Vector Algebra and Calculus

2nd year A1 Course

8 Lectures, Michaelmas 2013

Stephen Roberts

sjrob@robots.ox.ac.uk
Vector Calculus & Scalar Fields 0.2

Think about some scalar quantities

mass M, length L, time t, temperature T , etc
If r = [x, y , z ] is a position in space, T (r) is a scalar eld
T might be time-varying the field is T (r, t)

z
Keep y , z , t constant. What is T when you move x?
 
T
T = x.
x

But suppose you moved of in a direction n. Would you multiply

T
T = n ?
n
x y

Does T /n exist is it a vector or a scalar?

Vector Calculus & Vector Fields 0.3

A vector quantity v(r) that has a value at every r in a region is a vector eld.
Examples are:
The electric field E(r) around stationary charges
The unsteady fluid velocity field v(r, t) in a stream.

Local stream velocity v(r, t) can be viewed using:

laser Doppler anemometry, or by dropping twigs in, or diving in
...
Youll be interested in
weirs (acceleration), &
vortices (curls)
Contents 0.4

1. Revision of vector algebra, scalar product, vector product.

2. Triple products, multiple products, applications to geometry.
3. Differentiation of vector functions, applications to mechanics.
4. Scalar and vector fields. Line, surface and volume integrals, curvilinear co-ordinates .
5. Vector operators grad, div and curl.
6. Vector Identities, curvilinear co-ordinate systems.
7. Gauss and Stokes Theorems and extensions.
8. Engineering Applications.
Learning Outcomes 0.5

comfort with expressing systems using vector quantities

manipulating vectors as atomic entities without recourse to underlying coordinates
sound grasp of the concept of a vector field
ability to link this idea to descriptions various physical phenomena
intuition of the physical meaning of the various vector calculus operators (div, grad, curl)
ability to interpret the formulae describing physical systems in terms of these operators
Reading 0.6

J Heading, Mathematical Methods in Science and Engineering, 2nd ed., Ch.13, (Arnold).
G Stephenson, Mathematical Methods for Science Students, 2nd ed., Ch.19, (Longman).
E Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 6th ed., Ch.6, (Wiley).
K F Riley, M. P. Hobson and S. J. Bence, Mathematical Methods for the Physics and Engineering Chs. 6, 8 and
9 (CUP).
A J M Spencer, et. al. Engineering Mathematics, Vol.1, Ch.6, (Van Nostrand Reinhold).
H M Schey, Div, Grad, Curl and all that, Norton
Course WWW Pages 0.7

Pdf copies of
these oheads
lecture notes
tutorial sheets
FAQs etc
will be accessible from
www.robots.ox.ac.uk/sjrob/Teaching/Vectors
If something is really not clear, and you are really stuck,
email sjrob@robots.ox.ac.uk
and the reply (if generally useful) will get stuck on the web FAQs.
 Vector Algebra and Calculus

1. Revision of vector algebra, scalar product, vector product

2. Triple products, multiple products, applications to geometry
3. Differentiation of vector functions, applications to mechanics
4. Scalar and vector fields. Line, surface and volume integrals, curvilinear co-ordinates
5. Vector operators grad, div and curl
6. Vector Identities, curvilinear co-ordinate systems
7. Gauss and Stokes Theorems and extensions
8. Engineering Applications
 1. Vector Algebra

In which we explore ...

Free, sliding and position vectors
Coord frames and Vector components
Equality, magnitude, Addition, Subtraction
Scalar products, Vector Projection, Inner products
Vector Products
Vectors 1.2

In Linear Algebra vectors were lists of n numbers.

Often in the physical world, the numbers specify
magnitude (1 number) & direction (1 number in 2D, 2 in 3D)
There are three slightly different types of vectors:
Free vectors: Only mag & dirn are important. We can translate at will.
Sliding vectors: Line of action is important (eg. forces for moments)
Vector can slide with 1 degree of freedom.
Bound or position vectors: Tails all originate at origin O.
r r
r1 2 3

O
Free vectors Sliding vectors Position vectors
Coordinate frames 1.3

An advantage of vector algebra:

frees analysis from arbitrarily imposed coordinate frames.

Eg, two free vectors are equal if mags and dirns are equal. Can be done with a
drawing that is
independent of any coordinate system.

Try to spot things in the notes that are independent of coordinate system.
However, coordinate systems are useful,
so introduce the idea of vector components.
Vector components in a coordinate frame 1.4

k
In a Cartesian coordinate frame
x
2
a = [a1, a2, a3] = [x2 x1, y2 y1, z2 z1 ]
a3
a as unit vectors in the x, y , z dirns
Define ,, k
= [0, 0, 1]
= [1, 0, 0] = [0, 1, 0] k
x j
1
then
a2 .
a = a1 + a2 + a3k
a1 Remember, general vectors not stuck in 3 dimensions!
i
Notation 1.5

We will use bold font to represent vectors

a, ,

In written work, underline the vector

a,

We shall use the hat

a to denote a unit vector.
a denotes the transpose of a vector
iff means if and only if
mag and dirn are my shorthands for magnitude and direction
Vector equality 1.6

Two free vectors are said to be equal iff their lengths and directions are the same.
Using coordinates, two n-dimensional vectors are equal
a = b iff a1 = b1, a2 = b2, ... an = bn

This does for position vectors.

