sensors

Article
A High-Efficiency Uneven Cluster Deployment
Algorithm Based on Network Layered for Event
Coverage in UWSNs
Shanen Yu, Shuai Liu and Peng Jiang *
College of Automation, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China; shanen_yu@hdu.edu.cn (S.Y.);
liushuaihdu@163.com (S.L.)
* Correspondences: pjiang@hdu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-571-8691-9131 (ext. 512); Fax: +86-571-8687-8566

Academic Editor: Jos-Fernn Martnez

Received: 18 August 2016; Accepted: 6 December 2016; Published: 12 December 2016

Abstract: Most existing deployment algorithms for event coverage in underwater wireless sensor
networks (UWSNs) usually do not consider that network communication has non-uniform
characteristics on three-dimensional underwater environments. Such deployment algorithms ignore
that the nodes are distributed at different depths and have different probabilities for data acquisition,
thereby leading to imbalances in the overall network energy consumption, decreasing the network
performance, and resulting in poor and unreliable late network operation. Therefore, in this study, we
proposed an uneven cluster deployment algorithm based network layered for event coverage. First,
according to the energy consumption requirement of the communication load at different depths of
the underwater network, we obtained the expected value of deployment nodes and the distribution
density of each layer network after theoretical analysis and deduction. Afterward, the network is
divided into multilayers based on uneven clusters, and the heterogeneous communication radius of
nodes can improve the network connectivity rate. The recovery strategy is used to balance the energy
consumption of nodes in the cluster and can efficiently reconstruct the network topology, which
ensures that the network has a high network coverage and connectivity rate in a long period of data
acquisition. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm improves network reliability and
prolongs network lifetime by significantly reducing the blind movement of overall network nodes
while maintaining a high network coverage and connectivity rate.

Keywords: underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs); event coverage; layered; uneven cluster;
recovery strategy

1. Introduction
The applications of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) mostly include oceanography
data collection, intrusion detection applications, disaster prediction, and mineral exploitation [14],
which involve nodes that are capable of underwater data collection and communication processing
through underwater acoustic signals [57]. The underwater acoustic signal communication involves
a low propagation speed of sound at approximately 1500 m/s, with slow attenuation in underwater
environments. Compared with node deployment problems of terrestrial WSNs [8,9], the node
deployment of UWSNs has many different characteristics. First, node deployment in dynamic
three-dimensional (3D) water environments [10], with fundamental properties of 3D networks, still
have content, such as mobile ad hoc networks and aeronautical ad hoc networks [11,12]. Second,
the acoustic signal is usually selected as the communication medium, as the optical or electromagnetic
wave signal attenuates rapidly in underwater environments. Third, limited node energy is an
important factor for network operation; it is expensive and impractical to recharge batteries in harsh

Sensors 2016, 16, 2103; doi:10.3390/s16122103 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 2 of 18

aqueous environments
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 [13,14]. Therefore, in this study, energy consumption efficiency is 2 ofa19
critical
target for UWSNs node deployment. Usually, the relay and transmission direction in UWSNs is
target for UWSNs node deployment. Usually, the relay and transmission direction in UWSNs is down-
down-to-up [15,16]. As shown in Figure 1, the individual nodes in different depths of water will bear
to-up [15,16]. As shown in Figure 1, the individual nodes in different depths of water will bear
different opportunities to send and receive a message. If the node is closer to the water surface, then
different opportunities to send and receive a message. If the node is closer to the water surface, then
its energy consumption
its energy consumption is faster and
is faster eventually
and eventually leads topremature
leads to premature death.
death. Local
Local network
network coverage
coverage
holes and
holesdisconnection
and disconnection of communication
of communicationlinks
links during network
during network operation
operation reduces
reduces the performance
the performance
of coverage and connectivity
of coverage and connectivity until the
until theentire
entiremonitoring network
monitoring network eventually
eventually fails.fails. However,
However, many many
researchers have begun to investigate uneven node deployment strategy based
researchers have begun to investigate uneven node deployment strategy based on event coverage. on event coverage.

Sink Node
Depth of Water H

Node

Cluster Head

Intra-Cluster
Communication

Inter-Cluster
Communication

Figure 1. Transmission
Figure 1. Transmissioncharacteristic basedon
characteristic based onclustering
clustering in UWSNs.
in UWSNs.

Xia et al. [15] first proposed a fish swarm-inspired node deployment algorithm, which is typical
Xia et al. [15] first proposed a fish swarm-inspired node deployment algorithm, which is typical
deployment algorithm based event coverage. Subsequently, based on [17], Xia et al. proposed particle
deployment algorithm
swarm-inspired nodebased event coverage.
deployment (PSND) in [18].Subsequently,
These kindsbased on [17],optimize
of algorithms Xia et al. proposed
network
particle swarm-inspired
performances node deployment
via simulating the behavior of(PSND) in [18].swarms
fish or particle Theseand kinds of algorithms
introducing the modeloptimize
of
network performances
congestion via simulating
degree control. These two the behavior
proposed of fishcan
algorithms or drive
particle
nodesswarms
to coverand the introducing
events and the
modelmatch event distribution
of congestion degree density
control.in These
monitoring
two the water environment.
proposed algorithms The can author
drive only
nodes considers
to cover the
the coverage rate of events, and obtaining the high network connectivity
events and match event distribution density in monitoring the water environment. The author rate is difficult. In addition, these only
algorithms drive a number of redundant node moves, and nodes may move
considers the coverage rate of events, and obtaining the high network connectivity rate is difficult.without a clear purpose
during the deployment processing. Given the limited energy of nodes and the difficulty of recharging
In addition, these algorithms drive a number of redundant node moves, and nodes may move without
them, these defects may cause premature deaths of nodes, thus shortening the network lifetime.
a clear purpose during the deployment processing. Given the limited energy of nodes and the
Jiang et al. [19] proposed node non-uniform deployment based on a clustering algorithm. First,
difficulty of recharging
the deployment algorithm them, these defects
is based may cause
on clustering. premature
Then, deaths ofprocess
a heterogeneous nodes,isthus run shortening
for node the
network lifetime.
communication. These steps ensure full network connectivity and define the aggregate contribution
Jiang et al.
degree. [19]theproposed
Then, algorithmnode non-uniform
substitutes deployment
the node with based
the smallest on a clustering
aggregate contributionalgorithm.
degree for First,
the deployment algorithm is based on clustering. Then, a heterogeneous process is run and
the node of premature death. The algorithm effectively improves the network performance for node
prolongs network
communication. Theselifetime. However,
steps ensure fullthenetwork
algorithm assumes that and
connectivity all ofdefine
the nodes
thepossess
aggregate the ability of
contribution
free movement. Notably, this assumption significantly increases network costs and may not be practical.
degree. Then, the algorithm substitutes the node with the smallest aggregate contribution degree for the
Bharamagoudra et al. [20] proposed a deployment scheme to enhance coverage and connectivity
node of premature death. The algorithm effectively improves the network performance and prolongs
(DSECC). The deployment scheme obtained a mathematical model of node deployment based on
network lifetime.acoustic
underwater However, the algorithm
communication assumes
properties. thatmultiple
They used all of the nodes
surface possess
gateways andthe ability of free
autonomous
movement. Notably, this assumption significantly increases network costs
underwater vehicles (AUVs) to enhancing network coverage and connectivity. Then, they planned and may not be practical.
Bharamagoudra
the network routing et al.
path[20] proposed
of AUVs a deployment
to collect scheme toand
real-time information enhance coverage dead
repair premature and connectivity
nodes.
(DSECC).However, the DSECC algorithm
The deployment schemerequires
obtained global node coordinatesmodel
a mathematical and does of not
nodeconsider the influence
deployment based on
of water flow.
underwater acoustic communication properties. They used multiple surface gateways and autonomous
The aforementioned algorithms fail to consider the characteristics of data relay and the transmission
underwater vehicles (AUVs) to enhancing network coverage and connectivity. Then, they planned
direction of UWSNs (down-to-up). The network will bear more relay and transmission and consume
the network routing path of AUVs to collect real-time information and repair premature dead nodes.
more energy if the node close to the water surface sinks, thus leading to different distributions of energy
However, the DSECC
consumption algorithm
at different requiresdepths
underwater globaland node coordinates
to imbalances and does
between not consider
the energy consumptionthe influence
of
of water flow.
The aforementioned algorithms fail to consider the characteristics of data relay and the
transmission direction of UWSNs (down-to-up). The network will bear more relay and transmission
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 3 of 18

