tapraid5/zfr-xge/zfr-xge/zfr00411/zfr2256d11z xppws S1 9/9/11 13:16 Art: 2011-0195

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2011 American Psychological Association

2011, Vol. , No. , 000 000 0096-3445/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0025719

BRIEF REPORT

Mind Over Matter: Reappraising Arousal Improves Cardiovascular and

Cognitive Responses to Stress

Jeremy P. Jamieson and Matthew K. Nock Wendy Berry Mendes

Harvard University University of California San Francisco

Researchers have theorized that changing the way we think about our bodily responses can improve
our physiological and cognitive reactions to stressful events. However, the underlying processes
through which mental states improve downstream outcomes are not well understood. To this end, we
examined whether reappraising stress-induced arousal could improve cardiovascular outcomes and
decrease attentional bias for emotionally negative information. Participants were randomly assigned
to either a reappraisal condition in which they were instructed to think about their physiological
arousal during a stressful task as functional and adaptive, or to 1 of 2 control conditions: attention
reorientation and no instructions. Relative to controls, participants instructed to reappraise their
arousal exhibited more adaptive cardiovascular stress responsesincreased cardiac efficiency and
lower vascular resistanceand decreased attentional bias. Thus, reappraising arousal shows phys-
iological and cognitive benefits. Implications for health and potential clinical applications are
discussed.

Keywords: reappraisal, emotion regulation, stress, attentional bias, biopsychosocial model

The greatest weapon against stress is our ability to choose one thought Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999). More specifi-
over another.William James cally, this model posits that during active, goal-directed tasks,
appraisals of situational demands interact with appraisals of avail-
How we respond to stress has important consequences for our
able resources (see Blascovich & Mendes, 2010, for a review).
biological and cognitive functioning. As the above quote illus-
When people believe they possess sufficient resources to cope with
trates, for over a century theorists have speculated that stress
stressors they experience a challenge response, but when situa-
responses are affected not only by situational factors but also by
tional demands are seen as exceeding resources individuals expe-
perceptions of events. Consistent with the idea that altering per-
rience threat. Physiologically, challenge is characterized by acti-
ceptions has significant effects downstream, research indicates that
vation of the sympatheticadrenalmedullary (SAM) axis,
appraisals influence emotions (Barrett, 2006; Gross, 1998, Gross,
increased cardiac efficiency, and vasodilation changes that sig-
2002; Mauss, Cook, Cheng, & Gross, 2007), clinical outcomes
nal an approach orientation and increase peripheral blood flow.
(Hofmann & Smits, 2008), and performance (Jamieson, Mendes,
Blackstock, & Schmader, 2010). Building on this previous work, Threat also activates the SAM axis, but the specific cardiovascular
the research presented here examines the potential cardiovascular reactivity differs from challenge and is associated with reduced
and cognitive benefits of reappraising arousal during a stressful cardiac efficiency and vasoconstriction changes that signal an
laboratory task. avoidance orientation and prepare the body for damage/defeat
(Mendes, Blascovich, Hunter, Lickel, & Jost, 2007). Whereas
challenge typically is associated with positive outcomes (e.g.,
The Biopsychosocial Model
Blascovich et al., 1999; Dienstbier, 1989; Jamieson et al., 2010),
The biopsychosocial (BPS) model of challenge and threat pro- threat impairs decision making in the short term and in the long
vides a theory of how appraisals shape stress responses (e.g., term is associated with accelerated brain aging, cognitive de-
cline, and cardiovascular disease (Jefferson et al., 2010; Matthews,
Gump, Block, & Allen, 1997).
In stressful situations signs of increased arousal (e.g., racing
heart) are frequently construed as anxiety, nervousness, or fear.
Jeremy P. Jamieson and Matthew K. Nock, Department of Psychology, These negative appraisals encourage people to perceive demands
Harvard University; Wendy Berry Mendes, Department of Psychiatry,
as exceeding resources, triggering a maladaptive threat response.
University of California San Francisco.
Thus, modifying resource appraisals may help improve physiolog-
This research was supported by a grant from the National Institute for
Child and Human Development (F32-HD061195) awarded to Jeremy P. ical responses. In fact, the clinical literature suggests that such an
Jamieson. approach might be efficacious. For instance, panic attacks are
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jeremy characterized by a fear of fearfear in response to somatic
AQ: 2 P. Jamieson, . E-mail: jamieson@wjh.harvard.edu sensations (Bouton, Mineka, & Barlow, 2001)and cognitive

