisiltihtinemiti
He is going to go (around) making him grind
G kitisilihtinemitiHe is going to go (around) grinding it for him (someone
else)
H kitisiltilihtinemiti He is going to go (around) making him grind it for him
15. Particles of Conjunction
15.1 Nahuatl Conjunctions
Conjunctions are particles or compounds that serve to connect clauses and other elements
of the sentence.
iw:n and
Ono dia:lmah sa:yo:lin iw:n mo:yo:.

[there-are many flies and mosquitos]
There are many flies and mosquitos
Nigah qui:squeh, ihun yahquih Ayipehtzi:n-a:pan.

[here they-left and they-went Apechinapa]
They left here and went to Apechinapa.
iga that
Kita iga nmiya xo:owa aha:yo:.

[he-saw-it that now-in-progress is flowering the bean(s)]
He saw that the beans were now in flower.
Kihtowah iga mihto:tih.

[they-say-it that they-dance]
They say that they are dancing.
iga so that
Xikwihkwitih kwahkwawil iga makwakwalaka pyilah.

[go (pl.)-bringing-bringing firewood so that it-can-boil pot]
Go bring firewood so that the pot can boil.
Nikta:lilihkeh la mesa iga matakwa:ka:n.

[we-set-it-for-them the table so that they-may-eat]
We set the table for them so that they could eat.
112 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
iga because
awel kiwi:ga iga eti:.

[he-cant he-carries-him because he-is-heavy]
He cant carry him because hes heavy.
iga when
Iga tasikoh, taywaya.

[when they-arrived-here it-was-dark-now]
When they arrived, it was already night.
ikw when
Ikw asitih a-ihti mono:tsah siwa:tkeh.

[when they-arrive-there within-water they-call-themselves women]
When they arrive at the stream, the women converse.
ma if
Ma iga nikpiaya tomi:n, nikowaya.1

[if that I-had-it money, I-would-buy-it]
If I had the money, I would buy it.
maleh although
Maleh tiawa:tah, pero tokni:nwa:n ywiho

[though it-is-raining yet our-brothers they-still-go
tekipano:tih imi:lpameh.
they-go-to-work to-their fields]
Even though it is rainy, our brothers are still going to their fields to work.
no ve:h2 because
Yh in:n kahli nemi kite:mi, no ve:h komati sinti kipi.

[he now house in-progress he-fills-it because plenty corn he-has-it]
He is now filling the house because he has plenty of corn.
1
[For the apparent absence of the object prefix on the last word, see Section 12.2.2 n. 2.
CSM]
2
[A Nahuatl version of the Spanish phrase no ves. CSM]
15. PARTICLES OF CONJUNCTION 113
kel if
Kel iga tikta:ni:ki nigah sinti xikta:ni:ki.

[If that you-come-to-earn-it here corn come-earn-it]
If youre coming here to work for corn, come work for it!
sil if (see Section 15.2 si)
Sil tikwa:h,1 xikproba:ro.

[If you-eat-it try-it]
If you are going to eat it, try it.
siga2 if (see Section 15.2 si)
Siga ankipolo:skeh, nih anyawih anka:witih.

[if you (pl.)-will-lose-it here you (pl.)-go you (pl.)-go-to-stay]
If you lose it, youre going to stay here.
15.2 Borrowed Conjunctions

The following conjunctions taken from Spanish are also used:
y, o, pero, si, que, como, porque, ni
y and
Tami kii:wilih itakwalmeh, y kita:liliaha mesa.

[it-ends they-make-them-it their meal and they-set-it-for-them table]
They finish making their meal for them and then they set the table for them.
o or
Atikmatih si tasiskeh o atasiskeh.

[not-we-know-it if we-will-arrive or not-we-will-arrive]
We dont know if well get there or not.
pero but
In:n noche yawi wi:tseti la gran eheka iga mitswetsilti:skeh

[this night it-goes goes-to-come the big wind so-that it-will-cause-to-fall-for-you
1
CSM]
2
[Si plus iga. CSM]
114 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
amocal, pero awetsis.

your (pl.)-house but not-it-will-fall]
Tonight, the big wind is going to come in order to make your house fall down on
you, but it wont fall.
okotsi:n iw:n takotsi:n mi:xna:mikih iga takwah, pero takotsi:n pi:n:.

[boy and girl they- face-themselves and they-eat, but girl is-
embarrassed]
The boy and girl face each other and eat, but the girl is ashamed.
si if (see Section 15.1 sil, siga)
Neh anikmati si wa:lah.

[I not-I-know-it if he-arrived]
I dont know if he arrived.
Si iga1 kihli:skeh iga kena, wel mona:miktih.

[if that they-will-tell-him that yes he-can he-will-get-a-spouse-for-himself]
If they say yes to him, he can get married.
que that
Kihtowa que yh akit.

[he-says-it that he not-he-cut-it]
He says that he didnt cut it.
como how, since
Neh nikehe:lkah, como ayo i: tikonta:rowah.2

[I I-forgot-forgot-it how not-now ever we-tell-it]
I've forgot them since we don't tell them anymore (referring to folkstories).
Pues yh kicuida:rowa, como weyi imi:l.

[then he he-takes-note-of-it how big his field]
He takes care of it since his field is big.
1
[This is just an uncontracted version of siga. CSM]
2
CSM]
15. PARTICLES OF CONJUNCTION 115
porque because
Este i:ltiya iyi:x, porque kahakilihkeh xa:hli.

[even red-now his-eyes because they-threw-for-him sand]
Now he even has red eyes, because they threw sand at him.
Ayo xah, porque nih takw:lo:ya.

[not-now go because here it-is-meal-now]
Dont go now, because theres food here now.
ni nor
Yehame:n akikwah pepetska ni akalin.

[They not-they-eat-it little-fish nor shrimp]
They dont eat little fish or shrimp.
15.3 The Particle in

The particle in is difficult to classify with precision. Its use corresponds in part to that of
the definite article and the demonstrative adjective and in part to that of a conjunction. It
is placed in front of not only substantives but also verbs and other parts of speech. One of
its functions can be to indicate the elements that are more intimately bound to the topic
being treated. Perhaps it serves at times simply to make the rhythm of the spoken word
more agreeable. The following examples, which are drawn from conversations and
recorded stories, are presented so that people of linguistic aptitude can apply their own
analysis.
In amehwa:n, kn ankihlih sanda?

[in you (pl.), how do-you-say-it sanda]
As for you, how do you say sanda?
Inn, ix t in ito:ka: in ta:ga?

[that one interrog.-part. what in his-name in the man]
That one, whats that mans name?
Ix t :ntahki in poliwi?
[interrog. part. what that-part. of emphasis-part. of hearsay in it-got-lost]
What do they say that thing is that got lost?
Ikya kima:wila:nti in okotsi:n yeh iw:wehpaya.

[in-past he goes-taking-her-by-the-hand in boy who he-is-her-husband-now]
In the past, the boys who is now her husband would lead her by the hand.
116 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Kel tikw:, xikw: in ko:ne:. 1

[if you-take-it take (sg.)-it in baby]
If you want to take it, take it to the baby.
Kimaka itaxkal iga tayowaka:n makikwa in isiwa:.