and consume more energy if the node close to the water surface sinks, thus leading to different
distributions of energy consumption at different underwater depths and to imbalances between the
energy consumption of each layer network. The network communication links near the water surface
disconnect easily during period of network operation, thus influencing data acquisition and decreasing
network lifetime.
Regarding aforementioned problems of deployment algorithms based the event coverage, in this
study, we proposed an uneven cluster deployment algorithm based network layered (UCBNL) for
event coverage in UWSNs. According to the monitoring of water environments under the random
distribution of isolated event information, node deployment should guarantee real-time collection of
event information and ensure that the final data transmission to the surface sink nodes set. In other
words, we should ensure high network coverage rate to improve network connectivity rate while
effectively conserving node energy and balancing global network energy consumption. Based on the
characteristics of UWSNs data acquisition (down-to-up) in underwater environments, we proposed
UCBNL algorithm comprising two parts. First, we use hierarchical static deployment based on
probability theory and mathematical statistics analysis, where each layer node deployment expectation
is calculated to meet the network performance quality of UWSNs and parameters of deployment
density are adjusted accordingly. Second, the uneven deployment method was proposed for the
communication load distribution and connectivity or coverage deployment requirements of each
node. This method narrows the move range of nodes and increases the size of the node density and
cluster number of each layer if they are closer to the sink node of the water surface. Thus, we obtain
the capabilities of a temporary fix node, conserve the movement energy and deployment time, and
balance the energy consumption of nodes in each layer. Simulation results show that the UCBNL
algorithm can maintain high network coverage and connectivity rates for a long period of time,
reduce network energy consumption, and decrease the slope of network recession, thereby prolonging
network lifetime. Compared with existing deployment algorithms for event coverage in UWSNs, our
proposed algorithm contributes the following:

(1) The prior node distribution density of a layered network is derived, thus reducing the movement
distance of node and balancing network energy consumption.
(2) The adjustable communication radius model ensures that the network is fully connected at the
initial process of network deployment. The network connectivity rate can be improved adaptively
in the subsequent data acquisition.
(3) The recovery strategy of clusters utilizes the node with maximum comprehensive advantage to
help recover the death node, thus prolonging network lifetime and improving the efficiency of
data acquisition.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, related studies regarding
node deployment problem are described. In Section 3, models of UWSNs and related definitions are
described. In Section 4, the problem is analyzed and the details of the UCBNL algorithm are provided.
In Section 5, the description of algorithm simulation and a detailed analysis of the simulation results
are discussed. Finally, in Section 6, conclusions and future works are discussed.

2. Related Work
Current research of UWSNs has focused on acoustic communication, network protocol, routing
algorithms, and node localization and tracking [2123]. However, the strategy of node deployment
directly correlates to network operation performances and thus has a strong influence on designs of
network protocol and topology control subsequently. Therefore, in this study, we will investigate
node deployment. For the different strategies of node deployment algorithms, Han et al. [24]
summarize the node deployment algorithms for UWSNs based on the movement ability of the
nodes. They created three categories, namely, static deployment, self-adjustment deployment, and
movement-assisted deployment.
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 4 of 18

First, the static deployment algorithm [2527] assumes that all nodes that cannot move require
an artificial deploy node to optimize position by advanced calculation. This algorithm can usually
achieve high network performance. However, this algorithm also adds many difficulties for artificial
deployment to poor monitoring aquatic environments, thus increasing high deployment costs. Second,
in self-adjustment deployment [2830], the node can only move in a vertical direction by adjusting the
length of the anchor rope. This kind of algorithm increases the network coverage area or decreases
the coverage overlap by adjusting the depth of the node. Usually, self-adjustment deployment is
an economical strategy, but cannot achieve good redeployment performance when the network
operation period is long or several nodes are dead. Finally, movement-assisted deployment is usually
equipped with multiple sink nodes and AUVs, thus achieving high network performance. Moreover,
movement-assisted deployment has an important role in network redeployment and can achieve the
repair of network coverage holes and the reconnection of disconnected communication links. Therefore,
we will use Sensors
the movement-assisted
2016, 16, 2103 deployment strategy to achieve high network performance
4 of 19 of event
coverage under long periods.
adjusting the length of the anchor rope. This kind of algorithm increases the network coverage area
or decreases the coverage overlap by adjusting the depth of the node. Usually, self-adjustment
3. Models and Related
deployment is anDefinitions
economical strategy, but cannot achieve good redeployment performance when the
network operation period is long or several nodes are dead. Finally, movement-assisted deployment
This section provides
is usually some
equipped with related
multiple sinkmodels
nodes andofAUVs,
nodethusdeployment and
achieving high the gives
network related
performance. definitions.
Moreover, movement-assisted deployment has an important role in network redeployment and can
3.1. Models achieve the repair of network coverage holes and the reconnection of disconnected communication
links. Therefore, we will use the movement-assisted deployment strategy to achieve high network
3.1.1. UWSNsperformance
Modelsof event coverage under long periods.
In this 3.study,
Modelscombined
and Relatedwith
Definitions
the characteristics of 3D UWSNs, we propose that the design scheme
comprises nodes Thissuspended
section provides
insome
therelated models of area
underwater node deployment
and sinkand the gives
nodes setrelated definitions.
floating on the surface and
multiple AUVs. As shown in Figure 2, the final topology structure of the UWSNs is presented in a 3D
3.1. Models
rectangular monitoring water area. A number of sink nodes are uniformly deployed along the water
3.1.1. UWSNs Models
surface center line, and the network gradually forms an approximate hierarchical state. In this study,
we also have the In this study, combined
following with the characteristics of 3D UWSNs, we propose that the design
preliminaries:
scheme comprises nodes suspended in the underwater area and sink nodes set floating on the surface
(1) and multiple
Each node AUVs. As shown
can perceive in Figure 2, the
the self-depth final topologythus,
information; structure
weofcan
the UWSNs
determineis presented in number.
its layer
a 3D rectangular monitoring water area. A number of sink nodes are uniformly deployed along the
(2) Each node has a center
water surface unique line,ID.
andThe nodesgradually
the network use unified
forms underwater acoustic signals
an approximate hierarchical to communicate
state. In this
and acquire
study, weinformation. Sinkpreliminaries:
also have the following nodes transmit the information to the base station by radio
frequency signals.
(1) Each Ifperceive
node can acquisition information
the self-depth information;is thus,
sentwe tocan
any sink node
determine setnumber.
its layer on the water surface,
(2) Each
then data node has ais
acquisition unique ID. The nodes use unified underwater acoustic signals to communicate
successful.
and acquire information. Sink nodes transmit the information to the base station by radio
(3) All nodesfrequency
have the same
signals. initial energy
If acquisition Einitisand
information sent sensing node setRs
to any sinkradius (using
on the waterthe Boolean sensing
surface,
model). The
thennodes are equipped
data acquisition with a transmission power control module [7] that can adjust
is successful.
(3) All nodes have
the communication the same
radius RC initial
withinenergy
a 5 Eminit accuracy
and sensingrange
radius that
Rs (using
doesthenot
Boolean
exceedsensing
a fixed threshold
model). The nodes are equipped with a transmission power control module [7] that can adjust
RCmax . Furthermore,
the communication radius RC within a 5 m accuracy range that does not exceed a fixed threshold consumption
the energy of the sink node is sufficient, and its energy
is negligible.
Rcmax. Furthermore, the energy of the sink node is sufficient, and its energy consumption is negligible.