1
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2 JAMIESON, NOCK, AND MENDES

behavioral therapies (CBT) help to improve outcomes by modify- heart murmur, presence of a pacemaker, cardiac medications, and
ing faulty emotional responding to harmless cues of arousal (e.g., pregnancy. One participant wished to terminate the experiment and
Smits, Powers, Cho, & Telch, 2004). was excluded from the analysis.

Threat-Related Attentional Bias Procedure

Markers of threat responses have also been linked to increased After application of sensors, participants rested for a 5-min
attention for threat-related information, such as angry faces or baseline cardiovascular recording. They were then assigned to an
emotionally negative words (e.g., Roelofs, Bakvis, Hermans, van experimental condition. The reappraisal and ignore external cues
Pelt, & van Honk, 2007; van Honk et al., 1999). Functionally, a conditions began with scripted instructions about the benefits of
bias for threat-related information facilitates the detection of dan- reappraising arousal or ignoring stress, respectively. Participants
ger and helps individuals respond effectively to potential threats. then read three summaries of journal articles (some real, some
However, attentional bias also elicits and maintains feelings of made up to match the message conveyed in each condition) on the
anxiety and has been linked to a host of clinical conditions, computer. After each summary, participants answered two ques-
including panic disorder (e.g., McNally et al., 1994), posttraumatic tions that ensured they read the summaries and encouraged them to
stress disorder (e.g., Kaspi, McNally, & Amir, 1995), social anx- endorse the information presented.
iety (e.g., Mathews & MacLeod, 2002, Mathews & MacLeod, The reappraisal manipulation educated participants about the
2005), and suicidal behavior (Cha, Najmi, Park, Finn, & Nock, functionality of physiological arousal during stress. More specif-
2010). In fact, one treatment for anxiety disorders focuses on ically, participants assigned to this condition were informed that
reducing attentional bias via retraining attention away from threat- increased arousal during stressful situations is not harmful. In-
related information by instructing individuals to attend to a cue stead, the instructions explained that our bodys responses to stress
that predicts the location of a nonthreatening target (e.g., Amir, have evolved to help us successfully address stressors and that
Weber, Beard, Bomyea, & Taylor, 2008). increased arousal actually aids performance in stressful situations.
Thus, reappraisal participants were instructed to appraise arousal
Overview of the Current Research as functional and adaptive but were not encouraged to perceive the
evaluative task as any less demanding or stressful.
Building on emotion regulation research that demonstrates that The ignore external cues condition instructed participants that
reappraising affective responses improves emotional outcomes and the best way to reduce nervousness and improve outcomes is to
concomitant physiological responses (e.g., Gross, 1998, Gross, ignore the source of stress. Thus, they were told to look at an X
2002; Mauss et al., 2007), in the current research we tested placed to the left of the evaluators. This attention reorientation
whether altering appraisals of stress arousal was sufficient to paradigm was based on emotion-suppression techniques (e.g.,
promote a more adaptive physiological response and decrease Gross, 1998). However, rather than suppressing affective reac-
attention to emotionally negative information. tions, participants were instructed to redirect their visual attention.
To test the effects of reappraisal, we assigned participants to one Like in the reappraisal condition, participants read through sum-
of three conditions: (a) reappraisal, in which participants were maries of articles advocating the benefits of such an approach. The
instructed that arousal is functional and aids performance (e.g., ignore manipulation was not expected to improve outcomes, even
Dienstbier, 1989; Jamieson et al., 2010); (b) ignore external cues, though it instructed participants to orient attention away from
an attention reorientation control designed to rule out the possi- threat-related information.
bility that any face-valid attentional intervention is sufficient to No-intervention controls were not given any instructions before
improve outcomes; and (c) no-intervention control. their speech, but they completed a nondemanding task to control
Participants then completed a stressful public-speaking task for time. Manipulations took 10 to15 min to complete.
(Kirschbaum, Pirke, & Hellhammer, 1993) while their cardiovas- Participants then completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST;
cular responses were recorded, followed by a test of attentional Kirschbaum et al., 1993), which required them to deliver a 5-min
bias (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, videotaped speech in front of two evaluators. Throughout the
2002). Because of the efficacy of CBT (e.g., Smits et al., 2004) and speech, the evaluators provided negative feedback (furrowed
emotion regulation techniques (e.g., Gross, 1998), reappraisal par- brow, crossed arms, frowning, etc.). Following the speech, partic-
ticipants were hypothesized to demonstrate improved acute car- ipants performed an impromptu 5-min mental arithmetic task:
diovascular functioning and reduced attentional bias for emotion- Counting backward in steps of 7 from 996 while the evaluators
ally negative information relative to ignore and no-intervention provided negative feedback.
participants. An emotional Stroop task (MacLeod et al., 2002) was adminis-
tered after the TSST to assess attentional bias. Participants were
Method asked to name the colors (red, green, or blue) words were printed
in as quickly and accurately as possible. Words were presented in
Participants two 100-word lists. The threat list consisted entirely of emotion-
ally negative words, whereas the neutral list consisted of emotion-
Fifty participants (25 male, 25 female) were recruited from the ally neutral words. Words were sampled from the Stimulus Pairs
Cambridge (Massachusetts) area and were compensated $25 or list from MacLeod et al. (2002, Appendix A). This enabled us to
two credit hours for participation (M age 21.88 years). Partic- match words for length and frequency of usage. List order was
ipants were prescreened for physician-diagnosed hypertension and counterbalanced, and participants completed a practice list (10
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REAPPRAISING AROUSAL 3