[He-gives-her-it her tortilla(s) so that at-night she-would-eat-it in his wife]
He gave his wife his tortillas, so that she could eat them at night.
Kik t in niktahtanilih.
[he-heard what in I-asked-it-of-him]
He understood what it was that I asked of him.
Yawi:pta anka ay: ankifirma:rohkeh in nigah.

[for-days perhaps not you (pl.)-sign-it in here]
For days now you have perhaps not signed here.
mpaya in te:servi:rowa, weh.

[there-now in serve-us little brother]
That's how it befits us now, little brother
Ayo xah! Ka: makitolo in ma:paimeh in tomi:l.

[not-now go allow they-may-finish-it in raccoons in our field]
Dont go now! Let the raccoons finish up our field.
A las tres de la maana kiwi:gakeh in yegin.

[at three in the morning they-brought-it in a while ago]
A while ago, at about three in the morning, they brought it.
In:n in yh, nemi kisasaka ai nokwahkwawiltsi:n.

[now in he in-progress he-carts-it a-little my-little-firewood]
Now as for him, he is carting a little of my firewood.
1
[For the apparent absence of the object prefix on the two verbs, see Section 12.2.2 n. 2.
CSM]
16. The Adverb
The adverb is a part of speech that is used to qualify the signification of a verb or an
adjective, and at times that of another adverb. It can be interrogative, demonstrative,
qualifying, relative or negative. There exist in Nahuatl a great number of compound
words consisting of substantives and locative roots, and these serve as adverbs in the
sentence. Some of these take possessive prefixes that serve to localize the action or to
denote the relationship between two words.
These are grouped into the categories of adverbs of place, time, manner, quantity and
order, with the corresponding interrogatives: where, when, how, and in which order. In
addition, adverbs of affirmation, negation and doubt are recognized, as well as special
adverbs of place (see Section 17.0).
16.1 Adverbs of time

16.1.1 Interrogative:
k:man? when?
16.1.2 Relatives:
ke:man when
ikw: when
kw: when
16.1.3 Negatives:
nike:man never
ay: never
16.1.4 Indefinite:
ke:man at some time, ever
16.1.5 Other adverbs of time:

ikwa: then
a:man today
:mansan at this very moment
ina:man now
in:n now
a:n now
naman soon
118 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
seh1 again
kehk:mansan from time to time
ya:lwa yesterday
mo:sta tomorrow
wi:pta in a few days
yawi:pta a few days ago
i:k:n a while ago
ikya a long time ago
ikyo: or kyao far in the future
ye:wa a few hours ago
yegin earlier today
yegimpa recently
smiya right now
nktaya in a moment
nokto: or nktao a moment ago
noipa all the time
ya se: xiwi a year ago
este se: xiwi next year
isahpa early
tio:ta late in the day
diso:rah2 very late
tayowa late (at nightfall)
yowa:n last night
yowa:mpa in the night
senyowal all night
semilwi all day
16.2 Adverbs of Manner

16.2.1 Interrogative:
ken? how?
16.2.2 Relative:
ken as
16.2.3 Indefinite:
nikn so-so
1
seh is used not only to say again but also to indicate in the discourse a change in
emphasis that needs to stand out, whether this is a new subject or a verb that introduces a
problematical or unexpected idea. Examples:
Neh seh manikwiga momrral. Pero seh anikwahli: tomi:n.
[I new-subject may-I-take your-bag. but problem not-I-have money]
Now its my turn to take your bag. But the thing is, I have no money.
2
From the Spanish deshora inopportunely.
16. THE ADVERB 119
16.2.4 Demonstrative:
ihk:n thus, in this manner
ihk:n thus, in that manner
16.2.5 Qualifying:
yo:li slowly
isah quickly
iman:n quickly, swiftly
nokta absolutely
16.3 Quantifying Adverbs

ai somewhat
poxsan a lot, much
nma:nsan not so much, moderate
dia:lmah1 excessively
16.4 Adverbs of Order

ato before, first
ltimo last
despus afterwards
16.5 Adverbs of Doubt

anka perhaps, maybe
a:n perhaps, maybe
ix possibly
ixki possibly
16.6 Adverbs of Affirmation

kena yes
kentah yes
he: yes
mel certainly
no: also
no:san also
noi also
There are also adverbial methods of affirmation like the following:
aya:tah yes
amela:tah certainly
yeh iga certainly
sahawa yes (woman speaking)
he:keh yes (woman speaking)
1
From the Spanish del alma of the soul.
120 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
16.7 Adverbs of Negation
a- prefix of negation
ni agah atahtoh.
[nor someone not-spoke]
No one spoke.
ay not (indicative)
ni agah ay tahtoh.
[nor someone not he-spoke]
No one spoke.
amo not (imperative and subjunctive)
Amo ximomahti.
[not be-scared]
Dont be scared.
Amo tiksosolo:h.
[not you-will-break-it]
Don't go and break it.
Ximota:li nigah. Amo to:naya:n.

[sit here not in-the-sun]
Sit here, not in the sunshine.
Nikye:kta:lih iga amo makalaki kiawa:.

[I-fixed-it so-that not it-may-enter rain]
I fixed it so that the rain wouldnt enter.
aya not yet
Aya mona:mikti.
[not-yet he-gets-married]
He hasnt gotten married yet.
Antes iga aya tane:si, teh nmiya titapa:na.

[before that not-yet dawn-arrived you (sg.) now-in-progress you (sg.)-
sweep]
Before the crack of dawn, you are already sweeping.
The use of ayo encompasses two senses: 1) the interruption of something that would
normally happen and 2) the omission of something that was intended or was expected to
happen. In the first case, the enclitic ending -ya is added in many instances. Examples:
16. THE ADVERB 121
ayo not now
yoya wi:.
[now-not-now he-comes]
Hes not coming now (he would normally come often).
Ayo wi:.
[not-now he-comes]
Hes not coming now (he was going to come).
ay: never
Ay: nikita ihko:mpa kowa:.

[never I-see-it of-this-kind snake]
Ive never seen a snake like this.
There are forms composed of two elements with the sense never:
ay: i: never (equivalent to ay: )

aya i: never before
ayo i: never now
Also note the following words which, even though they are not adverbs, are normally
used as negative responses analogous to adverbs.
pronouns
ayh isnt, thats not him/her
at: nothing
ayagah no one
verb
ateyi (there) isnt any
16.8 The Special Adverb katka1
katka previously, better, please, if only
Yh in:n welya melatahtowa, pero ayh no: itahtol katka.

[he now he-can-now speak-truly but isnt also his-speech previously.]
1
[This is a fossilized vestige of the Classical Nahuatl verb meaning to be (in a transient
position or state); the form is the imperfect (in meaning, though pluperfect in form). In
the Classical language too, it is used as a tense marker (it specifies a tenseless equative
sentence with a subject prefix attached to a noun as applying to the past). CSM]
122 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Yh tahtowa:ya en popoluca.
he he-would-speak in popoluca]
Now he can speak properly (i.e., in Nahuatl), but this isnt what his speech
used to be. He used to speak in popoluca.1
Aya katka xah. Mo:sto: tia:h, porque in:n taywaya.

[not-yet better go. tomorrow you (sg.)-will-go because now it-is-late]
Its better for you not to go yet. You will go tomorrow because its late
now.
Ma seh katka xine:wahligili.

[if-only again please bring-it-to-me]
If possible, please bring it to me.
Tia:ya katka ya:lwa.