Satellite

Node Event Station

Surface
Sink AUV Acoustic

FigureFigure
2. 3D2. UWSNs
3D UWSNsarchitecture
architecture by by
using the layered
using strategy. strategy.
the layered
3.1.2. Node Perception Model
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 5 of 18

3.1.2. Node Perception Model

We adopt Boolean perception to describe node sensing. Assuming the coordinate of
node
q si is ( xi , yi , zi ) and the Euclidean distance between si and point p(x,y,z) is d(si , p) =
( x xi )2 + (y yi )2 + (z zi )2 , then the probability that point p is perceived by node si can be
presented, as shown in Equation (1), as follows:
(
1, d(si , p) < Rs
c p ( si ) = (1)
0, d(si , p) Rs

where Rs denotes the sensing radius of node si .

3.1.3. Node Energy Consumption Model

The energy consumption of node receiving information is smaller than data transmission and
node movement [31]. Therefore, we only consider data transmission and node movement the primary
components of energy consumption. In this study, the energy consumption model of node is mentioned
in [32], which can be calculated through using Equation (2), as follows:

Ec (d, f ) = P0 Tp dk 10( f )d/10 (2)

where P0 denotes the power threshold for a node to receive the information package, Tp denotes the
transmission delay of the information package, d denotes the transmitting distance of the information
package, and k denotes the energy spreading factor. The absorption coefficient (f ) can be calculated
by using Equation (3), as follows:

f2 f2
( f ) = 0.11 + 44 + 2.75 104 f 2 + 0.003 (3)
1 + f2 4100 + f 2

where f is the frequency of the carrier acoustic signal in Hz and (f ) is in dB/m. In addition,
the movement energy consumption Me of the node can be expressed as the product of the movement
distance md and the energy consumption of per movement distance mu . The relationship is described
through the Equation (4), as follows:
Me = m d m u (4)

3.1.4. Adjustable Communication Radius Model

We assumed that the maximum communication radius of the node is RC and its initial value
is RCinit . The adjustable level of the communication radius is defined as and is initialized to be 1.
Therefore, we can obtain the relationship between RC and by using Equation (5), as follows:

RC = RC init + (1 + ) Bu (5)

3.1.5. Node Mobility Model under the Influence of Water Flow

In this study, we adopt the water flow model in [33] to describe the mobility state of nodes.
After network deployment is completed, the sink node with sensor nodes moves horizontally. Then,
the speed of a node in the x- and y-axis directions is calculated by Equation (6), as follows:
(
Vx = k1 vsin(k2 x )cos(k3 y) + k1 cos(2k1 t) + k4
(6)
Vy = vcos(k2 x )sin(k3 y) + k5

where k1 , k2 , k3 , and v are the variables related to the water environment and k4 and k5 are random
variables. These variables are set as follows: k1 , k2 N (, 0.1 ), k3 N (2, 0.2 ), k4 , k5 N (1, 0.1),
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 6 of 18

N (3, 0.3), and v N (0, 0.1). Then, the location of the node is updated by using Equation (7),
as follows:
loc(i ) = loc(i 1) + T v(i ) (7)

where loc(i) denotes the node location at time i, loc(i 1) denotes the node location at time (i 1), and
T denotes the update period of the node location and is set to 60 s.

3.2. Related Definitions

3.2.1. Network Connectivity Rate

Network connectivity rate Cn is defined as the ratio of nc to n, where nc denotes the number of
nodes that can communicate with the sink node through single-hop or multi-hop communication.
n is the total number of nodes in the monitored underwater environment space. Therefore, Cn can be
calculated by using Equation (8), as follows:
nc
Cn = (8)
n
If Cn is equal to 1, then the network achieves full network connectivity, that is, all nodes can
communicate with sink nodes through single-hop or multi-hop communication.

3.2.2. Network Coverage Rate

In this study, the object of monitoring is isolated. Discrete events occur underwater and their
uniform distribution is random. Network coverage rate Cc of the UWSNs is calculated by using
Equation (9), as follows:
Ec
Cc = (9)
Et
where Ec is the number of events covered by all nodes and Et is the total number of events distributed
in the monitored underwater environment space.

3.2.3. Network Lifetime

Network lifetime is an important criterion to evaluate the energy efficiency of algorithms [34,35].
In this study, network lifetime is defined as the number of data acquisitions performed when coverage
rate Cc meets the conditions (Cth Cc 1) and Cth is a presetting threshold of network coverage rate.

3.2.4. Network Reliability

As a crucial indicator for evaluating the network quality of service [36], network reliability is the
probability that the network can maintain full network connectivity at a high level. This study mainly
investigates UWSNs deployment issues. Thus, the network should still maintain a high network
connectivity rate. This optimization goal is crucial in our algorithm, as several nodes begin to die
because of persistent network operation. Therefore, in this study, network reliability can be described
as the average node degree and is calculated by using Equation (10), as follows:
n
Ni (nei )
i =1
Da = (10)
n
where Da denotes the average node degree and Ni (nei) denotes the neighbor node number of node si .
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 7 of 18

3.2.5. Movement Coverage Gain

The movement coverage gain is defined as the growth rate of coverage at each node movement
by the help of AUVs. Then, the movement coverage gain Cg (i) of node i can be calculated by using
Equation (11), as follows:
( CB C A ) V
Cg (i ) = (11)
4/3Rs3
where CB denotes the network coverage rate before the node moves, CA denotes the network coverage
rate after the node moves, and V denotes the area of the network monitoring space.

4. Problem Analysis and Algorithm Description

This section describes deployment problem based event coverage, and resolves corresponding
defects. Further proposed UCBNL by give some detail algorithm descriptions.

4.1. Problem Analysis

In theory, we can obtain full network coverage and connectivity if the monitoring space deployed
a sufficient number of nodes, but the costs of network deployment nodes must be considered a factor
for network monitoring tasks. Obviously, arbitrarily deploying an excessive number of nodes is
impossible. So, we must set a reference value of the number of nodes to be deployed. Recently,
research on uneven deployment in UWSNs has mainly focused on the location of nodes based on
optimized network coverage, connectivity rate, and lifetime. The algorithm drives the nodes to
the right location to maximize network coverage and connectivity rate. Usually, the predecessors
do not consider the characteristics of data acquisition from the bottom to the top in underwater
environments. The nodes closer to the underwater surface will undergo more data transmission and
relays. Therefore, different depths of the clusters will impair the energy consumption balance of
the overall network. With the network operation, nodes close to the surface of the water and the
communication link are easily disconnected, affect data acquisition, and reduce network lifetime.
Existing deployment algorithms based on event coverage for UWSNs, such as DSECC and PSND,
usually only consider improving network coverage or connectivity but ignore the effective utilization
of overall network energy. The movement efficiency of these algorithms is unsatisfactory because
they do not set a reference value for node deployment and because the large nodes movement energy
consumption occupies the energy consumption required for communication and data acquisition.
Therefore, defects may cause communication link disconnection and premature deaths of clusters
because of node energy exhaustion, which shortens the overall network lifetime. In this study,
the UCBNL is proposed for event coverage. We introduce a layered mechanism to maximize network
connectivity and coverage rate under optimal conditions of node mobile energy consumption. We
analyze the communication load distribution in each layer underwater network and the deployment
requirements of coverage and connectivity. The node distribution density i of each layer is obtained,
and we obtain the node deployment expectation Ee of each layer.

4.2. Algorithm Description

The UCBNL consists of two phases, namely, the priori analysis and the uneven cluster deployment.