threat and 10 neutral words) before beginning. An experimenter disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) scale. Participants also completed
unaware of condition assignment recorded errors and how long it the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson,
took participants to read each list. Interference scores were com- Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) at both time points. AQ: 1
puted by subtracting the time it took participants to read the neutral
list from their time on the threat list.
Results
Physiological Measures
Questionnaires
The following measures were collected during baseline and the
TSST: electrocardiography (ECG; Biopac, Goleta, CA), imped- Self-reports were analyzed in 3 (condition) 2 (time: pre- vs.
ance cardiography (NICO; Biopac, Goleta, CA), and blood pres- post-TSST) mixed analyses of variance (ANOVAs).
sure (Colin Prodigy II; Colin Medical Instruments, San Antonio, Analysis of resource appraisals revealed a main effect for condi-
TX). Signals were integrated with Biopac MP100 hardware. Elec- tion, F(2, 46) 3.26, p .047. Consistent with predictions, planned
trocardiograph and impedance cardiograph signals were scored contrasts (Kirk, 1995) showed that reappraisal participants reported
offline by trained personnel. Signals were visually examined, and higher levels of perceived resources (M 5.88, SD 1.05) than the
the ensembled averages were analyzed using Mindware software no-intervention (M 5.11, SD 1.17), F(1, 47) 4.27, p .044,
(Mindware Technologies, Gahanna, OH). Reactivity scores were d .60, and ignore participants (M 5.00, SD 1.03), F(1, 47)
computed by subtracting scores taken during the final minute of 5.58, p .022, d .69.
baseline (the most relaxed portion) from those collected during After completing the TSST, participants reported that they ex-
the first minute of the speech (the most reactive portion). We pended more effort (M 4.67, SD 1.42) than they expected to
focused on two measures that provide the best distinction between prior to beginning (M 3.43, SD 1.31), F(1, 46) 37.08, p
challenge and threat states: cardiac output (CO) and total periph- .001, d 1.79. No other effort effects were significant.
eral resistance (TPR). CO is the amount of blood ejected from the Analyses of task demands, subjective stress, and positive and
heart during one minute and is calculated by first estimating stroke negative emotions produced no significant effects, Fs 1.
volume (the amount of blood ejected during each beat) and mul-
tiplying that by heart rate. Increases in CO index improved cardiac Physiological Reactivity
efficiency. TPR is a measure of overall vasoconstriction/
vasodilation. During threat states, the peripheral vasculature con- Planned contrasts revealed that participants instructed to reap-
stricts so as to limit blood flow to the periphery. TPR was calcu- praise arousal exhibited lower TPR reactivity than participants
lated with the following formula: (mean arterial pressure / CO) assigned to the no-intervention, F(1, 47) 7.83, p .007, d
80 (Sherwood et al., 1990). .81, and ignore conditions, F(1, 47) 4.82, p .033, d .63,
omnibus F(2, 46) 4.40, p .018 (see Figure 1A). Reappraising F1
arousal led to lower peripheral resistance compared with the con-
Questionnaires
trol conditions. Reappraisal participants also exhibited elevated
Participants completed a resource/demand appraisal question- CO compared with those in the no-intervention, F(1, 47) 6.86,
naire (e.g., Mendes, Gray, Mendoza-Denton, Major, & Epel, 2007) p .012, d .76, and ignore conditions, F(1, 47) 4.62, p
pre- (but after manipulations) and post-TSST. In addition to the .037, d .62, omnibus F(2, 46) 3.97, p .026 (see Figure 1B).
resource and demand items, the questionnaire included ratings of Taken together, the reappraisal condition was associated with
subjective stress and effort. Items were scored on a 1 (strongly lower TPR and greater CO, which indicates a more adaptive