[you (sg.)-were-going better yesterday]
It would have been better for you to have gone yesterday.
Porque si yh katka kentende:rowa:ya, makihto, xiwi:ki seh.

[because if he if-only he-was-expecting-it he-would-say come-here again]
For if he had understood, he would have said, come again.
16.9 Inseparable Qualifying Adverbs

The majority of qualifying adverbs of manner are of the inseparable variety, combining
with a verbal or adjectival root to form a compound stem. Some inseparable adverbial
elements are:
ye:- well nehma- doubtfully

ma:l- badly yoka- intentionally
mela- truly sen- together
tawel- to the good nohma- openly
tawe:l- unwillingly nema:n- somewhat
na:mo:l- crudely itaka- covertly
iko- crookedly sepan- reciprocally
teki- habitually ohpa- anew
tahko- in the middle pox- a lot, much
1
[Popoloca is a Nahuatl term meaning to speaking unintelligibly. This was borrowed into
Spanish as a term for various non-Nahuatl-speaking populations. Here it has been
borrowed back in its Spanish form (governed by a Spanish preposition). CSM]
16. THE ADVERB 123
Examples:
Kiyokatati:to. He went to burn it on purpose.

[ki- object prefix of the 3rd person; -yoka- on purpose; -tat- root of tata to
burn; -i:- reduced ending of causative -i; -to perfect directional ending
towards there]
Tisenwi:tseh. We will arrive together.
Ne:nohma-ihlih. He told me openly.
Ai nema:nkoko:. Its a bit spicy.
In:n poxtakwakti. This is very hard.
16.10 Enclitic Adverbial Endings

There is a group of monosyllabic adverbial particles (or endings) that are placed after
verbs, adjectives, adverbs and also substantive words without causing a change in the
position of the prosodic accent. That is, when an enclitic particle is added to a word, the
prosodic accent remains on the same syllable. The result is that the penultimate accent on
a word becomes antepenultimate through the addition of an enclitic particle, and the
addition of two or more particles puts the accent before the antepenultimate syllable (see
Section 1.5).
The following enclitic particles serve to specify the temporal relationship between the
elements in the discourse.
-ya1 now (enclitic ending of the third rank)
Wi:ya pasaje. The bus is now coming.

Teh titgaya. You (sg.) are a man now.
Wehwyiya. They are now grown up.
-a [variant of -ya used after h]
Kinamakkeha. Now they sold them.
-o still, yet, meanwhile, while

(enclitic of the third rank)
1
The enclitic ending -ya in the spoken language is often reduced to -y after a vowel.
ktaya or kitay I now see him
iy:xkoya or iy:xkoy now on top of
tmiya or tamiy now it is ending
124 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Mak:wi-o iga wi:pta.

[may-he-remain-meanwhile for the-next-day]
In the meanwhile, let him stay until the next day
Knego1 seh maasi ipiltsi:n.

[he-still-wanted-it again that-he-arrive his-son]
He still wanted his son to come again.
X:lo:to2 It is still green corn.
Manikihli:to:.3 Let me now go to speak to him.

(as long as he has nothing else to do)
-san solely, only, emphatically, himself

(enclitic ending of the second rank)
In:nsan. There is only that.

[in:n that]
Se:san noye:meh. We have only one mother.

[se: one, noye:meh our mother]
Tmisan in:n kito:ka, se lugar yawi.

[it-ends-emphat. that he-sows-it another place he-goes]
As soon as he finishes sowing that one, he goes to another place.
Y:lisan motalowa in:n a:t.

[slowly-only it-runs that water]
That river runs slowly.
Yhsan kihtoh. He himself said.
Ka:nsan iga yahki yh, neh no: niahki.

[where-only that he-went he I too I-went]
Wherever he went, I went too.
Other enclitic endings that serve to give emphasis or intensity to a word are:
-wa (enclitic ending of the fourth rank)
1
In the verb knego, the g replaces the glottal stop that is borne by the original form
kine he asked him.
2
The t replaces the glottal stop that is part of the original form xi:lo green corn.
3
The complete form of the word is manikihl:ti-o . The combination of a vowel plus
-o is often reduced to -o:.
16. THE ADVERB 125
[-wa seldom used alternative form]
-keh (enclitic ending of the fifth rank)
-tah (enclitic ending of the fifth rank)
The enclitic ending -ki indicates that what is being communicated is known to the
speaker only through hearsay. It is added to the first word or the word that is the nucleus
of the clause.
-ki they say, he said (enclitic ending of the sixth rank)
Ta:ltmpaki ono a:ltepe:.

Under the earth, they say, there is a town.
mpaki nimota:lih. There, he said, I sat down.
When added to a word, the enclitic ending -pa signifies that the word is considered as
explanatory information. That is, it is the way in which something is done, the direction
in which one goes, or the class of persons or things being treated.
-pa (enclitic ending of the first rank)
Anka katka mamotsipa.

[perhaps better that-it-grinds-itself-pa]
Perhaps it would be better for it to be ground
(Implies: Grinding is the better method of preparing it.)
Wa:lkeh nihgapa Ocotah.

[they-came to-here-pa Ocotal]
They came here by way of Ocotal Texisapan.
Mikeha yeh tehme:mpa nemi momatih.

[many-now who we-pa in-progress they-make-themselves-know]
Now many of our people are studying.
The ranking in which the adverbial particles appear in relation to the stem are:
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
-pa -san -(y)a -wa -keh -ki

-o -tah
17. Adverbs of Place
17.1 Independent Adverbs of Place
The independent adverbs of place broadly correspond to the adverbs of place in English.
17.1.1 Interrogative
k:n where?
17.1.2 Relative
ka:n where
17.1.3 Indefinite
kanah somewhere
17.1.4 Negative
akanah nowhere
17.1.5 Demonstratives
17.1.5.1 Simple demonstratives
no:ya:n everywhere
nigah here
ompa around there
nepa there
ne: there
na: near
wehka in the distance, far
tani low
sentapal on the other side
17.1.5.2 Demonstratives Formed with -iga

Some of the simple adverbs are combined with the ending -iga or -ika.
nihiga here (contraction: nih)

ompiga there (contraction: omp)
ne-iga towards there (contraction: ne-)
ahkopika uphill (see ahkopa directly below)
17.1.5.3 Demonstratives Formed with -pa

Adverbs that are formed with an adverb plus the ending -pa belong to two classes: 1)
those accented on the penult and 2) those accented on the antepenult (see -pa in Section
16.10).
128 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
With accent on the penult:

tanipa downwards
ahkopa upwards
With accent on the antepenult:

ngahpa towards here (contraction: nihpa)
nihgapa towards here (contraction: nihipa)
mbapa towards there (close by)
[omba- dependent form of ompa]
ompgapa towards here (contraction: ompipa)
nbapa towards there
[neba- dependent form of nepa]
ne-gapa in that direction
17.2 Independent Adverbs Formed with a Possessive Prefix