4.2.1. Interlayer Distance d and Deployment Expectation Ee (i )

Given the diversity, dynamics, and uncertainty in the data acquisition process of network
operation for harsh aqueous environments, accurate prediction of energy utilization is impossible.
Therefore, we provide the calculation model of energy consumption along with a reasonable solution.
In the phase of network initialization, nodes moving to a certain range because of water flow constantly
change communication distance and redundant coverage. Inspired by the hierarchical deployment
strategy, we first build a coverage and connectivity threshold of the bottom layer. Then, we set
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 8 of 19
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 8 of 18
bottom layer node initial deployment standard value D . For convenience, we can adjust the
standard value D based on the density of event information and dynamically adapt the changes
a bottom layer node initial deployment standard value k D k. For convenience, we can adjust the
of the underwater
standard value k Dmonitoring
k based on environment
the density oftoevent satisfy the requirements
information of coverage
and dynamically deployment.
adapt the changes In
the process
of the of network
underwater layering,environment
monitoring the algorithm towill produce
satisfy interlayer coverage
the requirements redundancy
of coverage if the
deployment.
interlayer distance is insufficiently small. The algorithm cannot reflect the
In the process of network layering, the algorithm will produce interlayer coverage redundancy if the concept of the hierarchical
strategy
interlayer that eliminates
distance the hot spots
is insufficiently small.phenomenon
The algorithm andcannot
cannotreflect
balance thenode transmission
concept and relay
of the hierarchical
node
strategyenergy consumption
that eliminates the if thespots
hot interlayer distance and
phenomenon is excessively
cannot balance large.node
After comprehensive
transmission and
consideration in this study, we should select a suitable and fixed interlayer
relay node energy consumption if the interlayer distance is excessively large. After comprehensive distance d.
In this study,
consideration in this westudy,
assume wethat the volume
should select a of the deployment
suitable water areadistance
and fixed interlayer is L W d. H and perform
hierarchical processing
In this study, in H water
we assume that thedepth. Theofsink
volume the node set is deployed
deployment water area onisthe
L surface
W Hofand monitoring
perform
water. The water surface layer is assumed to be equal to level 0. All nodes
hierarchical processing in H water depth. The sink node set is deployed on the surface of monitoring are deployed in the sink
nodes set
water. Thebelow
waterand formlayer
surface different networktolayers.
is assumed be equal Hi denotes
to level the
0. Allnode depth
nodes layer i (iin 1,2,...,
areindeployed the sink l)
and H
nodesl set d and form different network layers. Hi denotes the node depth in layer i (i = 1, 2, ..., l )
below . When i = l, Hl denotes the node depth in layer l and sink nodes set far from the
surface bof thec. water.
and l = H/d When i As = l, Hl denotes
shown in the node3,depth
Figure we can in layer l and sink
analyze nodes set far from
the overlapping nodethe surface
coverage
of the water.ofAs
relationship twoshown in Figure
adjacent layers.3,Then,
we can weanalyze
obtain the thenetwork
overlapping node distance
interlayer coveragecomprising
relationship two of
two adjacent
parts, namely,layers.
the i-th Then,
layerwe obtain
nodes the network
coverage overlap interlayer
distancedistance
hoverlap andcomprising
the node two parts,
sensing namely,
radius Rs.
the i-th
The layer nodes
interlayer distancecoverage
d can be overlap distance
calculated hoverlapEquation
by using and the node
(12), as sensing
follows:radius Rs. The interlayer
distance d can be calculated by using Equation (12), as follows:
d hoverlap Rs (12)
d = hoverlap + Rs (12)

Layer i

Layer i+1
d Coverage
Overlapping
hoverlap

Figure 3. Calculation of interlayer distance in layered network.

Figure 3. Calculation of interlayer distance in layered network.
Given that value selection of hoverlap is important for valuing interlayer distance d, hoverlap is
Given
decided bythat value selection
expectation distanceof hEoverlap is important for valuing interlayer distance d, hoverlap is decided
D between any two nodes in layer i. The bottom layer network
by
canexpectation distance
meet the optimal ED between(minimum
deployment any two nodes in layer
coverage i. The with
overlap), bottom layer network
a minimum node can meet the
deployment
optimal deployment (minimum coverage overlap), with a minimum node deployment
number to satisfy the coverage requirements in this layer network. The expectation distance ED can number to
satisfy the coverage requirements in this layer network. The expectation distance
be obtained by the equation,qED = Rs, to reflect the concept of hierarchical equilibrium. Then, we E D can be

obtained by the equation, ED = Rs,2to reflect the concept of hierarchical equilibrium. Then, we adopt
adopt the formula hoverlap = Rs ( ED /2)2 . We eventually obtain interlayer distance d calculated
the formula
by using Rs
hoverlap(13),
Equation
2
( ED / 2) . We eventually obtain interlayer distance d calculated by using
as follows:
2

Equation (13), as follows: q  

2
d = Rs2

( E D /2 ) + Rs = 1 + 3/2 Rs (13)
d Rs 2 ( ED / 2)2 Rs 1 3 2 Rs (13)
We let n denotes the total number of nodes in the network and D = L W H the volume of the
We let
network n (i.e.,
field denotes the totalofnumber
the volume of is
i-th layer nodes in the
Di ). We network
obtain and D Equation
the following
L W H(14):
the volume of
the network field (i.e., the volume of i-th layer is Di). We obtain the following Equation (14):
D
nn = D (14)
(14)
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 9 of 18

The expected number ni of nodes in Di is ni = i Di . For uniform distribution of event sources,

the expected number k Ti k of event sources in Di is shown in Equation (15), as follows:

Di kTk
k Ti k = k T k = (15)
D l
In any layer network Dj (j > i), source-to-sink paths associated with event sources have the sink
node set as their destination. Underwater sensors collectively participate in all of these paths as
message forwarders. The expected number of such paths per node in D j is described in Equation (16),
as follows:
1 (l i ) k Ti k
ni i<
m f (i ) = k Tj k = (16)
jl
ni

In Di , the expected number mo (i) of paths originated per node is denoted in Equation (17),
as follows:
k Ti k
m o (i ) = (17)
ni
Thus, we can obtain the expected energy consumption E(i) of each node in Di as denoted in
Equation (18), as follows:  
E(i ) = m f (i ) + mo (i ) Ec (i ) (18)

On the basis of Equations (15)(18), we obtain the following equation:

" !#
k T k Hi
  
1 H
E (i ) =
ni
k Ti k + k Tj k Ec ( Rc, f ) =
Hni d
+ 1 i Ec ( Rc, f ) (19)
i < jl

Balancing energy consumption by properly applying different node densities is a key problem. We
denote node density in the i-th layer Di by i . The set should contain more nodes for sharing message
relays than a relatively distant one in different depths underwater (i.e., l < l 1 < 2 < 1 ) to
balance the energy consumption of nodes close to the sink node. Thus, we only need to determine
the function relationship between i and l such that E(i ) = E(l ) for 1 i l. Applying a simple
derivation and calculation from the previous equation, we obtain a ratio function of i and l in
Equation (20), as follows:
1
= l = . (20)
i l+1i
We only need to satisfy the deployment requirement of monitoring underwater environments
(events information distribution) to set up a standard value k Dl k of initial deployment underwater.
At the same time, we can dynamically adjust the deployment of the standard value k Dl k by adding
tuning parameter . Thus, we can obtain the expected number Ee (i ) of nodes in the i-th layer, as shown
in Equation (21):
Ee (i ) = k Dl k (21)

4.2.2. Uneven Clustering Deployment Based on Event Distribution

First, there data structure of the node is described, as shown in Figure 4. Then, the two related
definitions are2103
Sensors 2016, 16, subsequently described. 10 of 19

ID Depth Data Energy Event ID

Figure 4. Data structure of the node.

node.

Definition 1. Relative residual energy. The current residual energy of any node i is denoted by r and the
average residual energy of all nodes in their layer is denoted by . The minimum residual energy of all nodes
in this layer is denoted by m and this value can be obtained through sink node periodic feedback information
to the nodes of the overall network. Then, the relative residual energy of the nodes in their layer is defined
by r m m .
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 10 of 18

Definition 1. Relative residual energy. The current residual energy of any node i is denoted by r and the
average residual energy of all nodes in their layer is denoted by . The minimum residual energy of all nodes in
this layer is denoted by m and this value can be obtained through sink node periodic feedback information to
the nodes of the overall network. Then, the relative residual energy of the nodes in their layer is defined by
= ( r m ) / ( m ).

Definition 2. Relative depth. For any node j in layer i in the depth range [i d, (i + 1) d], the distance
between the bottom of layer i and the node j is denoted by dr (j). Then, the relative depth of the node j is defined as
d ( j) = (dr ( j)/d).