Figure 1. A: Total peripheral resistance (TPR) reactivity as a function of intervention condition. B: Cardiac
output (CO) reactivity as a function of intervention condition. Higher values indicate increases from baseline to
Trier Social Stress Test. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.
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4 JAMIESON, NOCK, AND MENDES

physiological response while engaged in a motivated performance and current models of emotion (Barrett, 2006; Gross, 1998) afford
Fn1 task like the one used here (e.g., Blascovich et al., 1999).1 a proximal role for appraisal processes in the generation and
regulation of psychological states. To illustrate, individuals better
Attentional Bias able to reappraise situations so as to decrease the emotional impact
exhibit more adaptive emotional and physiological responses to
Two colorblind participants did not complete the Stroop task. anger provocation (Mauss et al., 2007). Along these lines, the
Planned contrasts revealed that participants instructed to reap- study presented here examined the physiological and cognitive
praise arousal demonstrated less attentional bias for emotionally benefits of reappraising arousal during acute evaluative stress.
negative information versus the ignore condition, F(1, 45) 6.75, Data supported predictions: Participants instructed to reappraise or
p .013, d .77, and with marginal significance compared with rethink arousal as functional exhibited increased perceptions of
no-intervention controls, F(1, 45) 3.88, p .055, d .58, available resources, improved cardiovascular functioning, and less
F2 omnibus F(2, 44) 3.44, p .040 (see Figure 2). threat-related attentional bias. Thus, consistent with research on
The effect of reappraisal on interference scores cannot be at- emotion regulation (Gross, 2002) and CBT (Hofmann & Smits,
tributed to a speedaccuracy trade-off because reappraisal partic- 2008), interpretations of bodily signals affect how the body and
ipants made fewer errors on the threat list (M .46, SD .74)
mind respond to acute stress.
than ignore participants (M 1.12, SD 1.09), F(1, 45) 4.10,
It may seem surprising that altering arousal appraisals is suffi-
p .049, d .59, and did not differ from no-intervention controls
cient to change biological and cognitive responses to stress; how-
(M .63, SD .81), F 1, omnibus F(2, 44) 2.31, p .111.
ever, the evidence from the clinical literature is consistent with this
Additionally, the manipulation had no influence on neutral list
idea. More specifically, like the reappraisal intervention used in
Fn2 errors (overall M .42), F 1.2
this research, cognitive restructuring components of CBT are hy-
We also examined the association between physiological reac-
pothesized to improve clinical outcomes by altering appraisals of
tivity and attentional bias. To do so, we first created a physiolog-
bodily signals (Gould, Otto, & Pollack, 1995). Additionally, clin-
ical index by taking a composite of Z-scored CO and reverse
ical research indicates that retraining attention for threat-related
Z-scored TPR reactivity scores such that higher values corre-
stimuli can reduce anxiety symptoms (e.g., Amir et al., 2008).
sponded to a more adaptive physiological profile. Then, we exam-
Thus, the data presented here may help advance our understanding
ined the association between interference scores and the physio-
of CBT by potentially elucidating the physiological and attentional
logical index. The analysis indicates that improvements in
mechanisms underlying specific components of CBT treatments.
cardiovascular functioning were associated with reduced threat-
Although the reappraisal manipulation in this research builds on
related attentional bias, .282, p .036.
past work and shares similarities with cognitive restructuring, it
differs in important ways from some other components of CBT
Discussion such as mindfulness meditation (e.g., Rubia, 2009) and breathing
Theorists have speculated for years that humans can cognitively retraining (e.g., Beck, Stanley, Baldwin, Deagle, & Averill, 1994).
control their responses to stress (i.e., show mind over matter), Unlike these approaches, reappraisal is not aimed at decreasing or
dampening arousal, but rather at reshaping how that arousal is
construed. For example, the experimental manipulation did not
affect pre-ejection period reactivity, F(2, 46) 1.42, p .252,
which indexes the contractile force of the heart and is related to
sympathetic nervous system activation.
In this study physiological and attentional outcomes were not
independent. Participants who demonstrated more adaptive phys-
iological responses also exhibited reduced threat-related atten-
tional bias. However, caution must be exercised when making
conclusions regarding the causality of this relationship from the
data presented here. For instance, reappraisal could have altered
physiological responding, which via feedback and/or embodiment
processes may have reduced attentional bias. Or reductions in
attentional bias could have produced the improvements in physi-
ological outcomes (e.g., Dandeneau, Baldwin, Baccus, Sakellaro-
poulo, & Pruessner, 2007). There also exists the possibility that a
third variable could have affected both. Future work is needed to
disentangle the association between physiological reactivity and
attentional bias.