Some of the independent adverbs of place laid out above can take a possessive prefix to
indicate the relationship that exists between the person or object and the place noted. An
adverb composed in this way is equivalent to a prepositional phrase.
nonigah on this part of my body

moompa on that part of your (sg.) body
nono:ya:n everywhere on my body
non: close to me
mon: close to you (sg.)
mok:n? on what part of your (sg.) body?
There is another, distinct use of the adverb ompa there. With a possessive prefix and the
enclitic ending -ya now it is turned into an adjective that qualifies something that remains
good or is good for the person. Example:
nompaya its my size, its good for me
When the possessor is in the plural, the ending -meh is added if the prefix does not
specify the grammatical number.
nona:meh near us (excl.)

ton: near us (incl.)
amon: near you (pl.)
ina:meh near them
17.3 Dependent Adverbs of Place

Nahuatl makes use of a large number of dependent adverbial morphemes that form
adverbs of place. These morphemes never appear without the possessive (or the
generalizing prefix ta-) or the substantive nucleus on which it depends, and in many
cases it takes both.
17. ADVERBS OF PLACE 129
When the dependent adverb takes the generalizing prefix -ta, the resulting form
corresponds to an adverb in English. Examples:
tatampa downwards, below
When it takes a possessive prefix, the adverb is translated into English with a
prepositional phrase, and the prefix corresponds to the object of the preposition.
Examples:
notampa below me
motampa below you (sg.)
itampa below him
When the prefix consists of a substantival nucleus, it corresponds to the object of the
preposition in English. Examples:
tetampa below the stone

a:tampa underwater
kwatampa under the tree
ta:ltampa underground
tiawa:tampa under the rain
Dependent adverbs with a possessive prefix can function in a manner analogous to that of
prepositions in English, governing an independent noun.1 Phrases formed in this way are
less frequent, but they have the same meaning as those composed with an entire
substantive nucleus.
itampa teti. underneath the stone

itampa kwawi beneath the tree
itampa tiawa: under the rain
The combination of a possessive prefix with a possessed substantival nucleus

corresponds to the possessed object of the preposition in English. Examples:
nokwatampa beneath my tree

mokwatampa beneath your (sg.) tree
ikwatampa beneath his tree
Next, examples of other adverbial morphemes of place will be laid out.
1
[The point is that the third-person prefix refers to or anticipates the noun, which appears
separately. Hence, itampa te ti literally says its-underside the stone, that is, beneath it,
(namely) the stone. Thus, there is no equivalence with the syntactic function of the
preposition of an Indo-European language, and the formal similarity that both itampa
and beneath stand before the noun is of no significance. CSM]
130 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
17.3.1 -tah where there is much of something or there is something of interest

The ending -tah in its locatival use converts a substantive into an adverb of place. It can
refer to a place where the thing indicated by the substantive exists or there is a lot of it, in
order to indicate where an activity of interest is put into play. An adverb formed with
-tah normally implies the sort of activities that take place there. Examples:
Nia tekwisihtah. Im going where there are many crabs.

(Implication: Im going to catch crabs)
Nia ma:ngohtah. Im going where there are many mangoes.

(Implication: Im going to harvest mangoes)
Nia ilwitah. Im going to the festival.
Nia kawa:yohtah. Im going to where the horse is.

(Implication: the horse is tethered there)
Nia kaltah. Im going to where there is a house.

(Implication: the house is under construction)
Nia xo:lo:tah.1 Im going to where there is a baby.

(Implication: the baby is being born)
17.3.2 -i:xtah in front of

This adverb is composed of the root -i:x- eyes plus -tah.
no-i:xtah in front of me, in my sight

mo-i:xtah in front of you (sg.), in your sight
iyi:xtah in front of him, in his sight
etc.
17.3.3 -tepotstah behind

This adverb is composed of the root -tepots- back plus -tah.
tatepotstah in back
notepotstah in back of/behind me
kaltepotstah behind the house
nokaltepotstah behind my house
17.3.4 -tsi:ntan at the foot of, on the ground by, at the base of
This adverb consists of the substantive root -tsi:n- bottom and the locatival element -tan.
To this are added personal prefixes, substantival roots or the generalizing prefix ta-.
1
Only women say this.
itsi:ntan at his feet

tatsi:ntan at the feet of something, at the base
Mota:lih kwatsi:ntan.
[he-sat-himself at the foot of the tree]
He sat down at the foot of the tree.
Nikahteh noaha:wil ne: mokaltsi:ntan.

[I-left-it my-toy there on-the-ground-by-your-house]
I left my toy on the ground by your house.
Se: zapatazo iketsi:ntan kitamo:tiliht:.

[a kick at-the-base-of-the-nape he-threw-it-suddenly]
He suddenly kicked him in the nape of the neck.
17.3.5 -nakastan at the side of

This adverb is composed of the root -nakas- ear and the locative element -tan.
Inakastan yawi se pe:lo.

[at-his-side it-goes another dog]
Another dog is going beside him.
Tahkoya:n ka:wi in titi, inahnakastan1 in tekomameh.

[in-the-middle he-stayed the-fire at-their-side the-gourds]
The fire stayed in the middle, beside the gourds.
17.3.6 -ikxitan at the feet of

This adverb is composed of the root -ikxi- feet plus -tan.
Nepa wetsto se: a:ko:xah mokxitan.2

[there it-is-fallen one needle at-your-feet]
A needle is lying there at your feet.
17.3.7 -tampa below

The locative adverb -tampa consists of the element -tan plus the ending -pa towards. To
it are added possessive prefixes or the generalizing prefix ta-. Examples:
tatampa below
notampa below me
motampa below you (sg.)
itampa below him
1
The locative adverb inahnakastan contains a reduplicated syllable that indicates the
plurality of the substantive.
2
In the last word, the initial i- in ikxitan is dropped with the addtition of the prefixe mo-.
132 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
notampameh below us (excl.)

totampa or
totampameh below us (incl.)
amotampa or
amotampameh below you (pl.)
itampameh or
itahtampa1 below them
17.3.8 -ihti within, inside, in

This locative element is derived from the substantival root -ihti stomach. In its locatival
function, -ihti always occurs with a substantive root placed in front of it or with the
generalizing prefix.
ta-ihti
Ta-ihti wi: a:ti.
[inside it-comes water]
The water is coming inside.
Ah: yh kahkeh ta-ihti?

[it-is-who who stayed inside]
Who are those who remained inside?
Wetsto kalihti.
[he-is-fallen within-the-house]
Hes fallen inside the house.
Nisiwiya iga nitekipanowa mi:lihti.

[I-tired-myself-now when I-work in-the-field]
I get tired when I work in the field.
In a very common use of the locative -ihti , it signifies in or in the area of.
Yahki a-ihti kipa:kato iyayo:l.

[he-went in-the-gully he-went-to-wash his-hulled-corn]
He went into the gully to wash his corn.
The following example takes a possessive prefix. (With the addition of the diminutive
ending, the glottal stop turns into k.)
Nia nimoa:nti:ti sentapal to-a-ihtiktsi:n.

[I-go I-go-to-live on-the-other-side our-little-in-the-water]
Im going to go live on the other side of our little stream.
1
The adverb itahtampa contains a reduplicated syllable that indicates the plurality of the
substantive.
17.3.9 -ihtiko inside

The compound locative -ihtiko consists of the root -ihti stomach and the locative element
-ko in. Possessive prefixes are added to it.
iyihtiko inside it
noya iyihtiko campana serpiente.