Given that event location information is unknown in UWSNs, the network is layered and all nodes
are deployed by random uniform deployment. Combined with the location of event information and
interlayer distance to deploy nodes and define the work mechanism of nodes effectively, we propose
a non-uniform clustering deployment algorithm or strategy based on event location information.
Generally, adopting the clustering algorithm will let cluster head nodes consume more energy on
data forwarding and relaying. Thus, we must consider the influence of more energy consumption of
cluster head nodes throughout network operation. The implementation procedures of the algorithm
are as follows:

(1) In the monitored underwater environment whose volume is L W H, multiple sink nodes
create a uniform linear layout on the water surface center line. Section 4.2.1 shows that we
can obtain a total deployment expected number k Di k of nodes for network layer i. Then, all of
the nodes adjust their depth randomly within the interlayer range, and the number of events
distributed in the space is et .
(2) The communication levels of all of the nodes in layer l are initialized to be 1. All communication
node radii are Rc. All nodes in layer l broadcast the neighbor finding messages If and attempt
to receive that message from other nodes in this layer network. If node i receives the neighbor
finding message If from node j in the range of broadcast radius, then the same time node i must
return a response message Ia to node j with the same communication radius. If node i cannot
receive any neighbor finding message from all other nodes in its layer l, then node i is denoted
as a state of neighbor barely. Thus, the node gradually increases the communication level to
broadcast neighbor finding message If . The aforementioned process continues the iteration until
all nodes in this layer network can receive response messages Ia . The neighbor node is defined
by neiglj if node j can receive response message Ia from the network of layer l. If the response
message Ia comes from a layer network above, then the neighbor node is defined by neiglj1 . We
record the information of all of the nodes of each layer network by using the same principle
until the overall network nodes can receive response message Ia . However, the nodes in the first
layer network have no upper neighbor nodes; thus, its upper neighbor node information will not
be labeled.
(3) All nodes perceive their surrounding event and broadcast and receive cluster generation
information Cg (contains the number of perceived events and the neighbor node information).
Given that cluster head nodes have more energy consumption that leads to premature death,
they will be a prior consideration. Node i selects the node that can perceive most events from its
neighbor nodes (including itself) to be its cluster head to maintain the effective network coverage
rate. If multiple neighbor nodes can perceive the same maximum number of events, then node i
selects the node away from its nearest neighbor as its cluster head node.
(4) After completing the previous steps, each cluster head node will collect event information
and transmit data to sink node sets by the single-hop or multi-hop method. The cluster head
node chooses the node (including the cluster head node and intra-cluster node) with maximum
forwarding probability pj as its next-hop and the next-hop node in other clusters in the upper
layer network. We can determine the forwarding probability pj by the following formula: pj = /c,
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 11 of 18

where we define the comprehensive advantage as = a + bd . a and b is a regulatory factor,

and a + b = 1, c is the number of neighbor nodes that the cluster head nodes can detect in
their upper layer network. The intra-cluster node selects its cluster head node to form the
next-hop path.
(5) When the network undergoes many rounds (the number of data acquisition) or is affected by
underwater current, volcanic eruption, or harbor and shore activities, the cluster head node may
die prematurely and the network topology will change. Once the data transmission chain shows
the phenomenon of interlay disconnect, then the data transmission will fail between adjacent
layers. We need to select several proper relay nodes to substitute for the forwarding nodes out
of service or to reselect the new cluster head node. The specific recovery strategy is as follows:
When the data transmission fails in interlay network communication, the cluster head nodes
select the cluster member node with a more relative residual energy as the temporary cluster
head node. If the data transmission chain restores data acquisition in the interlay network, then
the temporary cluster head node j is directly replaced as the real cluster head node; otherwise,
the temporary cluster head node j detects neighbor clusters in the same layer and selects the
nearest node in neighbor clusters away from node j to forward messages (as shown in Figure 5,
node 2 is a cluster head of nodes 1, 3, and 4 when the energy of cluster head node 2 is almost
exhausted. Node 2 initially attempts to select node 4 as the temporary cluster head with more
relative residual energy . If the data transmission chain is still unable to connect, then the
cluster head node 2 selects node 5 as its next-hop node at the neighbor cluster in the same layer
network). If the two strategies still cannot achieve the data transmission, then we can conclude
that the cluster has reached the threshold of death. We subsequently select other nodes to replace
the original node that almost reached the threshold of death. Then, we recover the cluster. For the
cluster that reaches the threshold of death, the cluster head node C(j) of node j determines the
largest comprehensive advantage of node i in its cluster. If node i can recover the transmission
chain by itself to substitute for node j, then determining the node i to move in a straight line to
substitute for node j. If the transmission link is still disconnected, then the cluster head node
searches all neighbor cluster nodes within the same layer and generates a report on all cluster
generation information Cg of the nodes, including the number of events covered and depth
information. Each neighbor cluster head node sends help message Hm (which may be several)
to node j and selects the nearest node h to substitute for node i. If cluster head node C(j) cannot
receive any help message, then the process of recovering fails. Furthermore, the overall algorithm
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103of uneven cluster deployment based on event distribution is shown in Figure 6.
description 12 of 19

Normal Node

9 8 Impending
Death Node

Interim Recovery
Node
7
4
5 Intra-Cluster
2 Communication

6 Recovery Communication
on Same Layer
1 3
Recovery Communication
on Interlayer

Figure5.5.Recovery
Figure Recoverystrategy
strategyof
ofclusters.
clusters.

Start

All nodes randomly distributed in

different layer which is fixed by
 2 Communication

6 Recovery Communication
on Same Layer
1 3
Recovery Communication
on Interlayer

Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 12 of 18

Figure 5. Recovery strategy of clusters.

Start

All nodes randomly distributed in

different layer which is fixed by

Initialize the nodes then broadcast If

N
The node can receive Ia ? = +1

Each node generates the Cg

N
Continue to
Have node premature death?
run network

Execute relevant recovery strategy

Figure
Figure 6. 6.Algorithm
Algorithmof
of uneven
uneven cluster
clusterflowchart.
flowchart.

5. Simulation Evaluation
5. Simulation Evaluation
This section gives related parameter settings and evaluation metrics, and then these metrics go
This section
on with givesanalysis
a detailed related of
parameter settings
the simulation and evaluation metrics, and then these metrics go on
results.
with a detailed analysis of the simulation results.
5.1. Parameter Settings and Evaluation Metrics
5.1. Parameter Settings and Evaluation Metrics
We will compare UCBNL with PSND and the DSECC on five metrics, namely, network energy
We will compare
consumption, UCBNL
network coverage with
rate,PSND and
network the DSECC
connectivity rate,on five metrics,
network namely,
lifetime, and network
network energy
reliability.
In addition,network
consumption, the recovery efficiency
coverage cannetwork
rate, be expressed by movement
connectivity coverage
rate, networkgainlifetime,
in Sectionand
3.2.5.network
To
verify the
reliability. In effectiveness
addition, theof the UCBNL efficiency
recovery algorithm, MATLAB is used to simulate
can be expressed and analyze
by movement experiment
coverage gain in
results, and the volume of monitored water space is 200 m 200 m 200 m.
Section 3.2.5. To verify the effectiveness of the UCBNL algorithm, MATLAB is used to simulate andThe metrics of the
analyze experiment results, and the volume of monitored water space is 200 m 200 m 200 m.
The metrics of the simulation results are the mean of 50 experiments to eliminate experimental error.
Other default parameters are set in Table 1 [19].

Table 1. Simulation parameters setting.

Parameter Value
Initial energy of node Einit 1000 J
Energy threshold of node Eth 20 J
Coverage threshold Cth 0.1
Energy consumption on unit moving distance mu 1 J/m
Power threshold P0 0.05 W
Transmission delay Tp 0.2 s
Energy spreading factor k 2
Carrier frequency f 24 kHz
Sense radius of node Rs 40 m

5.2. Comparison and Analysis of the Simulation Results

Figure 7 shows the influences of the different values of a on network energy consumption and
recovery efficiency when executing the UCBNL. All of the other parameters have default settings.
 Energy spreading factor k 2
Carrier frequency f 24 kHz
Sense radius of node Rs 40 m

5.2. Comparison and Analysis of the Simulation Results

Sensors 2016, 16, 2103
Figure 7 shows the influences of the different values of a on network energy consumption and13 of 18
recovery efficiency when executing the UCBNL. All of the other parameters have default settings.
Figure 7 shows that, when a is 0.5, the comprehensive results of network energy consumption and
Figure 7 shows that, when a is 0.5, the comprehensive results of network energy consumption and
recovery efficiency are more balanced. Therefore, in subsequent simulation experiments, the default
recovery
settingefficiency
of a is 0.5.are more balanced. Therefore, in subsequent simulation experiments, the default
setting of a is 0.5.

1 1

Normalization of energy consumption

Normalization of recovery efficiency

0.8 0.8

0.6 Energy consumptiion 0.6

Recovery efficiency
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
The value of a

Figure 7.7.Influence
Figure Influence of
of different valuesofof
different values a on
a on network
network performances.
performances.

5.2.1.5.2.1. Network
Network Energy
Energy Consumption
Consumption
Figure 8 shows that the comparison of the percentage of network residual energy varies with
Figure 8 shows that the comparison of the percentage of network residual energy varies with
the network operation number (the number of data acquisition) on the UCBNL, PSND, and the
the network operation number (the number of data acquisition) on the UCBNL, PSND, and the
DSECC, where the number of events is 400 and the number of nodes is 60 in the simulation scenario.
DSECC, where the number of events is 400 and the number of nodes is 60 in the simulation scenario.
As shown in Figure 8, the network residue energy is similar among UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC in
As shown instage
the early Figure 8, the network
of network residue (between
data acquisition energy is0 similar
and 150 among
times of UCBNL, PSND, However,
data acquisition). and DSECC in
the early
the network energy is almost depleted when the number of times of data acquisition is 453 forHowever,
stage of network data acquisition (between 0 and 150 times of data acquisition). the
the network energy and
PSND algorithm, is almost depleted
the network when
still has theenergy
some number of timeslonger
to maintain of data acquisition
data acquisitionisfor
453thefor the
PSNDUCBNL and DSECC
algorithm, and the algorithm.
networkCompared with the
still has some PSND
energy to algorithm, the UCBNL
maintain longer data algorithm
acquisition canfor the
obtain longer network operation times with higher efficiency of data acquisition
UCBNL and DSECC algorithm. Compared with the PSND algorithm, the UCBNL algorithm can obtain because the UCBNL
cannetwork
longer decrease the energy consumption
operation of nodes
times with higher during the
efficiency of phase of deployment
data acquisition by presetting
because the UCBNLthe can
expected node numbers of each layer network and the node moving time is decreased during cluster
decrease the energy consumption of nodes during the phase of deployment by presetting the expected
recovery. Meanwhile, the uneven cluster deployment method can also change relay nodes by cooperating
node numbers of each layer network and the node moving time is decreased during cluster recovery.
with the neighboring cluster to balance the energy consumption of the network.
Meanwhile, the uneven cluster deployment method can also change relay nodes by cooperating with
the neighboring
Sensors 2016, 16,cluster
2103 to balance the energy consumption of the network. 14 of 19

120
UCBNL
100 DSECC
Network residual energy (%)

PSND

80

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
The number of data acquisition

Figure
Figure 8. Comparisonof
8. Comparison ofenergy
energy efficiency
efficiencyduring
duringdata
dataacquisition.
acquisition.

5.2.2. Network Coverage Rate

5.2.2. Network Coverage Rate
Figure 9 shows that the network coverage rate and network connectivity rate varies with the
Figure
number9ofshows that the on
data acquisition network
UCBNL,coverage rate
PSND, and and network
DSECC connectivity
when the number rate
of events is varies
400 andwith
the the
number
number of nodes is 60. As shown in Figure 9, during the early phase of network operation and
of data acquisition on UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC when the number of events is 400
(approximately 150 times of data acquisition previously), the UCBNL and PSND algorithms maintain
similar network coverage rate and their value are high. Then, the DSECC achieves a higher network
coverage rate. In addition, the network coverage rate of the PSND algorithm decreases more rapidly
when the network encounters a certain phase (between 150 and 300 times of data acquisition). The
network coverage rate of UCBNL decreases relatively more smoothly. The reason for this is that
PSND only focuses on improving the network coverage rate, leading to excessive blind movement of
 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
The number of data acquisition

Figure 8. Comparison of energy efficiency during data acquisition.

Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 14 of 18

5.2.2. Network Coverage Rate
Figure 9 shows that the network coverage rate and network connectivity rate varies with the
number of
the number ofdata
nodesacquisition
is 60. onAsUCBNL,
shown PSND,
in Figureand DSECC
9, during when thetheearly
number
phaseof events is 400 and
of network the
operation
number of 150
(approximately nodes is 60.
times As shown
of data in Figure
acquisition 9, during
previously), thethe early phase
UCBNL and PSNDof network operation
algorithms maintain
(approximately
similar network coverage 150 times of data
rate and acquisition
their valuepreviously), the UCBNL
are high. Then, and PSND
the DSECC algorithms
achieves maintain
a higher network
similar network coverage rate and their value are high. Then, the DSECC achieves a higher network
coverage rate. In addition, the network coverage rate of the PSND algorithm decreases more rapidly
coverage rate. In addition, the network coverage rate of the PSND algorithm decreases more rapidly
when the network encounters a certain phase (between 150 and 300 times of data acquisition).
when the network encounters a certain phase (between 150 and 300 times of data acquisition). The
The network coveragerate
network coverage rateof of UCBNL
UCBNL decreases
decreases relatively
relatively more more smoothly.
smoothly. The reasonThefor
reason
this isfor this is
that
that PSND only focuses on improving the network coverage rate, leading to excessive
PSND only focuses on improving the network coverage rate, leading to excessive blind movement of blind movement
of nodes
nodesatatthe
theinitial
initial deployment. Although
deployment. Although its its value
value is high
is high by deploying
by deploying more to
more nodes nodes to surround
surround all
all events
eventsininthe
theearly
earlyphase
phase of network operation,the
network operation, the DSECC
DSECC doesdoes
notnot apply
apply the the change
change of network
of network
topology
topology becausebecause of the
of the influence
influence ofofunderwater
underwater flow in in the
thelater
laterperiod
periodof of
network operation.
network operation.

1.2
UCBNL
1 DSECC
PSND
Network coverage rate

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
The number of data acquisition

Figure 9. Comparison of network coverage rate during data acquisition.

Figure 9. Comparison of network coverage rate during data acquisition.

5.2.3. Network Connectivity Rate

5.2.3. Network Connectivity Rate
As shown in Figure 10, the UCBNL and DSECC can achieve full network connectivity in the
As shown
early phasein of Figure
network10, the UCBNL
operation. and DSECC
Moreover, can achieve
the UCBNL full network
still maintains connectivity
a high network in the early
connectivity
phaserate
of network operation. Moreover, the UCBNL still maintains a high network connectivity
in successive periods of longer network operation, and the network connectivity rate decreases rate in
slowly.periods
successive The network connectivity
of longer network rate of PSND and
operation, is always smaller than
the network that of therate
connectivity USBL algorithm
decreases slowly.
because the
The network UCBNL executes
connectivity rate ofa PSND
heterogeneous processing
is always smaller of communication
than radii during
that of the USBL network
algorithm because
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 15 of 19
the UCBNL executes a heterogeneous processing of communication radii during network layering
and node clustering,
layering and nodeand the strategy
clustering, of cluster
and the strategyrecovering helps to improve
of cluster recovering helps to the network
improve connectivity
the network
rate. connectivity
However, the rate. However, the PSND algorithm only ensures a high network connectivity rate bymore
PSND algorithm only ensures a high network connectivity rate by deploying
nodesdeploying
to surround morethe nodes to surround
events the events
during early during
network early network
operation. operation.
The PSND The PSND
algorithm algorithm
ignores situations
ignores
wherein nodessituations wherein nodes
die prematurely and die prematurely
cannot and cannot
be recovered. be recovered.
Meanwhile, Meanwhile,
the DSECC the DSECC
can utilize the AUVs
can utilize
to collect the AUVs
data when the to collect data
network when thedeath.
approaches network approaches death.

1.2

UCBNL
1
DSECC
Network connectivity rate

PSND
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
The number of data acquisition

Figure Comparison
10. 10.
Figure Comparisonofofnetwork
network connectivity rateduring
connectivity rate during data
data acquisition.
acquisition.

5.2.4. Network Lifetime

Figure 11a shows the comparison of the network lifetime variation with the number of nodes on
UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC, where the number of events is 400 in the simulation scenario. As shown
in Figure 11a, when the number of nodes is less than 45, the UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC can run
 0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
The number of data acquisition
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 15 of 18
Figure 10. Comparison of network connectivity rate during data acquisition.

5.2.4. Network Lifetime

Figure
Figure 11a shows the comparison of the network lifetime variation variation with the number of nodes on
UCBNL,
UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC, where the number of events is 400 in the simulation
PSND, and DSECC, where the number of events is 400 simulation scenario.
scenario. As shown
in Figure 11a, when the number of nodes is less than than 45, the UCBNL,
UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC can run
close to the
the network
network lifetime.
lifetime. However, as the number of nodes increases, the performance of the
UCBNL is superior to that of the PSND. PSND. Figure 11b
11b shows
shows thethe comparison
comparison of the
the network
network lifetime
lifetime
variation
variation with the number of events on the UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC, where the number of nodes
is 60 in
in the
the simulation
simulation scenario.
scenario. As shown in Figure 11b, the network lifetime of the UCBNL and
PSND trends
trends downward with
downward with the
the growth
growth of
of the number of events. We observe that the limited nodes
are difficult to recharge
recharge and that blind movement will consume more energy. Evidently, the results
show that using PSND results in redundant node movement. Therefore, the UCBNL will utilize more
energy to perform data acquisition by decreasing the energy of node movement and prolonging the
network lifetime. In addition,
addition, the
the DSECC
DSECC cannot
cannot adopt
adopt the
the dynamic
dynamic changes
changes of
of network
network topology,
topology,
thus accelerating network decline.
network decline.

1200

UCBNL
1000
DSECC
PSND
Network lifetime

800

600

400

200

0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
The number of nodes
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 16 of 19
(a)
900
UCBNL
800 DSECC
PSND
700
Network lifetime

600

500

400

300

200

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550

The number of events
(b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Comparison
Comparison of
of network
network lifetime:
lifetime: (a)
(a) Comparison
Comparison of
of network
network lifetime
lifetime when
when the
the number
number of
of
nodes varies; (b) Comparison of network connectivity rate when the number of events varies.
nodes varies; (b) Comparison of network connectivity rate when the number of events varies.

5.2.5. Network Reliability

5.2.5. Network Reliability
Figure 12 illustrates the network reliability based on different indicators. Figure 12a shows the
Figure 12 illustrates the network reliability based on different indicators. Figure 12a shows the
comparison of the emergency time of the first dead node variation with the number of nodes on
comparison of the emergency time of the first dead node variation with the number of nodes on
UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC. Figure 12b shows the comparison of the average node degree variation
UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC. Figure 12b shows the comparison of the average node degree variation
with the number of nodes on UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC, where the number of events is 400 in the
with the number of nodes on UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC, where the number of events is 400 in
simulation scenario. These figures show that, if the number of nodes is the same in PSND, the two
indicators (emergency time of first dead node and average node degree as described in Section 3.2.4)
of the UCBNL is larger than that of the other algorithm. Several reasons can explain this result. First,
the UCBNL is based on the analysis of Section 4, where different depths of nodes possess different
network loads. The priori calculation of the expected number of nodes in each layer network can
dramatically decrease the blind movement of nodes on initial deployment. Moreover, the priori
5.2.5. Network Reliability
Figure 12 illustrates the network reliability based on different indicators. Figure 12a shows the
comparison of the emergency time of the first dead node variation with the number of nodes
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103
on
16 of 18
UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC. Figure 12b shows the comparison of the average node degree variation
with the number of nodes on UCBNL, PSND, and DSECC, where the number of events is 400 in the
the simulation
simulation scenario.
scenario. TheseThese
figures figures
show show
that, ifthat, if the number
the number of nodes ofisnodes is the
the same in same
PSND,inthe PSND,
two
the two indicators (emergency time of first dead node and average node degree
indicators (emergency time of first dead node and average node degree as described in Section 3.2.4) as described in
Section
of 3.2.4) of
the UCBNL is the UCBNL
larger is larger
than that of thethan
otherthat of the other
algorithm. algorithm.
Several Several
reasons can reasons
explain can explain
this result. First,
thisUCBNL
the result. First, the UCBNL
is based is basedofon
on the analysis the analysis
Section 4, where of different
Section 4,depths
whereof different depths different
nodes possess of nodes
possess
networkdifferent
loads. The network
prioriloads. The priori
calculation of thecalculation
expected of the expected
number number
of nodes in eachof nodes in each layer
layer network can
network can dramatically
dramatically decrease the decrease the blindof
blind movement movement
nodes onofinitial
nodesdeployment.
on initial deployment.
Moreover, Moreover,
the priori
the priori calculation
calculation provides aprovides a more
more stable stabledensity
coverage coverage ondensity on eachfor
each network network for subsequent
subsequent network
network operation
operation
to reduce to thereduce the movement
movement distance of distance
nodes ofinnodes in the recovery
the recovery period. period.
Second, Second, the process
the process of the
of the heterogeneous
heterogeneous communication
communication radius on radius
the on the uneven
uneven cluster cluster phase
phase can can replace
replace the node thethat
node that
needs
needs recovery
recovery in a fashion.
in a timely timely fashion. Furthermore,
Furthermore, flexiblenetwork
flexible change change network routing the
routing balances balances theoverall
loads of loads
of overalldata
network network data acquisition.
acquisition. By contrast, theBy contrast,
PSND only theoperates
PSND only operates
effectively effectively
in the in the initial
initial deployment by
deployment
driving mostbynodes
driving tomost
covernodes to cover surrounding
surrounding events, withevents, with energy
excessive excessive energy consumption
consumption of node
of node movement
movement and redundancy
and redundancy node coverage
node coverage in the in the initial
initial deployment,
deployment, therebythereby resulting
resulting in poor
in poor late
late network
network performance
performance and and network
network reliability.
reliability.

200
UCBNL
Emergency time of first dead node

DSECC
150 PSND

100

50

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 The number of nodes 17 of 19
(a)
5

UCBNL
4.5
DSECC
PSND
Average node degree

3.5

2.5

2
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
The number of nodes
(b)
Figure 12. Comparison
Figure 12. Comparison of
of network
network reliability:
reliability: (a)
(a) Comparison
Comparison of
of emergency
emergency time
time of
of the
the first dead
first dead
node
node when the number of nodes varies; (b) Comparison of average node degree when the number of
when the number of nodes varies; (b) Comparison of average node degree when the number of
nodes varies.
nodes varies.

6. Conclusions and Future Work

6. Conclusions and Future Work
In this study, we first proposed the UCBNL to address the deployment issue of UWSNs for event
In this study, we first proposed the UCBNL to address the deployment issue of UWSNs
coverage. This deployment of a layered mechanism avoids the large network energy consumption
for event coverage. This deployment of a layered mechanism avoids the large network energy
brought by the communication of the same layer nodes and simplifies the network model. The
consumption brought by the communication of the same layer nodes and simplifies the network model.
deployment of a layered mechanism also optimizes the network lifetime, network connectivity rate,
The deployment of a layered mechanism also optimizes the network lifetime, network connectivity
and coverage rate. Compared with PSND and DSECC, the simulation results show that the UCBNL
can maintain high network coverage and connectivity rates for a longer period of time, reduce
network energy consumption, and decrease the slope of network recession, thereby prolonging
network lifetime.
Several factors behind receiving distorted information will be considered in the future to account
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 17 of 18

rate, and coverage rate. Compared with PSND and DSECC, the simulation results show that the
UCBNL can maintain high network coverage and connectivity rates for a longer period of time,
reduce network energy consumption, and decrease the slope of network recession, thereby prolonging
network lifetime.
Several factors behind receiving distorted information will be considered in the future to account
for real-life situations. These factors include underwater current, volcanic eruption, and harbor and
shore activities. Such factors must be considered during node deployment in UWSNs. Meanwhile,
obstacles will also be added to increase the practical applicability of the algorithm.

Acknowledgments: This paper was supported by the Special Project of National Key R&D Program of the
Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2016YFC0201400), the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (NSFC61273072), the Provincial Key Research and Development Program of Science and Technology
Department of Zhejiang Province (2016C03G2040707), the National Natural Science Foundation of China and
Zhejiang Joint Fund for Integrating of Informatization and Industrialization (U1509217).
Author Contributions: Shanen Yu, Shuai Liu and Peng Jiang conceived and designed the research; Shanen Yu,
Shuai Liu and Peng Jiang performed the research; Shanen Yu, Shuai Liu and Peng Jiang wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Garcia, M.; Sendra, S.; Atenas, M. Underwater wireless ad-hoc networks: A survey. In Book Mobile Ad Hoc
Networks: Current Status and Future Trends; Loo, J., Mauri, J.L., Ortiz, J.H., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL,
USA, 2011; pp. 379411.
2. Bhambri, H.; Swaroop, A. Underwater sensor network: Architectures, challenges and applications.
In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development,
New Delhi, India, 57 March 2014; pp. 915920.
3. Prasan, U.D.; Murugappan, S. Underwater Sensor Networks: Architecture, Research Challenges and
Potential Applications. Int. J. Eng. Res. Appl. 2012, 2, 251256.
4. Gkikopouli, A.; Nikolakopoulos, G.; Manesis, S. A survey on underwater wireless sensor networks and
applications. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Control and Automation (MED), Barcelona, Spain,
36 July 2012; pp. 11471154.
5. Varughese, A.; Seetharamiah, P. Design of a Node for an Underwater Sensor Network. Int. J. Comput. Appl.
2014, 91, 3639. [CrossRef]
6. Hawbani, A.; Wang, X.F.; Husaini, N. Grid Coverage Algorithm & Analyzing for wireless sensor networks.
Netw. Protoc. Algorithms 2014, 6, 118.
7. Pinto, D.; Viana, S.S.; Nacif, J.A. HydroNode: A low cost, energy efficient, multi purpose node for underwater
sensor networks. In Proceedings of the Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Edmonton, AB,
Canada, 811 September 2012; pp. 148151.
8. Vilela, J.; Kashino, Z.; Ly, R. A Dynamic Approach to Sensor Network Deployment for Mobile-Target
Detection in Unstructured, Expanding Search Areas. IEEE Sens. J. 2016, 16, 44054417. [CrossRef]
9. Virginia, P.; Luigi, A. Deployment of Distributed Applications in Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors 2011, 11,
73957419.
10. Temel, S.; Unaldi, N.; Kaynak, O. On deployment of wireless sensors on 3-D terrains to maximize sensing
coverage by utilizing cat swarm optimization with wavelet transform. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst.
2014, 44, 111120. [CrossRef]
11. Venkateswaran, A.; Sarangan, V. A Mobility-Prediction-Based Relay Deployment Framework for Conserving
Power in MANETs. IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput. 2008, 8, 750765. [CrossRef]
12. Li, H.; Yang, B.; Chen, C. Connectivity of Aeronautical Ad hoc Networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE
Conference on GLOBECOM Workshops, Miami, FL, USA, 610 December 2010; pp. 17881792.
13. Nguyen, T.T.; Dao, T.K.; Horng, M.F.; Shieh, C.S. An Energy-based Cluster Head Selection Algorithm to
Support Long-lifetime in Wireless Sensor Networks. J. Netw. Intell. 2016, 1, 2337.
14. Dao, T.T.; Pan, T.T.; Nguyen, T.T.; Chu, S.C. A Compact Articial Bee Colony Optimization for Topology
Control Scheme in Wireless Sensor Networks. J. Inf. Hiding Multimed. Signal Process. 2015, 6, 297310.
Sensors 2016, 16, 2103 18 of 18

15. Ali, T.; Jung, L.T.; Faye, I. End-to-End Delay and Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Underwater Wireless
Sensor Networks. Wirel. Pers. Commun. 2014, 79, 339361. [CrossRef]
16. Pompili, D.; Melodia, T.; Akyildiz, I.F. Deployment analysis in underwater acoustic wireless sensor networks.
In Proceedings of the 1st ACM international workshop on underwater networks, Los Angeles, CA, USA,
25 September 2006; pp. 4855.
17. Xia, N. Fish Swarm Inspired Underwater Sensor Deployment. Acta Autom. Sin. 2012, 38, 295302. [CrossRef]
18. Du, H.; Xia, N.; Jiang, J. Particle swarm inspired underwater sensor self-deployment. Sensors 2014, 14,
1526215281. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Peng, J.; Liu, J.; Wu, F. Node Non-Uniform Deployment Based on Clustering Algorithm for Underwater
Sensor Networks. Sensors 2015, 15, 2999730010.
20. Bharamagoudra, M.R.; Manvi, S.K.S. Deployment Scheme for Enhancing Coverage and Connectivity in
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks. Wirel. Pers. Commun. 2016, 89, 12651293. [CrossRef]
21. Huang, C.J.; Wang, Y.W.; Lin, C.F. A self-healing clustering algorithm for underwater sensor networks.
Clust. Comput. 2011, 14, 9199. [CrossRef]
22. Cai, S.B.; Zhang, G.Z.; Liu, S.L. Weighted Localization for Underwater Sensor Networks. Lect. Notes
Electr. Eng. 2014, 295, 325334.
23. Cheng, W.; Teymorian, A.Y.; Ma, L. Underwater Localization in Sparse 3D Acoustic Sensor Networks.
In Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Computer Communications, INFOCOM 2008, Phoenix, AZ, USA,
1318 April 2008; pp. 236240.
24. Han, G.; Zhang, C.; Shu, L. A survey on deployment algorithms in underwater acoustic sensor networks.
Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw. 2013, 111. [CrossRef]
25. Liu, L. A deployment algorithm for underwater sensor networks in ocean environment. J. Circ. Syst. Comput.
2011, 20, 10511066. [CrossRef]
26. Alam, S.M.; Haas, Z.J. Coverage and connectivity in three-dimensional networks. In Proceedings of the
12th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Los Angeles, CA, USA,
2429 September 2006; pp. 346357.
27. Alam, S.M.N.; Haas, Z.J. Coverage and connectivity in three-dimensional networks with random node
deployment. Ad Hoc Netw. 2015, 34, 157169. [CrossRef]
28. Akkaya, K.; Newell, A. Self-deployment of sensors for maximized coverage in underwater acoustic sensor
networks. Comput. Commun. 2009, 32, 12331244. [CrossRef]
29. Senel, F.; Akkaya, K.; Erol-Kantarci, M.; Yilmaz, T. Self-deployment of mobile underwater acoustic sensor
networks for maximized coverage and guaranteed connectivity. Ad Hoc Netw. 2014, 34, 170183. [CrossRef]
30. Wu, J.; Wang, Y.; Liu, L. A Voronoi-Based Depth-Adjustment Scheme for Underwater Wireless Sensor
Networks. Int. J. Smart Sens. Intell. Syst. 2013, 6, 244258.
31. Partan, J.; Kurose, J.; Levine, B.N. A survey of practical issues in underwater networks. ACM Sigmobile Mob.
Comput. Commun. Rev. 2007, 11, 2333. [CrossRef]
32. Ahmed, S.; Javaid, N.; Khan, F.A. Co-UWSN: Cooperative Energy Efficient Protocol for Underwater WSNs.
Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw. 2015. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Zhou, Z.; Peng, Z.; Cui, J.H. Scalable Localization with Mobility Prediction for Underwater Sensor Networks.
IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput. 2010, 10, 21982206.
34. Bahi, J.; Haddad, M.; Hakem, M. Efficient distributed lifetime optimization algorithm for sensor networks.
Ad Hoc Netw. 2014, 16, 112. [CrossRef]
35. Wahid, A.; Lee, S.; Kim, D. A reliable and energy-efficient routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor
networks. Int. J. Commun. Syst. 2014, 27, 20482062. [CrossRef]
36. Saxena, S.; Mishra, S.; Singh, M. Clustering Based on Node Density in Heterogeneous Under-Water Sensor
Network. Int. J. Inf. Technol. Comput. Sci. 2013, 5, 4955. [CrossRef]

2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).