1
Reactivity was also analyzed in 3 (intervention) 2 (time: baseline vs.
speech) mixed ANOVAs. This analysis did not alter the pattern of results.
Figure 2. Interference scores as a function of intervention condition. 2
Errors and reaction times were also analyzed in 3 (intervention) 2
Higher values indicate greater attentional bias for emotionally negative (list: threat vs. neutral) mixed ANOVAs. This analysis did not alter the
information. Error bars represent standard error of the mean. pattern of results.
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REAPPRAISING AROUSAL 5

Another interesting avenue for future research is the exploration of Craske, M. G., Rowe, M., Lewin, M., & Noriega-Dimitri, R. (1997).
the physiological and cognitive benefits of reappraising arousal for the Interoceptive exposure versus breathing retraining within cognitive
treatment of disorders involving acute stress. This avenue of research behavioural therapy for panic disorder with agoraphobia. British
is especially promising given the work on panic disorder. For exam- Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 8599. doi:10.1111/j.2044-
ple, repeatedly exposing individuals to panic-inducing sensations 8260.1997.tb01233.x
(e.g., dizziness) and teaching them to accept (rather than suppress) Dandeneau, S. D., Baldwin, M. W., Baccus, J. R., Sakellaropoulo, M., &
Pruessner, J. C. (2007). Cutting stress off at the pass: Reducing vigilance
their affective responses improves outcomes (Craske, Rowe, Lewin,
and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating attention. Journal of
& Noriega-Dimitri, 1997). However, research has not observed con-
Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 651 666. doi:10.1037/0022-
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exposure (Levitt, Brown, Orsillo, & Barlow, 2004). It is our hope that Dienstbier, R. A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness: Implica-
disorders directly tied to the experience of acute social stress may tions for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84 100.
benefit from reappraisal interventions. Also, although one must al- doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.1.84
ways exercise caution when comparing results across experiments, it Gould, R. A., Otto, M. W., & Pollack, M. H. (1995). A meta-analysis of
is interesting that the effect of reappraisal on attentional bias observed treatment outcome for panic disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 15,
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effects from studies with clinically anxious individuals (e.g., attention Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation:
retraining vs. attention control, d .42; Amir et al., 2008, Experiment Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology.
1). Moreover, the experimental procedures such as those used here Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224 237. doi:
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doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.002 Accepted September 1, 2011