[there-is inside-it bell snake]
Theres a snake inside the bell.
Ka:wi nohtiko.1
It stayed in my stomach.
17.3.10 -tahko in the middle, center of

Mero itahko kala bala.
[just in-its-middle entered ball]
The ball reached right into the middle of it.
17.3.11 -tsa:la:n among, in the middle of

totsa:la:n among us (incl.)
tehtetsa:la:n2 among the stones
ima:mekayotsa:la:n among the tendons of his hand
[i- 3rd pers. poss. prefix; -ma:- hand; -meka- cord: -yo- suffix of intrinsic
possession; -tsa:la:n among]
17.3.12 -pan upon, in, over

The locative element -pan can take possessive prefixes or substantival roots placed in
front of it.
With possessive prefixes:

nopan over me
mopan over you (sg.)
pan over him
nopameh3 over us (excl.)
topan over us (incl.)
amopan over you (pl.)
ipameh over them
1
In nohtiko the initial i- is dropped after the prefix no-.
2
tehte- is a reduplicated plural from te ti.
3
In this form, and in the third-person plural, the final -n in pan apparently assimilates to
the initial m- in the plural marker -meh, and the resultant double -mm- is then simplified.
134 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
With substantive roots:
Si nimiki nomi:lpan, neh manimiki.

[if I-die in-my-field I may-I-die]
If I die in my field, then let me die.
We:wehtsi:n koto ahkopan.

[little-old-man he-is-sleeping in-upper-part]
The little old man is sleeping up on the loft.
mpaya tahko-ono tixo:talpan.1

[there-now it-is-in-the-middle in-the- fire-gleam]
Now it's there in middle, in the gleam of the fire.
Ta:tapohtiawih ipan ohti.

[they-go-chatting in-it road]
They go chatting on the road.
The previous sentence is an example of the prepositional use similar to that of English. In
this use, the word ipan is not accented. The word pan is regularly used as a preposition
without the possessive prefix. Examples:
pan neh in me
pan teh in you (sg.)
pan yh in him
pan nehame:n in us (excl.)
pan tehame:n in us (incl.)
pan amehwa:n in you (pl.)
pan yehame:n in them
17.3.13 -yakapan over, on top of

noyakapan over me
Ikw iga tiktsehtselo:h in mango, xine-ihli iga amo

[when that you (sg.)-will-shake-it the mango tell-me so-that not
noyakapan wetsis.
upon-me it-will-fall]
When you shake the mango tree, let me know so that mangoes wont fall on me.
Ne:tankwah kowa: no ve:s nitaksa iyakapan.

[it-bit-me snake because I-stepped upon-it]
The snake bit me because I stepped on it.
1
ti- dependent root of ti ti fire; -xo:tal- sparkle.
ooii:n nemih kwayakapan.

[little-children they-are upon-the-tree]
The little children are in the top of the tree.
17.3.14 -ko inside, in

tiko in the fire
xapoko in the hole
Ki-akih seh taxkal tiko.

[he-threw-it again tortilla in-fire]
He threw the tortilla into the fire again.
Yhkiki xapoko ka:n onokeh ipilowa:n

[he-went-they-say in-hole where they-were his-children]
They say he went into the hole where his children were.
In certain grammatical constructions, -ko assumes the characteristic of an enclitic. The

word then takes the accent on the antepenult and not on the penult, as if the -ko were not
part of the word. Examples:
t:nalko in the heat

te:nko in his mouth
yi:xko in his eye (cf. iyi:xko on top of)
17.3.15 -wa:n with, together with

The comitative element -wa:n combines with possessive prefixes to form locative
compounds of a comitative type that are translated in English by means of phrases or
compounds containing the preposition with.
nowa:n with me
mowa:n with you (sg.)
wa:n (with accented i-) with him
nowa:meh with us (excl.)
towa:n or towa:meh with us (incl.)
amowa:n or amowa:meh with you (pl.)
iwa:meh with them
It is necessary to distinguish between this locative compound wa:n (with accented i-),
which functions as an adverb, and the form iw:n, which functions as a preposition and
copulative conjunction.1 Examples:
1
[Again, referring to wa:n as an adverb while calling iw:n a preposition is to consider
things from an Indo-European point of view (see Section 17.3 n. 1). In terms of Nahuatl
syntax, the functions of these forms are the same ("with it" or "therewith"), but when the
136 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
conjunction: Nimota:lih, iw:n nitakwah.

I sat down and ate.
preposition: Yahkih iw:n ipilowa:n.

He went with his children.
adverb: Yahkih wa:n.

He went with him. or They went with him.
The verb in Nahuatl normally takes the plural marker in sentences which have a
compound (comitative) subject, even though the subject is in the singular in the
translation. The number of the verb agrees with the number of participants. For example,
in the preceding sentence, he went with him, it is considered that there is more than one
participant, and thus the verb yahkih is in the plural.
17.3.16 General Locative Elements -ka:n and -ya:n

The elements -ka:n and -ya:n combine with certain non-substantive roots to form
locative words.
iyi:ka:n on that side of

seka:n in a single place
tayowaka:n in the dark, at night
ohmaxalka:n at the split in the road
to:naya:n in the sun
tahkoya:n in the middle, center
itamiya:n at the edge of
17.3.17 -i:xko on top of

This adverb is composed of -i:x- eye, surface and -ko in.
a-i:xko on top of the water

In a:ma ono a-i:xko.
[the-paper is on-top-of-water]
form is used absolutely (i.e., without being accompanied by a dependent noun to which
the prefix i- directly refers), that is, in the usages called preposition or conjunction here,
then the accent is on -wa:n. If, on the other hand, the noun to which the third person
possessive prefix appears in conjunction with the form iwa:n (in the usage referred to in
the text as a preposition with the terminology of Spanish), then the prefix bears the accent
(i.e., wa:n). CSM]
18. Irregular Verbs
Those verbs are irregular that alternate their roots when conjugated or that take different
endings from those of the paradigm verbs. The irregularities are of two types: 1) uniform
changes that follow certain more or less fixed rules, which are called morphophonemic
rules, and 2) variable changes that are special irregularities or specific irregularities. Let
us first look at the verbs that undergo morphophonemic changes.
18.1 Irregularities in the Preterite

Certain verbs of Group 1 undergo morphophonemic changes in the preterite that make
them deviate from the norm laid out in the paradigms.
18.1.1 Uniform Change of k to g

Verbs that end in -ka or -ki in the present singular turn k into g in the preterite singular if
this is preceded by a vowel.1 Examples:
Present singular Preterite singular

kipa:ka he washes it kipa:ga he washed it
w w
tak i:ka he sings tak i:ga he sang
pa:ki he rejoices pa:gi he rejoiced
kikaki he hears him kikagi he heard him
Exception (see the next section):
kalaki he enters kala he entered
18.2 Apocopated Forms of the Preterite

Many verbs of Group 1 drop the thematic vowel to form the preterite singular. The words
that are reduced in conformity with a grammatical rule are called apocopated.2 Because
of apocope there are verbs that end in -n, -l, -h, or - in the preterite singular.
1
[The original text covered this material in two separate sections, one for verbs with the
thematic vowel -a, which change in Spanish orthography from ca to ga, and a second
for verbs with the thematic vowel -i, which change from qui to gui. The underlying
phonology in each case is the same, and the distinction is based only on the vagaries of
Spanish orthography. In these verbs, if the voiceless velar stop (k) begins the last syllable
of the present stem and is intervocalic, it becomes voiced (g) in the preterite. These are
Class 1 (A) verbs according to the classification of Classical Nahuatl. CSM]
2
[This category corresponds to Class 2 (B) of Classical Nahuatl. CSM]
138 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
18.2.1 Verbs of Group 1 Ending in -h in the Preterite