But for sliding vectors we must add the line of action must be the same.
Vector magnitude and unit vectors 1.7

Provided we use an orthogonal coordinate system, the magnitude of a 3-vector is

q
a = |a| = a12 + a22 + a32
and of an n-vector sX
a = |a| = ai2
i

To find the unit vector in the direction of a, simply divide the vector by its magnitude
a

a= .
|a|
Vector Addition and Subtraction 1.8

Vectors are added/subtracted by adding/subtracting corresponding components (like matrices)

a + b = [a1 + b1, a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ]

Addition follows the parallelogram construction.

Subtraction is a + (b)
a+b

a ab c
k
c b+c
b
b
a+b
i j
a
Properties of addition/subtraction 1.9

The following results follow immediately from the above definition of vector addition (incl. subtraction).

1. a + b = b + a (it commutes)
2. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) = a + b + c
(it associates)
3. a + 0 = 0 + a = a
where the zero vector is 0 = [0, 0, 0].
4. a + (-a) = 0
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar 1.10

NOT the scalar product!

Just as for matrices, multiplication of a vector a by a scalar c is defined as multiplication of each component by c,
so that
ca = [ca1, ca2, ca3].
It follows that: p
|ca| = (ca1)2 + (ca2)2 + (ca3)2 = |c||a|.
The direction of the vector will reverse if c is negative, but otherwise is unaffected.
A vector where the sign is uncertain is called a director.
 Example 1.11

The electrostatic force on charged particle Q due to another charged particle q1 is

Qq1 1
F=K r where constant K =
r2 4r 0
where r is the vector from q to Q.
Question: Write down an expression for the force on Q at R due to N charges qi at ri , i = 1, . . . , N.

qi
Answer:
The vector from qi to Q is R ri .
Q
The unit vector in that direction is (R ri )/|R ri |, so

F(r) =
N
X
K
Qqi
(R ri )
ri
|R ri |3
i=1
R
Notice that we are thinking algebraically about vectors not fussing about their components. Not a coordinate
system in sight.
Scalar product or dot product 1.12

The scalar product of two vectors results in a

scalar quantity:
a b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 .
Note that
a a = a12 + a22 + a32 = |a|2 = a2.
These properties of the sprod follow immediately:

ab=ba
(it commutes)
a (b + c) = a b + a c
(it distributes w.r.t vector addition)
(a) b = (a b) = a (b)
(scalar multiple of a scalar product of two vectors)
Geometrical interpretation of scalar product 1.13

Consider the square magnitude of the vector (a b).

|a b|2 = (a b) (a b) = a a + b b 2(a b)
= a2 + b2 2(a b)

2
B
The cosine rule says length AB is
|a b|2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos
b
Hence ab
a b = ab cos ,
independent of the coord system.
Conversely
cos = a b/ab
O A
a
Projection of one vector onto the other 1.14

b cos is the component of b in the direction of a.

a a cos is the component of a in the direction of b.

Projection of b onto
direction of a
Projection is v. useful when the second vector is a unit vector.
a is the size of the component of a in the direction of .
To get the vector component of b in the dirn of a
1
(b
a)
a= (b a)a .
a2

So
(a ) is the vector component of a in the direction of .
Orthonormal vectors and coordinates 1.15

In the particular case a b = 0, the angle between the two vectors is a right angle.
The vectors are said to be orthogonal neither has a component in the direction of the other.
In 3D, an orthogonal coordinate system is characterised by
k
= = k =1

and
=k
= k = 0
A scalar product is an inner product 1.16

We have been writing vectors as row vectors a = [a1, a2, a3]

Its convenient: it takes less space than writing column vectors
In matrix algebra, vectors are column vectors. So, Ma = v means

M11 M12 M13 a1 v1
M21 M22 M23 a2 = v2
M31 M32 M33 a3 v3

and row vectors are written as a (a transpose).

Most times can be relaxed, but need to fuss to point out that the scalar product is also the inner product used
in linear algebra.
The inner product is defined as a b

b1
ab = [a1, a2, a3] b2 = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 = a b
b3
 Scalar Product Example 1 1.17

Question
A force F is applied to an object as it moves by a small amount r.
What work is done on the object by the force?

Answer
The work done is equal to the component of force in the direction of the displacement multiplied by the displacement
itself.
This is just a scalar product:
W = F r .
Later we will see how to integrate such elements over particular paths as line integrals.
 Scalar Product Example 2 1.18

Question
A cube has four diagonals, connecting opposite vertices. What is the angle between an adjacent pair?
Answer
[1,1,1] [1,1,1]

The directions of the diagonals are [1, 1, 1]. The ones shown in
the figure are [1, 1, 1] and [1, 1, 1]. The angle is thus
k
[1, 1, 1] [1, 1, 1]
= cos1
12 + 12 + 12 12 + 12 + 12
= cos1 (1/3)
j
i
 Scalar Product Example 3 1.19

Question: Pinball with velocity s bounces (elastically) from a baffle whose endpoints are p and q. What is the velocity
vector after the bounce?
Answer
q

^u Refer to coord frame with principal directions along and perpendicular to the
baffle:
p qp
u
= [ux , uy ] =
|q p|
^v
v = u = [uy , ux ]

s

Before impact: velocity is sbefore = (s.

u)
u + (s.
v)
v
After impact: component of velocity in dirn of baffle u
is same
. component normal to the baffle along v is reversed
safter = (s.
u)
u (s.
v)
v
 Scalar Product Example 3 1.20

Worth reflecting on this example ...

Using vectors as complete entities (ie, not thinking about components) has made a tricky problem trivial to solve.
Several languages (including Matlab) allow one to declare vector objects

q
p=[3;4]
^u q=[1;-1]
s=[1;2]
p
diff = q-p
^v uhat = diff/norm(diff)
vhat = [-uhat(2);uhat(1)]
s
safter = dot(s,uhat)*uhat - dot(s,vhat)*vhat

You think in vectors, while built in routines handle the detail of components
... Reflection over.
Direction cosines use projection 1.21

The quantities
a a ak
= , = , =
a a a

are the cosines of the angles which the vector a makes with the coordinate vectors ,, k

k
They are the direction cosines of the vector a.
Since a = a1 etc, it follows immediately that

a = a( + + k)
1 2
2 + 2 + 2 = [a + a 2
+ a 2
]=1
a2 1 2 3
j
i
Vector or cross product 1.22

The vector product of two vectors a and b is

a b = (a2 b3 a3b2) + (a3b1 a1b3 ) + (a1b2 a2b1)k.

You cannot remember the above! Instead use the pseudo determinant

 
 k
 
a b =  a1 a2 a3 
 b1 b2 b3 

where the top row consists of vectors not scalars.

A determinant with two equal rows has value zero, so
aa=0

It is also easily verified that

(a b) a = (a b) b = 0
so that a b is orthogonal to both a and b.
Vector product 1.23

The magnitude of the vector product can be obtained by showing that

|a b|2 + (a b)2 = a2b2
from which it follows (independent of the coord system)
|a b| = ab sin ,

Proof?

The vector product does not commute

It anti-commutes: a b = b a.
The vector product does not associate:
a (b c) 6= (a b) c.
Vector Products 1.24

axb
The vector product is orthogonal to both the vectors.
in righthand screw sense
Need to specify the sense w.r.t these vectors.
b
Sense of the right handed screw ...

a
Plane of vectors a and b

Also

 
 k
.
 
=  1 0 0  = k

0 1 0

And in full:
= k, = ,
k = .
and k
Note the cycle ordering here.
Geometrical interpretation of vector product 1.25

The magnitude of the vector product (a b) is equal to the area of the parallelogram whose sides are parallel to,
and have lengths equal to the magnitudes of, the vectors a and b.
Its direction is perpendicular to the parallelogram.

ax b b

bsin

a
 Example 1.26

[1,2,3]
Question
A g B
g is vector from A [1,2,3] to B [3,4,5].
l is the unit vector in dirn from O to A.
[3,4,5]
Find m, a UNIT vector along g l l
Verify that m is is perpendicular to l.
Find n, the third member of a r-h coord set l, m,
n.

Answer
1) g = [3 1, 4 2, 5 3] = [2, 2, 2].


2) l = [1, 2, 3]/ 14 4) l m
= (1.1 + 2. 2 + 1.3)/(.) = 0

 


 k
  k
1
 
5) n =lm = 6 14  1 2 3 

 
3) g l =  2 2 2  = [2, 4, 2]
 
1 2 3  1 2 1 

m = [1, 2, 1]/ 6
Random question 1.27

Q: If f and g
are two unit vectors,
what is the magnitude of the vector product
f g

g
fxg

f
A: Magnitude is sin .
Summary 1.28

Weve revised and discussed ...

Free, sliding and position vectors
Coord frames and Vector components
Equality, magnitude, Addition, Subtraction
Scalar products, Vector Projection, Inner products
Vector Products
In Lecture 2 ...
Vector multiple products:
Geometry of Lines and Planes
Solving vector equations
Angular velocity and moments
Then the calculus starts