A subclass of Group 1 verbs ending in -wa in the present singular drop the last syllable
and take -h in the preterite singular.1 Most of the verbs that belong to this subclass are
transitive ones in which the vowel placed in front of the ending -wa is long. Examples:
kika:wa he leaves it kikah he left it

kikope:wa he unglues it kikopeh he unglued it
kii:wa he does it kiih he did it
There is one example of an intransitive verb that conjugates in this way.
wehka:wa he lingers wehkah he lingered
There is a single other example of an intransitive verb ending in -wi, which conjugates by
dropping the last syllable and taking -h in the preterite singular.
tehkawi he climbs tehkah he climbed

tehkahkeh they climbed
18.2.2 Verbs Ending in -l in the Preterite

There is one verb that ends in -li in the present singular and takes -l in the preterite
singular. Example:
kitahkali he throws it away kitahkal he threw it away
18.2.3 Verbs Ending in -n in the Preterite

A subclass of verbs that end in -ma, -na, -mi or -ni in the present singular drop the
thematic vowel in the preterite singular. The m that would be at the end turns into n. The
majority of the verbs that constitute this subclass are transitive. Examples:
kitila:na he pulls it kitila:n he pulled it

kitahtani he asks for it kitahtan he asked for it
kihtsoma he sews it kihtson he sewed it
kiihimi he feels it kiihin he felt it
An intransitive verb is apocopated in the same way.
nehnemi he travels nehnen he travelled
Transitive verbs that have roots of less than three syllables (including the thematic vowel)
are exceptions to the preceding rule. The preterite of these verbs is regular, as are the
majority of the intransitive verbs. Examples:
1
[In Classical Nahuatl, verbs with a preterite stem ending in -w devoice the consonant,
which appears merely as aspiration in this dialect. CSM]
18. IRREGULAR VERBS 139
ki-e:na he stores it ki-e:na he stored it

kimana he boils it kimana he boiled it
nimaya:na I am hungry nimaya:na I was hungry
poxo:ni it bursts poxo:ni it burst
The root -e:na among the preceding examples goes back to taking the n in the preterite
singular when the word is expanded through reduplication and the use of the generalizing
prefix ta-.
ta-ehe:na he stores things ta-ehe:n he stored things
18.2.4 Verbs Ending in -a:miki

Certain verbs ending in -a:miki in the present singular lose two syllables and take -n in
the preterite singular.1 Examples:
nikehla:miki I remember it nikehla:n I remembered it

niki:xna:miki I encounter him niki:xna:n I encountered him
18.2.5 Apocopated Alternates Ending in the Glottal Stop

Certain verbs ending in -ka, ki or kwi in the present singular take an apocopated alternate
form for the preterite singular. The final syllable loses its initial consonant and the vowel
and is reduced to - (glottal stop).2 Examples:
Present
niktohtoka I drive it off
nikneki I want it
nikahkokwi I raise it
Preterite Preterite
(full forms) (apocopated forms)
niktohtoga I drove it off niktohto I drove it off
niknegi I wanted it nikne I wanted it
nikahkokwi I raised it nikahko I raised it
Contracted Variants. There are also other, alternate forms for the preceding verbs.
These involve a sort of apocope that results in the words having the prosodic accent on
the final syllable. To distinguish between the two types of apocope, we adopt the
following definitions:
1
[That is, the ending -iki is dropped and the now final m becomes n. CSM]
2
[Historically, it would be preferable to say that the thematic vowel is dropped (as in the
preceding categories), and the now final velar stop is weakened into the glottal stop.
CSM]
140 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
We call those verbal forms apocopated in which the prosodic accent changes position
due to the loss of a final element, with the result that the word retains the accent on the
penultimate syllable, as is normal.
We call those variant forms contracted in which the last syllable is merely lost without
the prosodic accent changing position, with the result that the final syllable remains
accented.
Examples of apocopated and contracted variants are:
Present Preterite
Apocopated Full Contracted

kineki kine kinegi kin
he wants it
niktohtoka niktohto niktohtoga niktoht
I drive it off
18.3 Special Irregularities

There are three verbs that conjugate in a special way, and one that has its own peculiar
irregularity in the preterite.
18.3.1 Conjugation of the Verb -ia/-ya to go
Present
nia1 I go niawih we (excl.) go
tiawih we (incl.) go
tia you (sg.) go anyawih you (pl.) go
yawi he goes yawih they go
Future
nia:h I will go nia:skeh we (excl.) will go
tia:skeh we (incl.) will go
tia:h you (sg.) will go anya:skeh you (pl.) will go
ya:h he will go ya:skeh they will go
1
[All varieties of Nahuatl have trouble distinguishing between the natural y-glide that
appears between the vowels i and a on the one hand and the situation when a syllable
beginning with ya is added to a syllable ending in i. Clearly, in the present situation nia
stands for niya. Why this y at the start of a semantically significant root should not be
noted in the orthography while the imperfect ending -ya always retains its initial y is not
clear. CSM]
Alternative forms in the future singular

nia:s I will go
tia:s you (sg.) will go
ya:s he will go
Imperfect
nia:ya I would go nia:yah we (excl.) would go
tia:yah we (incl.) would go
tia:ya you (sg.) would go anya:yah you (pl.) would go
ya:ya he would go ya:yah they would go
Preterite
niahki I went niahkih we (excl.) went
tiahkih we (incl.) went
tiahki you (sg.) went anyahkih you (pl.) went
yahki he went yahkih they went
Transitory Preterite
niahka I went (and returned) niahkah we (excl.) went etc.
tiahkah we (incl.) went etc.
tiahka you (sg.) went (and returned) anyahkah you (pl.) went etc.
yahka he went (and returned) yahkah they went etc.
Periphrastic Future
nia:ti Im going to go nia:tih were (excl.) going etc
tia:tih were (incl.) going etc
tia:ti youre (sg.) going to go anya:tih youre (pl.) going etc.
ya:ti hes going to go ya:tih theyre going to go
Imperative-subjunctive mood
mani may I go mania:ka:n may we (excl.) go
matia:ka:n may we (incl.) go
xah go (sg.)! xa:ka:n go (pl.)!
mayawi may he go maya:ka:n may they go
Desiderative mood
Present
nia:hneki I want to go nia:hnekih we (excl.) want to go
tia:hnekih we (incl.) want to go
tia:hneki you (sg.) want to go anya:hnekih you (pl.) want to go
ya:hneki he wants to go ya:hnekih they want to go
142 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Future
nia:hnekis Ill want to go nia:hnekiskeh well (excl.) want etc.
tia:hnekiskeh well (incl.) want etc.
tia:hnekis youll (sg.) want to go anya:hnekiskeh youll (pl.) want etc.
ya:hnekis hell want to go ya:hnekiskeh theyll want to go
Imperfect
nia:hnekia:ya I wanted to go nia:hnekia:yah we (excl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnekia:yah we (incl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnekia:ya you (sg.) wanted to go anya:hnekia:yah you (pl.) wanted etc.
ya:hnekia:ya he wanted to go ya:hnekia:yah they wanted to go
Contracted forms for the imperfect

nia:hneki I wanted to go nia:hnekih we (excl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnekih we (incl.) wanted etc.
tia:hneki you (sg.) wanted to go anya:hnekih you (pl.) wanted etc.
ya:hneki he wanted to go ya:henekih they wanted to go
Preterite
nia:hnegi I wanted to go nia:hnekikeh we (excl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnekikeh we (incl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnegi you (sg.) wanted to go anya:hnekikeh you (pl.) wanted to go
ya:hnegi he wanted to go ya:hnekikeh they wanted to go
Transitory preterite1
nia:hnekika I wanted to go nia:hnekikah we (excl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnekikah we (incl.) wanted etc.
tia:hnekika you (sg.) wanted to go anya:hnekikah you (pl.) wanted etc.
ya:hnekika he wanted to go ya:hnekikah they wanted to go
18.3.2 Conjugation of the Verb wi:-/wa:l- to come
Present
niwi: I come niwi:tseh we (excl.) come
tiwi:tseh we (incl.) come
tiwi: you (sg.) come anwi:tseh you (pl.) come
wi: he comes wi:tseh they come
Alternate forms of the present singular (less common)

niwi:ts I come
tiwi:ts you (sg.) come
wi:ts he comes
1
All the forms in the desiderative mood that begin with nia:h-, tia:h-, ya:h- or anya:h-
can also be written nia:as, tia:s-, ya:s- or anya:s-, which represent less frequent alternate
pronunciations.
Future
(same as present)
Imperfect
niwi:tsia:ya I would come niwi:tsia:ya we (excl.) would come
tiwi:tsia:yah we (incl.) would come
tiwi:tsia:ya you (sg.) would come anwi:tsia:yah you (pl.) would come
wi:tsa:ya he would come wi:tsia:yah they would come

niwi:tsi I wanted to come niwi:tsih we (excl.) wanted etc.
tiwi:tsih we (incl.) wanted etc.
tiwi:tsi you (sg.) wanted to come anwi:tsih you (pl.) wanted etc.
wi:tsi he wanted to come wi:tsih they wanted to come
Preterite
niwa:lah I came niwa:lkeh we (excl.) came
tiwa:lkeh we (incl.) came
tiwa:lah you (sg.) came anwa:lkeh you (pl.) came
wa:lah he came wa:lkeh they came
niwa:lka I came (didnt stay) niwa:lkah we (excl.) came etc.
tiwa:lkah we (incl.) came etc.
tiwa:lka you (sg.) came (didnt stay) anwa:lkah you (pl.) came etc.
wa:lka he came (didnt stay) wa:lkah they came etc.
Periphrastic Future
niwi:tseti Im going to come niwi:tsetih were (excl.) going etc
tiwi:tsetih were (incl.) going etc
tiwi:tseti youre (sg.) going to come anwi:tsetih youre (pl.) going etc.
wi:tseti hes going to come wi:tsetih theyre going to go
maniwi:ki may I come maniwi:kika:n may we (excl.) come
matiwi:kika:n may we (incl.) come
xiwi:ki come (sg.)! xiwi:kika:n come (pl.)!
mawi:ki may he come mawi:kika:n may they come
Alternate forms for the imperative-subjunctive plural

maniwi:tseka:n may we (excl.) come
matiwi:tseka:n may we (incl.) come
xiwi:tseka:n come (pl.)!
mawi:tseka:n may they come
144 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Desiderative mood (only third-person forms)
Present
wi:neki he wants to come
wi:nekih they want to come
Future
wi:nekis he will want to come
wi:nekiskeh they will want to come
Imperfect
wi:nekia:ya he wanted to come
wi:nekia:yah they wanted to come

wi:neki he wanted to come
wi:nekih they wanted to come
Preterite
wi:negi he wanted to come
wi:nekikeh they wanted to come
wi:nekika he had wanted to come
wi:nekikah they had wanted to come
18.3.3 Conjugation of the Verb ono- to be
Preterite used as present

nono I am nonokeh we (excl.) are
tonokeh we (incl.) are
tono you (sg.) are amonokeh you (pl.) are
ono he is onokeh they are
There are forms of this verb that take the endings of the present. These are used when the
tense is indeterminate or irrelevant.
nono I am nonoh we (excl.) are

tonoh we (incl.) are
tono you (sg.) are amonoh you (pl.) are
ono he is onoh they are
The following sentence illustrates a special use of the present-indeterminate (other

examples can be found in Section 13.1.1).
noya kone:. The baby is about to be born.

Future
nonos I will be nonoskeh we (excl.) will be
tonoskeh we (incl.) will be
tonos you (sg.) will be amonoskeh you (pl.) will be
onos he will be onoskeh they will be
Imperfect
nonoya I would be nonoyah we (excl.) would be
tonoyah we (incl.) would be
tonoya you (sg.) would be amonoyah you (pl.) would be
onoya he would be onoyah they would be
(This verb does not appear in the simple transitory preterite.)
Future periphrastic and present-future directional towards there

nonoti Im going to be nonotih were (excl.) going etc
tonotih were (incl.) going etc
tonoti youre (sg.) going to be amonotih youre (pl.) going etc.
onoti hes going to be onotih theyre going to be
Examples of other directional tenses:
Preterite towards there

onoto he went to be
Transitory preterite towards there

onoto:ya he went and was (then returned)
Present and future towards here

onoki he is coming to be
Preterite towards here

onoko he came to be
Transitory preterite towards here

onoko:ya he came and was (then went away)
manono may I be manonoka:n may we (excl.) be
matonoka:n may we (incl.) be
xono be (sg.)! xonoka:n be (pl.)!
maono may he be maonoka:n may they be
146 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
Desiderative mood
Present
nonosneki I want to be nonosnekih we (excl.) want to be
tonosnekih we (incl.) want to be
tonosneki you (sg.) want to be amonosnekih you (pl.) want to be
onosneki he wants to be onosnekih they want to be
The other tenses of the desiderative mood conjugate with the appropriate endings.
18.3.4 Conjugation of the Verb -wahliga to bring

The verb -wahliga (or -waliga) to bring includes an irregularity peculiar that consists in
the lenghtening of the final vowel in the preterite singular, which belongs to the
apocopating variety. The other tenses agree with the regular endings of the first
conjugation.
Present
nikwahliga I bring it nikwahligah we (excl.) bring it
tikwahligah we (incl.) bring it
tikwahliga you (sg.) bring it ankwahligah you (pl.) bring it
kiwahliga he brings it kwahligah they bring it
Preterite
nikwahli: I brought it nikwahligakeh we (excl.) brought it
tikwahligakeh we (incl.) brought it
tikwahli: you (sg.) brought it ankiwahligakehyou (pl.) brought it
kiwahli: he brought it kiwahligakeh they brought it
18.4 Dropping the Thematic Vowel in the Plural

The thematic vowel is dropped in the preterite plural of many verbs. For some verbs this
loss is obligatory, and others do not allow it, but the majority normally drop the vowel in
alternative forms.
18.4.1 Obligatory Loss

The thematic vowel is obligatorily dropped in the preterite of the verb -i:wa to do.
Singular Plural
kii:wa he does it kii:wah they do it
kiih he did it kiihkeh they did it
In addition, compound verbs formed with -te:wa instantly, quickly obligatorily drop the
thematic vowel in the preterite plural. Examples in the third person:
Singular Plural
kikahte:wa he abandons it kikahte:wah they abandon it
(instantly) (instantly)
1
kikahteh he abandoned it kikahtehkeh they abandoned it
isate:wa he awakes (instantly) isate:wah they awake (instantly)

isate:wa he awoke isatehkeh they awoke
18.4.2 Optional Loss

The thematic vowel is normally dropped as an alternate form in the preterite plural of the
following verbs (examples in the third person):
Singular Plural
o:ka he cries o:kah they cry
o:ga he cried o:kakeh or
o:kkeh they cried
ke:na he stores it ke:nah they store it

ke:na he stored it ke:nakeh or
ke:nkeh they stored it
kino:tsa he calls him kino:tsah they call him

kino:tsa he called him s
kino:t akeh or
kino:tskeh they called him
kitisi he grinds it kitisih they grind it

kitisi he ground it kitisikeh or
kitiskeh they ground it
koi he sleeps koih they sleep

koi he slept koikeh or
kokeh they slept
mokwepa he returns mokwepah they return

mokwepa he returned mokwepakeh or
mokwepkeh they returned
Note that m turns into n and w into h with the loss of the following vowel. Also, the long
vowel that precedes the h becomes short.
nehnemi he travels nehnemih they travel

nehnen he traveled nehnemikeh or
nehnenkeh they travel
1
The form kikahteh is the only verb composed of -te:wa that undergoes apocope in the
preterite singular.
148 NAHUATL GRAMMAR
kixitoma he unties it kixitomah they untie it

kixitoma or kixitomakeh or
kixiton he untied it kixitonkeh they untied it
takowa he buys takowah they buy

takowa he bought takowakeh or
takohkeh they bought
ka:wi he remains ka:wih they remain

ka:wi he remained ka:wikeh or
kahkeh they remained
18.4.3 Prohibited Loss

The thematic vowel is never dropped in the preterite plural of the following verbs:
Singular Plural
isa he awoke isakeh they awoke

asi he arrived asikeh they arrived
kita he saw it kitakeh they saw it
kipata he changed it kipatakeh they changed it
kimaga he gave kimakakeh they gave it
kimaga he struck him kimagakeh they struck him
tata it burned tatakeh they burned
migi he died mikikeh they died
kinamaga he sold it kinamakakeh they sold it
18.5 Accentuation of the Thematic Vowel

In certain verbs of the first conjugation (Group 1), the ending is accentuated: -.
wey it grows
ta he looks
kipi he has it
yama:ni it softens
ali:mpati it gets smaller
motehkwi she wraps herself (in a blanket)
tayowati it is getting dark
The fact that they end in -s in the future proves that they belong to the first conjugation
weys it will grow

tas he will look
kipis he will have it
yama:nis it will soften
ali:mpatis it will get smaller
motehkwis she will wrap herself (in a blanket)
tayowatis it will get dark
18.6 Defective Verbs

The following verbs only appear in the present, future and imperfect:
ateyi is not, there is not

ateyis will not be, there will not be
atey was not, there was not
kwalo it hurts
kwalos it will hurt
kwalowa:ya it would hurt
Teyi is not used in a positive sense. Nonetheless, it appears as an independent word

accompanied by an independent negative particle. Personal subject prefixes can be added
to it.
aya teyi it is not yet, there isnt yet

ayo teyi it is not now, there isnt now
anitey I was not
ayo nitey I was no longer
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Sullivan, Thelma D. 1976. Compendio de la gramtica nhuatl. Preface by Miguel Len-

Portilla. (Instituto de Investigaciones Histricas, Cultura Nhuatl Monografas 18.)
Mxico: Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico.
Swadesh, Mauricio and Madalena Sancho. 1966. Los mil elementos del mexicano clsico:
Base analtica de la lengua nahua. Preface by Miguel Len-Portilla. (Instituto de
BIBLIOGRAPHY 155
Investigaciones Histricas, Serie de Cultura Nhuatl, Monografas: 9.) Mxico:

Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico.
Wolgemuth, Carl. 1969. Isthmus Veracruz (Mecayapan) Nahuat Laryngeals. Aztec

Studies I: 1-14. Mxico: Instituto Lingstico de Verano.
1971. Marriage customs of our forefathers. Nahuat text from Mecayapan,

Trans. by Lucio Bautista and Genaro Gonzlez. Tlalocan 6:347-73.
with Marilyn Minter de Wolgemuth, Plcido Hernndez Prez, Esteban Prez

Ramrez, and Christopher Hurst Upton. 2000. Diccionario nhuatl de los municipios de
Mecayapan y Tatahuicapan de Jurez, Veracruz. Mxico: Instituto Lingstico de
Verano. [Electronic edition: http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/istmo/G020a-
DiccNahIst-NAU.htm]

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NAHUATL GRAMMAR

OF THE TOWNSHIPS OF MECAYAPAN AND

This translation may be reproduced for non-profit purposes

1981 First editon 5C ISBN 968-31-0139-9

Preface to the Translation........................................................................................ix

2. The Verb .........................................................................................................21

6.4.2. Further Observations on the Plural

9.8. Intransitive Derivative Verbs in -ti ...................................................... 75

13.1.3. The Progressive Aspect of Approach ........................................ 103

17.3. Dependent Adverbs of Place .................................................................... 128

Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 151

Preface to the English Translation

OF THE TOWNSHIPS OF MECAYAPAN AND

This Nahuatl Grammar of the Townships of Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan de Jurez,

indicate that people from Mecayapan-Tatahuicapan understood 76 percent of the text

Examples of the sounds of Nahuatl:

fogo:n1 stove kilmetro kilometer

1.1.1 Long and Short Vowels

kitankeh they ended it kitekilih he cut it for him

ista salt tetah its rocky

nikakiti Im going to hear him kitokakeh they followed him

kipitsah he thinned it tanamakatoya he was selling

a-ihti in the area of the stream

a:sentapal on that side of the stream

ne-itakeh they saw me

ne:makakeh they gave me

1.1.2 Long Vowels and Double Vowels

Long vowels Double vowels

mata-aki ne-ehla:n mo-ohwi

Nonetheless, it has been considered important to indicate this prosodic feature in a

tsapo banana tsi:ka ant

kw e kwesiwi he got mad

kw i kwi:xin sparrow hawk

po:yowi get drunk itanana his gum

asi he arrived ki:sa he emerged

The glottal stop appears as a preglottalization of ti at the end of certain substantives.1

titi or ti fire teti or te stone

hekxowa he sneezes hokox warm

amehwa:n isahpa ihk:n antahtohkeh.

h nemi nasih we are arriving

vowel: nemi nasi I am arriving

glottal stop: yegin nasi he arrived a while ago

1.2.6 Semiconsonantal Realization of i

io tio:pan church (building)

pioteksis chicken egg

1.3 Spanish Orthography

kika:wa quicahua he leaves it

tsi:ka tzica ant

ii: chichi bitter

we:weh huehuej old man

kwi:xin cuixin sparrow hawk

mopata mopata he changed

mopatakeh mopataquej they changed

1.3.2 Spelling of Spanish Words in Nahuatl

More recent borrowings: