Architectural Photography: Composition,

Capture, and Digital Image Processing

Adrian Schulz
Copyright 2010
Adrian Schulz
kontakt@architekturphotos.de
Editor: Gerhard Rossbach
Project Editor: Joanie Dixon
Translation: Reinhard Kargl
Copyeditor: Cynthia Anderson
Proof Reader: Sarah Castellanos
Layout and Type: Adrian Schulz
Cover Design: Helmut Kraus, www.exclam.de
Printer: Tara TPS Co., Ltd. through Four Colour Print Group
1st Edition
Rocky Nook, Inc.
www.rockynook.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schulz, Adrian, 1980-
[Architekturfotografie. English]
Architectural photography : composition, capture, and digital image processing / Adrian Schulz ;
with a commentary by Marcus Bredt. -- 1st ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-1-933952-43-7 (alk. paper)
1. Architectural photography. 2. Photography--Digital techniques. I. Title.
TR659.S58513 2009
778.94--dc22
2009002242
Distributed by OReilly Media
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Sebastopol, CA 95472-2811
All product names and services identified throughout this book are trademarks or registered
trademarks of their respective companies. They are used throughout this book in editorial fashion
only and for the benefit of such companies. No such uses, or the use of any trade name, are
intended to convey endorsement or other affiliation with the book. No part of the material
protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the copyright owner.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Unless otherwise noted, all photographs and illustrations are by the author.
Chapter 1. Fundamentals
Digital photography is enjoying unexpected heights as more people make use of this modern
tool and explore its challenges and possibilities. This new technology has also given a boost to
the popularity of architectural photography in particular. The vast variety and fascinating
properties of architecture provide inspiration to photographers of all levels. Architectural
photographers have endless options for creative interaction with their subjects, which can be
captured in an infinite number of ways.
A picture says more than a thousand words. This statement is especially applicable to
architectural photography. No other medium can demonstrate the visual appeal and effect of a
building better than a masterful architectural photograph. Therefore, the many pictures in this
book will familiarize the reader with the topics and explanations not only in words, but also
through beautiful examples. The reader will discover answers to many questions arising from
theory and practical application, such as: What equipment do I need for architectural
photography? What do I need to consider? How can a building look so different in reality as
compared to the picture? What techniques can I use to enhance my pictures? What are the
options with digital image processing and what can I do with them?
The reader will soon realize that architectural photography has unique characteristics that are
quite different from other forms of photographic imaging.

Architectural Photography: What is it?

Clearly, the term architectural photography is a combination of the words architecture (the
subject) and photography (the tool).
The word architecture by itself consists of two Greek words: arch and techn. Their
meanings translate to beginning or origin and art or trade; thus we end up with something
akin to first art. Architecture is all around us. In its most basic function, it defines our living
spaces and is utilized for protection. It is practically the humans second skin. The famous
architect Le Corbusier once said, Architecture is one of the most urgent needs of man, for the
house has always been the first tool he has forged for himself. The term architecture
encompasses a wide field, beginning with the first shelters of prehistoric man, progressing to
ornate temples of the antiquity and functional manufacturing facilities of the industrial revolution,
all the way to the glass hallmarks of modern cities. All this is architecture. A world without
architecture is unimaginable. Without places to live, sleep, eat, work, do trade, make products,
retreat, relax, govern, and learn, mankind would have remained in the Stone Age. Without
architecture, the climate in many of the Earths regions would be uninhabitable to human life.
The term photography consists of the Old Greek words phos and graphein, which refers to
painting with light. It describes the technical process, by which objects can be optically stored
and shown in places they would normally not be visible. Thus, architectural photography carries a
buildings image into the worlda world full of photographyin newspapers, on billboards, on
the Internet, or even as works of art that hang on a wall.
The History of Architectural Photography

Early History
The history of architectural photography dates back to the 19th century experiments that captured
transitory images in photographic permanence. Of course, much older methods have been used to
record architecture. The universal importance of architecture for mankind is the reason why
paintings of edifices date back to the antiquity (Figure 1-1). Like photography, paintings of
buildings strive to compress a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface. It is
notable that paintings do not necessarily rely on actual buildings, as does photography. During the
Renaissance, artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael often painted architectural visions rather
than depictions of reality (Figure 1-2). During the Baroque period, painting even became a tool
and technique of architecture. Wall and ceiling frescos not only depicted architecture, but also
enhanced and completed it. Thus, the painted surface became part of the architecture itself
(Figure 1-3). At about the same time, architectural painting emancipated itself as its own genre,
beginning with Dutch baroque art. Town squares and buildings were shown in detail and set in the
appropriate environment (Figure 1-4). In addition, other artistic techniques such as the copperplate
engravings explored architecture. Especially worth mentioning are the outstanding copperplate
engravings by Matthus Merian (Figure 1-5) with their detailed vistas of European towns. In the
18th century, Italian veduta represented realistic vistas of landscapes and cities in minute detail.
Bernardo Bellotto utilized a technological aid in his famous city pictures of Venice and Dresden
(Figure 1-6) which dates back to the Renaissance and was also utilized in Dutch baroque painting.
It can be viewed as the predecessor of todays modern photographic camerathe camera obscura.
During Bernardo Belottos time the camera obscura consisted of a movable box with an optical
system that allowed images to be projected onto a screen, where they could then be traced with
accurate perspective and proportions (Figure 1-7), thus ensuring precision in painting and
graphical art. Over the course of time, this device was being continually refined.

Figure 1-1. Pompeian tapestry, 1st century AD

Figure 1-2. Raffael, The School of Athens, Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican, 16th century
fresco

Figure 1-3. Cosmas Damian Asam, ceiling fresco at Ettlingen, Germany, late baroque

Figure 1-4. Jan van der Heyden, The Church of Veere, 17th century, oil on canvas

Figure 1-5. Matthus Merian, Lbeck, 17th century, copper engraving

 Figure 1-6. Bernardo Belotto, A View of Dresden, mid 18th century, oil/tempera on canvas

Figure 1-7. Camera Obscura

Figure 1-8. Joseph Nicphore Nipce, View from the Window of Study, Chalon-sur-Sane,
1827

Figure 1-9. Louis Jacques Mand Daguerre, Boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1838

The Invention
With the invention of the camera obscura and the discovery of light-sensitive materials in the 18th
century, the fundamental necessities for photography had been created. And yet, it wasnt until
1827 that Nicphore Nipce first captured the faint image of a camera obscura onto a light-
sensitive sheet of asphalt; a process that took several hours. The process became known as
heliography and the resulting pictures were called heliotypes or niepcotypes (Figure 1-8). The first
of the preserved images shows a basic element of architectural photography: a rendering of
perspective. We might consider it to be the first architectural photograph, even though the view
from the window of a study can hardly claim to be artistic, but is more practical in nature. The
necessity of extremely long exposure times made it impossible to depict anything but stationary
objects, therefore in addition to still lifes, the depiction of buildings was ideal for photographers
at the time.
At about the same time, Louis Jacques Mand Daguerre and William Henry Fox Talbot were
experimenting with other processes that shortened the required exposure times to several minutes.
Daguerres street scenes became famous (Figure 1-9), and thus the term daguerreotype was
coined. Each daguerreotype was unique and could not be reproduced. Talbots calotypes, on the
other hand, could be duplicated because the process was based on a transfer from a negative to a
positive; the downside was the lack of detail in comparison to the daguerreotype (Figure 1-10).

Figure 1-10. William Henry Fox Talbot, Boulevard des Capucines, Paris, 1843
In successive years, photographic technologies saw explosive growth (Figure 1-11), and in 1841
the first photographic exhibit of the worlds most famous buildings was introduced in Paris. In the
second half of the 19th century, architectural photographs gained in importance and were
prominently featured in books and magazines about architecture. For example, photographs were
used to document the disassembly, transport, and re-erection of Joseph Paxtons glass palace, as
well as the construction of the Eiffel Tower (Figure 1-12). Architectural photography also
portrayed monumental buildings and estates around the world, as it documented and presented the
structures and grandeur of foreign countries. Because of photographys primary use for
documentation, architecture was usually depicted in a conservative, heavy, and static style.

Figure 1-11. Cameras, mid 19th century

 Figure 1-12. Pierre Petit, Construction of Eiffel Tower, Paris 1888

The 20th and 21st Centuries

With the architectural changes after World War I also came changes in the way buildings were
photographed. Beginning in 1919, the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius began to
view photography as an applied art: the ideal combination of craftsmanship, technical progress,
and artistic expression. German photographers such as Albert Renger-Patzsch, August Sander,
and Karl Blossfeldt founded a style they called new objectivity. In the U.S., artists such as
Walker Evans found subjects in the form of buildings reduced to their functionality, such as grain
silos and factories. Carefully chosen picture composition along with unusual views created a
dynamic quality, and textures drew attention.
In subsequent years, technical progress greatly improved the photographic quality of architectural
photographs. Exceptional photographers such as Andreas Feininger experimented with cameras
they built themselves. Feininger even invented new techniques and constructed the largest
telephoto lens available at the time. In the years before World War II, small and mobile cameras
became widely available, which increased the tendency toward subjectivity (Figure 1-13).
Photography as a tool became available to a wider sector of society while at the same time
becoming more versatile in its application. This gave rise to photojournalism and photo essays,
where the camera turned into a visual notebook for photographers.
In the early 1950s, more artistic architectural photography began to re-emerge. For instance,
German artists like Hilla and Bernd Becher began to systematically show generic photographs of
industrial society. Even decaying industrial edifices were archived and arranged in sequences.
These burgeoning sequences and collections quickly gained worldwide appreciation. At that point,
there was no longer a distinction between so-called good and bad architecture, and even
deviations from the accepted ideals of beauty and modernity became the target of
photographic lenses. Around the 1970s, a great impetus came from the steady rise of photographic
galleries and the massive production of artistic photo books. Whether old or new, within
collections or by themselves, familiar or strange, there seemed to be no limit to the range of
photographic subjects.
The photographic boom continued toward the end of the 20th century. International exhibitions
traveled around the world, and photographs demanded high prices in auctions. Advances in
computer technology began to add new possibilities for post-production, such as the perspective
control. At the same time, the traditional uses of architectural photographydocumentation of
edifices for architects, trade publications, the media, and so onremained important, but were
influenced by creative photography. As a result, architectural photography walked the line
between artistic and utilitarian applications.
The rise of digital photography at the turn of the century has not changed architectural photography
in and of itself, but rather constitutes an innovation in its methods and possibilities. Todays digital
technology has overtaken analog 35mm format photography in terms of sales; and even in medium
format photography, digital camera backs dominate the market. However, in large format
photography, analog film still remains a few steps ahead of digital technology despite its high
costs.

Figure 1-13. Leica II, 1932

The Authenticity of an Architectural Photograph
Just as there are different approaches to architecture, ranging from the purely functional to applied
art, there is a wide range of approaches to architectural photography. These extend from neutral,
documentary depictions to abstract and artistic visual works.
The straight documentary path is a narrow one. It must objectively and matter-of-factly convey the
general impression of an on-site observer, and it must render an authentic representation of a
buildings architectural features (Figure 1-14). This necessitates a focus on conveying information;
otherwise, the building itself would lose importance in favor of the photograph representing it.
Of course, this gives rise to the question of whether it is even possible to produce a completely
authentic architectural photograph. It is clear that even when a photograph is solely built on
realism, there are always elements of abstraction and subjectivity. Such unavoidable factors
include the lack of three-dimensionality in a photograph as well as the impression of sizes not
being true to scale, depending on the actual distance of the objects. It is therefore practically
impossible to depict a building with absolute authenticity. Another factor is that subjective, on-site
impressions can only be transmitted with certain distortions: in other words, there is usually a big
difference between standing in front of a building and looking at a picture of it. The renowned
architect Meinhard von Gerkan expresses this well in an essay published in 2000 in which he
states, The architectural photograph is especially suspect of being an optical lie, because of the
inherent potential of photography to be objective, which lends to the assumption that optical lenses
are technical apparatuses incapable of being compromised. We know that this is deceptive and
untrue.

Figure 1-14. Documentary architectural photograph

So, at what point does architectural photography become an art form on its own, and what is the
distinction between artistic and documentary architectural photography? It stands to reason that
there is no sharp demarcation; rather, the two areas flow into each other. As soon as the
photographer shifts the focus away from documentary purposes, one can already see the beginnings
of artistically creative photography. Even the selection of subjects may not be limited to a central
staging of the building. In such pictures, a building may be the main subject, but the picture may
convey little of the buildings actual function. In that case, the reliance on architecture becomes
less pronounced, and the need for objective depiction is diminished. Following this train of
thought, architectural photography can even represent a building in such a way that the resulting
picture becomes its own expression, separate and different from the building on which it is based.
At this point, the measure of the artistic quality of the picture is no longer the building it depicts,
but rather its artistic message. Photographically creative techniques such as the omission or
highlighting of features, simplifications, alterations, or optical effects can alter the image to the
point where architecture is reduced to the photographers toy. In these cases, we certainly see
the hallmarks of art (Figure 1-15).
Manifestations of Architectural Photography
We all encounter architectural photography in many parts of our daily lives. Following are some
examples of the most common photographic categories.
Documentary-style architectural photography: Many such pictures are found in photo books,
trade magazines, brochures, and in the documentation of construction sites. In most cases, these
pictures exist as part of a series and are complemented and accompanied by explanations,
drawings, or blueprints. All of them describe the building and are dedicated to the purpose of
giving an accurate account of the buildings specific properties.

Figure 1-15. Artistic architectural photograph

Postcard photography: Postcards show architecture in similar ways, even though there is a
different level of precision and intent. The exact representation of a building is less important to
the consumer than the visual proof of having been at a particular place. As a result, these pictures
are usually based on recognition values. Colors often have unnatural saturation, effects may be
exaggerated, and photographic rules may be lost.
Vacation photography: The motivation for tourists taking pictures of edifices such as churches,
castles, and landmarks is often to take away personal mementos. Although architecture forms the
subject here as well, an actual building is much less important than the location or place where it
stands. It is interesting to note that such pictures are usually taken while on vacation, but in
everyday life and at home, comparable buildings will often be photographically ignored.
Advertising photography: Another application of architectural photography is advertising via
billboards, newspapers, and television. Architecture is used to frame products in an advantageous
context for the marketers. Modern architecture, for example, can associate a product with values
such as futuristic, high-tech, valuable, or simply cool. The automobile industry especially
uses this technique. In many cases, the base picture is significantly altered with colorization, halos,
and reflections.
Artistic architectural photography: Architectural photographs with artistic values are displayed
in galleries and exhibitions. In most cases, the exhibitions showcase a particular subject or a
particular photographer. Architecture is only a means to an end, and the photographs expression is
decoupled from what the building originally conveyed. It is the photographer rather than the
architect who becomes the creative artist.
Chapter 2. Photographic Technology
In this chapter you will find information about the assembly of photographic equipment
necessary or useful for architectural photography. Taking into account individual needs and
ambitions, I explain which criteria should be considered when choosing a camera, and which
combinations of lenses and accessories are best suited for a variety of architectural subjects.
It should be noted that there is no need for a great deal of technical equipment to produce
acceptable results. A skilled photographer will be able to make fascinating shots with simple
camera equipment, while others may not be able to produce similar shots with even the most
sophisticated and expensive equipment. Expensive gadgets cannot automatically guarantee a
good architectural photograph. The human operator behind the camera is always the most
important factor. The camera is nothing but a tool to produce an image of the actual thought
behind it. The noted photographer Andreas Feininger has expressed this as follows: The fact
that a technically deficient photograph (speaking in a conventional sense) can have a higher
emotional impact than a technically impeccable image may be shocking for those who are nave
enough to believe that technical perfection determines the value of a picture.
On the other hand, equipment customized for the individual needs of a photographer makes
things much easier and is the ideal foundation for good results.

Comparison Between Analog and Digital

The choice between analog and digital camera systems is the most fundamental decision to be
made. In this day and age, when the sales figures for digital technology have far surpassed the
older analog systems, the answer seems clear. What advantages does the analog camera still have?
The answer is complex, and it is important to understand the differences between the two systems.

From Exposure to Picture

For many decades, analog negative and slide film were the only options for capturing photographs.
Amateurs usually made use of the widely available and uncomplicated 35mm film, while serious
photographers utilized medium and large format film and cameras. The latter held especially true
in architectural photography.
Analog film material is both the light-sensitive material for capturing an image, as well as the
storage medium, which differs from digital technology. Film records and stores image information
via chemical changes in light-sensitive emulsion. After exposure, the light-sensitive material must
first be developed and then converted into a stable and no longer light-sensitive form. In the case
of negative film, first paper prints have to be made to create a positive image; in the case of slide
film, the single frames can directly be projected as positive images onto a silver screen. This
complex process is usually referred to as developing. But to be exact, the developing process is
only the conversion of the not yet visible, latent picture into a visible negative or positive, and
therefore developing is only a part of photographic film processing. After the film is developed, it
is put into a stop bath to end the chemical reaction, followed by another bath to stabilize the film
into a permanently lightproof form. This is followed by washing with water and drying. Finally,
negative film can serve as a master to expose light-sensitive photo paper to produce paper prints,
and it can be cut for archiving. Slide film, on the other hand, is usually used for projection.
By comparison, the digital process is much less complex. The most significant characteristic of
digital pictures is their immediate availability. Electronic data from the cameras image sensor can
be stored and processed immediately. No film has to be purchased, there is no delay as a result of
film processing and digitizing, and pictures are immediately ready for viewing and printing.

Film Grain vs. Digital Noise

Analog film material is available in many different levels of sensitivity. Because of the increased
size of silver crystals, higher light sensitivity also means more grain, which is a typical film
phenomenon. Even though the optical grain of analog film has completely different causes than the
electronic artifacts known as noise that are produced by a digital image sensor, both are similar
in appearance. There is one important difference, however: films graininess is normally simple
and harmonious (Figure 2-1), but the noise of an image sensor at high sensitivity settings often
results in colored spots (color noise, Figure 2-2) and striped phenomena in dark sections (i.e.,
pattern noise or banding, Figure 2-3). These effects are usually perceived to be more
unpleasant than grain. Although images from digital SLR (DSLR) cameras at the same sensitivity
settings produce less visual noise, quite a few people regard analog images as more natural and
harmonious when compared to the generally flatter, more sterile, and artificial-looking digital
versions. Part of the reason is that visual irregularities in natural structures synchronize better with
the uneven and chaotic distribution of silver crystals on film, as opposed to the geometric grid
lineup of pixels on an image sensor. Many photographers even use the film grain as a stylistic tool,
so it is not surprising that software designers are trying (with varying degrees of success) to
recreate the look of analog pictures in digital formats.

Figure 2-1. Appearance of film grain

Furthermore, noise, or the lack thereof, is strictly relative and very much determined by each
viewers perception and awareness. One easily gets used to one or the other. A photographer who
only takes digital pictures may be shocked and displeased by the first impression of digitized
analog pictures as seen in picture processing software. On the other hand, one has to realize that
graininess in printed form is usually much less noticeable than it would be to a critical eye and
merciless inspection on a computer screen.
 Figure 2-2. Typical noise from a digital image sensor

Figure 2-3. Striped artifacts called banding

Resolution and Range of Contrast

If only image quality is considered, many believe that analog film images are still superior to
digital images. When used in combination with high-quality digitizing devices, images created
with analog large-format cameras on negative and slide films can deliver a resolution and data
density beyond what digital cameras are capable of (Figure 2-4).
In addition, negative film stock has a dynamic range of 12 aperture stops and more, thus capturing
a much greater range of contrast. In a difficult and contrast-rich environment, film is much less
temperamental to work with; and especially in highlight areas, film offers more leeway than most
digital cameras. With digital systems, difficult lighting conditions will often produce clipped tonal
values, e.g., blown-out highlights or clipped shadows without image detail (Figure 2-5).
However, at low sensitivity settings, all medium format digital cameras and some top DSLR
cameras (which usually have full-frame image sensors) are capable of at least a dynamic range of
11 aperture stops. If RAW format (What is RAW Format?) is used, dark picture areas can be
significantly improved. On the other hand, due to the fact that the available dynamic range (the
ability of a camera to capture shadow detail and highlight detail at the same time) depends on pixel
size, digital cameras with small image sensors lag behind with no more than about nine aperture
settings. On a side note: Slide film is very sensitive to strong contrasts, therefore, its dynamic
range is about the same as a digital compact camera with a small image sensor.

Figure 2-4. Digitized large format shot with a resolution of 10,000 8,000 pixels (80
megapixel), enlarged segment (Photograph: M. Bredt)

Figure 2-5. Blown-out highlights in a digital image

Image Aberrations
Unlike digital photography, analog photography is not afflicted by image problems such as moir,
color shifts, or aliasing effects.
The moir effect (Figure 2-6) happens when various grids or lines overlap. This phenomenon
occurs with most digital cameras when fine, repeating patterns on the subject align with the
geometric pixel layout on the image sensor so that they interfere with each other. In such cases,
image sensors built according to the Bayer principle (see Bayer Sensor, Bayer Interpolation) can
also produce color shift, because each color value must be interpolated with the pixels next to it
(Figure 2-7). The geometric pixel array on the image sensor is also responsible for an effect called
aliasing. This effect happens when lines or edges run through the pixel array at an angle, which
may produce stair-step-shaped patterns where there should be a smooth line (Figure 2-8).

Figure 2-6. Moir as a result of two layered grids

In order to reduce these errors, most camera makers place one or several anti-aliasing filters
above the image sensors. Simplified, their function is to slightly blur the image similar to the effect
of a soft-focus lens, whereby the aliasing effect is minimized. Of course this happens at the
expense of fine details and reduces the theoretically achievable resolution of the image sensor.
Every camera maker must find a compromise between high resolution and minimal image
aberration.

Figure 2-7. Moir and color shift in digital image

Analog film material doesnt suffer from any of these afflictions because its microscopic silver
crystals are randomly distributed, have different sizes, andin the case of color filmare layers
placed on top of each other. (This is not the case with the widely used Bayer-type image sensor.)

Figure 2-8. Aliasing causing staircase-like effect

Bayer Sensor, Bayer Interpolation

Each sensor pixel detects only the brightness of one dot in the image, but not its color. To
generate a color image from a digital sensor, three color values are needed for each pixel:
red, green, and blue. In the so-called RGB (Red, Green, Blue) color definition, almost all
colors occurring in nature can be defined by a combination of these three prime colors.
To obtain color information from a digital sensor, a number of technical methods have been
devised. Color filters must be used in order to separate visible light into its color
components. Three-shot cameras photograph the subject three times using red, green, and
blue filters in front of the sensor. The three images are then merged into one.
Our regular digital SLR cameras are only one-shot cameras. But if only one shot is
taken, the sensor pixel can only record the intensity of one color component. Therefore, a
trick is used to gain the missing two color data sets. A filter matrix consisting of alternating
red, green, and blue filters in pixel size is placed on top of the sensor. This does not change
the fact that each pixel only records one color value, but it makes it possible to calculate the
missing color data from the adjacent pixels. This process is called interpolation.
In general, digital cameras use the so-called Bayer matrix. 50 percent of it consists of
green, and 25 percent each of red and blue filters. Four pixels form a group, in which one
pixel records red, another blue, and two pixels record green light. The green is doubled,
because the human eye has more sensitivity for green. Bayer interpolation means that the
real color values of each pixel are calculated by incorporating data from the adjacent pixels.
Therefore, each dot in the converted image also contains color information in a part of the
light spectrum for which it is not actually sensitive.

Image caption: Filter matrix structure of a Bayer sensor

Consequences of Lens Quality

Photographers who own both analog and digital SLR cameras may notice that analog cameras are
generally less sensitive to lens quality. One reason is that chemical film does not have a problem
with light coming from an angle. A digital image sensor is much more likely to be disturbed by
light coming from an angle. This is especially the case with wide-angle lenses where light rays
impinge on the outer edges of the image sensor in an acute angle. Imaging errors and vignetting
often result. Of course, many manufacturers seek to circumvent this problem with special micro
lenses, which are placed above each sensor pixel and can therefore focus sideways light. In
addition, all new lenses are being designed with this problem in mind, and in some cases digital
in-camera processing immediately after the exposure also reduces the effect.

Ruggedness of the Camera

In many cases, analog cameras are deemed more rugged and reliable than their digital counterparts
because analog technology is less complex and more economical to manufacture. A small battery
often lasts a long time, and some older camera models function completely without batteries.
Furthermore, analog cameras are far less sensitive to dust. Dust particles cannot permanently stick
to the light-sensitive medium, as is the case with digital image sensors, including the most recent
models with ultrasonic cleaning systems (Figure 2-9). There is no need for difficult and elaborate
sensor cleaning procedures with chemical, 35mm format film, since debris is simply swept away
when the film winds forward for the next exposure. Of course, this is not to say that analog
cameras dont have problems with dust at all. One complication is that when analog film is
scanned, it is necessary to be extremely careful to avoid dust contamination on the film material
(Figure 2-10). Because this is not always possible, it often becomes necessary to clean the film
before scanning, which is especially an issue with large format film. Modern scanning devices for
35mm format film often come with software that automatically removes visible dust and scratches
from the scanned images.

Figure 2-9. Dust particle on image sensor

The Functional Life of Digital Cameras

Compared to their digital counterparts, analog cameras retain their value for a much longer time.
Within a matter of years or even months, digital camera models may become quickly outdated and
replaced by newer models. Rapid technological developments can render todays digital camera
obsolete before the next day. Of course, this does not mean that older digital cameras are useless,
but many photographers will be seduced into buying new and often more expensive cameras.

Figure 2-10. Fine hair on film

Number of Exposures
A basic trait of analog cameras is the necessity to reload film after a set number of exposures.
35mm film cartridges can hold up to 36 exposures, but large format film must be changed after
each exposure. Digital cameras, on the other hand, can store many more pictures on a small
memory card. This also means that poorly exposed shots are no longer a great annoyance. After an
evaluation on the cameras LCD monitor, unacceptable images can be immediately deleted.
Theoretically, shots of a subject can be taken until the perfect moment or angle has been captured.
In analog photography, such an approach can easily become a burden on time and budget, because
several films must be purchased and processed.
Compared to digital technology, the number of exposures is more limited in analog photography.
On the other hand, analog photographers may have a heightened sense of awareness of what they
are shooting and therefore have less need for a greater number of shots. Digital photography,
which carries no cost penalty for additional exposures, often leads to an emphasis of quantity over
quality. Rather than taking time for a well-planned picture, users seduced by the ease of digital
photography often hit the shutter button again and again. In many cases there is no careful
consideration of whether a shot should be taken from a particular angleafter all, it costs nothing
to just do it. The result can be a large number of shots with little to offer in terms of composition or
meaning.

Digital Image Processing

With digital cameras, there are many versatile options available for processing images on the
computer as part of the normal workflow, with no loss of quality through the extra step of
developing and scanning film. Because photographers are assured of the ability to later correct
photographic problems, it becomes much easier to work on location, even in cases when the
subject and the angles are difficult. This is especially useful for architectural photography. In this
context, we will consider new processing techniques such as panoramic images (Panoramas) and
High Dynamic Range Images (HDRI) (HDR and DRI Images). These techniques not only allow a
different and fresh view of things, but also make it possible to shoot in difficult conditions, such as
small spaces or in environments with extreme lighting.
Analog photographers must often engage in a combined method in which film is digitized along the
way. Then again, because of the widely improved digital technology, it becomes more and more
attractive to follow an all-digital path. For this reason, the majority of photographers now choose
this route.

Authenticity and Archiving

Negative and slide film are widely regarded as more resistant to forgery, because the tangible raw
material is much harder to manipulate than electronic data. These days, no one would attribute
much authenticity to any digital image. There are no actual originals, but instead there is only
data that can be copied and altered in infinite ways.
On the other hand, since there are no single-source originals, digital images are more immune to
loss. Digital technology allows unlimited storage, copying, and archiving of picturesat least
theoretically.

Conclusion
As this discussion points out, analog technology still claims many advantages and there are good
reasons for its continued existence. But there can be no doubt that the future of photography lies in
the digital realm. Hybrid methods, in which analog photography is combined with digital
processing, have not become a mainstay. For these reasons, the focus of this book is doing
architectural photography the digital way.
The Camera
For 150 years now, the camera has been the photographers most important tool. It captures a
particular viewing angle of a subject in three-dimensional space and preserves it in a two-
dimensional plane. The various camera systems have different suitability for individual
photographic tasks. Whether a particular camera is suitable for architectural photography depends
on the features and functions that come with it.
What type of camera would be ideal? As we will see, the answer does not depend as much on the
camera make as on the film or image sensor format and the overall camera system.

Types of Cameras
The range of camera classes extends from digital compact cameras with tiny sensors to analog
35mm and digital full-frame format cameras, all the way to analog large format systems.

Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras

Digital compact cameras have the smallest image sensor chips. These cameras have a compact
size and small weight. As a result, they offer great versatility and high mobility. Even users
without much experience can easily work with them. These advantages make them ideal for
snapshot photography.
Image sensors and light yield: One major disadvantage of a compact camera is the fingernail-
sized image sensor (e.g., 1/2.5 or 1/1.8 inch). Especially with large megapixel counts, such a small
image sensor can only achieve low light yield with little available light per pixel. For this reason,
the camera must amplify incoming light at a high rate, which leads to a reduced dynamic range and
causes visual background noise. Again, this is usually counteracted and flattened by the
cameras internal functions, but at the expense of photographic resolution. Small image sensors are
particularly afflicted at resolutions beyond 6 megapixels, which in turn eliminates most of the gain
in resolution one would associate with a higher megapixel figure. In practice, approximately 6
megapixels remain available for the demands of architectural photography, which does not allow
much leeway for image processing on the computer.
Integrated lens: The compact cameras integrated lens is designed to maximize compactness,
which results in a significant problem with aberrations at the edges of images. Super-zoom
cameras are especially afflicted by this problem. Another serious disadvantage is the severely
limited range of focal lengths, often with no real wide-angle setting. This alone makes compact
cameras largely unsuitable for architectural photography.
Other idiosyncrasies of compact cameras: Small viewfinders and LCD displays that can hardly
be seen in extreme daylight make it difficult to assess image composition. Compact cameras often
lack manual or half-manual modes that are extremely important in architectural photography. The
lack of support for RAW data format (Rectilinear Panorama) is a hindrance for image processing.
There are similar disadvantages with the so-called bridge cameras. This type of camera looks
similar to an SLR but has a small image sensor size. In addition, the large range of focal lengths
usually puts the emphasis on long focal lengths.

Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards

Many DSLR cameras use an image sensor format that is much smaller than the regular 35mm
format. The reason is primarily the lower cost of smaller image sensors (Figure 2-11).
Among the smallest SLR cameras are those built according to the Four-Thirds Standard, which
was originally developed by Olympus and Kodak. The image sensor with an aspect ratio of 4:3 is
only about half the size of a 35mm format negative, and thus, has a crop factor of 2. (This is often
referred to as format factor, focal length multiplier, or FLM.) This factor is only a mental
crutch or rule of thumb to put the resulting image in relation to a 35mm format shot. For instance, a
14 mm lens on a Four-Thirds camera will produce an image with an angle of view corresponding
to a 28 mm lens on a 35mm analog camera. The real focal length of the lens does not change. The
change in practical focal length with the digital camera is the product of the length of the lens times
the crop factor (in this example: 14 mm 2).

Figure 2-11. Size comparison of various digital sensors to 35mm format

In contrast to the Four-Thirds Standard, the APS-C format of camera makers such as Canon,
Nikon, Pentax, and Sony has a bigger image sensor with an aspect ratio of 3:2 and a crop factor of
1.5 or 1.6. A lens used on a camera with this image sensor format will produce the angle of view
of a lens with a focal length 1.5 or 1.6 times longer than on a 35mm camera. Because the smaller
image sensor size allows a smaller image circle in the first place, lenses custom-built for the APS-
C and Four-Thirds formats have smaller diameters than their equivalents for 35mm analog systems
(Figure 2-12).
Another image sensor size with a crop factor is the APS-H format. This intermediate format is
found in only a few cameras and is used primarily for photojournalism and sports photography.
 Figure 2-12.
Image sensor size and light yield: In the DSLR class of cameras, sensor pixels are distributed
over a much larger surface area. This means that each pixel is bigger and can therefore capture
more light. In turn, this increases the dynamic range and the resolution of fine details. Recent image
sensors with these formats, double-digit megapixel figures, and high-quality lenses make for
excellent image qualityideal for later corrections on the computer.
Viewfinder image: The sufficiently sized and bright viewfinders of DSLR cameras make the
composition of architectural pictures much easier. Contrary to the optical viewfinder of a compact
camera, the DSLRs viewfinder image is identical to the image recorded by the image sensor.
However, it is important to note that some entry level DSLRs do not have a viewfinder with 100%
frame coverage. In these cameras, the viewfinder image will show slightly less than what can be
seen on the final picture.
Disadvantages of image sensor size: As a result of the crop factor, sports or animal
photographers may welcome the shift of usable focal length towards the telephoto range, but it
does not please architectural photographers. One issue is that the few shift lenses available on the
market (Figure 2-13) lose their wide-angle effect and part of their usefulness. The same thing
happens with all high-quality, wide-angle prime lenses. This is especially annoying for people
who already own analog equipment and who want to change to a DSLR without having to invest in
an expensive, full-format camera. Even with this in mind, DSLR cameras make it possible to find a
suitable lens for every application and purpose, and this alone is a huge advantage in comparison
to compact cameras with built-in lenses.
Conclusion. Digital SLR cameras with APS-C, APS-H, and Four-Thirds image sensors, in
combination with wide-angle lenses, are quite suitable for architectural photography, except for a
few limitations. Those with some ambition in this field but who wish to pursue architectural
photography only as a hobby, or who do not wish to invest huge amounts of money, should
consider this class of camera.
 Figure 2-13. 24 mm wide angle shift lens

Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras

Analog 35mm format: Because of their lack of detachable and swappable lenses, analog compact
cameras are unsuitable for architectural photography despite their 35mm format. Furthermore, they
are hardly sold anymore, which is why we give no further consideration to these cameras.
Analog SLR cameras are a different matter. Not only are they still in use, but they also constitute a
practical system for architectural photography and digital processingas long as one is willing to
accept the additional costs of film, film development, and digitizing images. Moreover, analog
camera bodies are cheaper than their digital counterparts. The typical image aesthetics of an
analog SLR camera can provide nice variety and an interesting experience for someone who
otherwise operates only in the digital sphere.
Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras: Several manufacturers in the digital sector now offer
digital cameras with a full-frame or FX-format image sensor that has the same dimensions as a
35mm negative or slide. Examples are certain Canon, Nikon, and Sony models. In the field of
architectural photography, eliminating the crop factor is a great advantage. These image sensors
preserve the same angle of view we have long known from 35mm analog cameras. This makes it
possible to use shift lenses without restrictions. Of course, these cameras only accept lenses
designed for this format. Some lenses that do not conform to the 35mm format may extend too far
into the camera body, which makes them impossible to use. In other cases, their image circle may
not be large enough to cover the entire image sensor (see Figure 2-12). Although some DSLR
cameras allow taking photos with these lenses by adapting the light-sensitive area of the sensor to
the size of the image circle, the resulting lower resolution makes them less suited for architectural
photography.
Viewfinder image: As a consequence of the larger image sensor in comparison to the APS-C and
Four-Thirds systems, digital full-frame cameras are designed with larger prisms and reflex
mirrors. This is one reason why the large, bright viewfinders of these cameras rank among the best
for SLRs. With the addition of an integrated or electronically produced grid, these viewfinders are
ideal for achieving good image composition.
Image sensor size and light yield: At a given number of pixels, the surface area for each pixel on
a full-frame or FX format image sensor is much greater than on an APS-C or Four-Thirds standard
image sensor. This improves dynamic range, decreases background noise, and lifts the crispness of
each pixel. The effect is quite dramatic. For example, even at 20 megapixels the pixels of a full-
frame image sensor are still larger than they would be on a 10 megapixel APS-C image sensor
(Figure 2-14).

Figure 2-14. Pixel size comparison and light yield per pixel
Disadvantages of image sensor size: One disadvantage of the larger image sensor is that
aberrations at the edges become more visible on account of the lens fully used image circle. This
is especially true with wide-angle lenses and with a fully opened aperture. The results may include
vignetting, chromatic aberrations, or blurred areas (see Figure 2-19). This makes it advisable to
always use high-quality lenses that correspond to the quality of the large image sensor. Another
downside is that full-frame image sensors are quite expensive to produce. Of course, this raises
the price of the entire camera. Taking budgetary constraints into account, it is more prudent to
choose a cheaper camera (for example, an APS-C) and equip it with a first-class lens, rather than
obtaining an expensive full-frame camera and putting a mediocre lens on it.
Conclusion. As long as the camera and lenses are carefully matched in terms of quality, an analog
35mm or digital full-frame camera is perfectly suited for architectural photography.
 Figure 2-15. Comparison between image sensors and film frame sizes ranging from digital
SLRs to analog large format cameras, in real size

Analog and Digital Medium Format

Medium format has always been a cornerstone of professional portrait and fashion photography,
but is much less so for architectural photographymainly because perspective corrections can be
more easily accomplished with large format cameras.
Analog medium format works with film rolls that have a much larger surface area than 35mm
format films (Figure 2-15). Because of this difference, a 28 mm medium format lens will image an
angle of view equivalent to the super-wide lens of a 35mm format camera. Also, as a result of the
larger surface, the image quality and potential resolution are much better than that of an analog
35mm camera. On the flip side, there are higher costs for film, developing, and digitizing. Medium
format cameras usually consist of a lens, a mirror box with either a waist-level or an eye-level
viewfinder, and a detachable film cassette (Figure 2-16). Most medium format cameras are purely
manual, but there are also some autofocus models. These cameras are larger and slower and lack
the versatility of 35mm cameras, which is why they are rarely seen being used in action, sports, or
animal photography.

Figure 2-16. Analog medium format camera

High-quality digital camera backs have been available for some time now. They can be attached
to the camera in place of the usual film cassette, and they deliver excellent image quality. The
image sensor of a digital back has about twice the surface area of a digital full-frame camera. In
order to convert the focal length of a lens used with a medium format digital camera back to 35mm
format equivalent, we must divide by 1.4; in other words, a full-frame image sensors diagonal is
smaller by a factor of 1.4 when compared with the image sensor of a medium format digital
camera back. Even so, the surface area of a medium format digital image sensor is still much
smaller than that of analog 6 6 medium format film. Therefore, the image sensor will not show
the entire available image circle of a medium format lens. Even in combination with the shortest
available medium format lenses, the resulting image will have less of a wide-angle lens effect in
comparison to analog 35mm format or full-frame digital SLR cameras. This issue, in combination
with a lack of available wide-angle shift lenses, means that medium format cameras have limited
usefulness for architectural photography.

Analog Large Format

For professional architectural photography the analog large format camera reigns supreme; there
simply is no comparable digital technology. Large format is also one of the most historic forms of
photography. Aside from architectural photography, analog large format cameras are also used for
advertising and product photography. The cameras are usually mounted on an optical bench and
allow for flexible perspective corrections on location (Figure 2-17). These cameras are fully
manual, which makes the entire work flow much slower than digital systems. There is no autofocus
or automatic exposure control; in fact, little has changed in over 100 years. In general, this makes
large format cameras quite cumbersome and less flexible than medium or 35mm format cameras.
But since architectural subjects are immobile, this disadvantage does not play a major role in
architectural photography. Large format film is ideal in that it allows extremely high resolution as
well as very wide angles. Then again, the cost of film, processing, and digitizing can easily reach
$75 per image or more.

Figure 2-17. Analog large format camera

Digital image sensors deserving of the term large format are practically nonexistent. The costs
are prohibitive when the difficulty of manufacturing and the relatively small market are taken into
account. What come closest are digital medium format backs that can be attached to large format
cameras. But in this case, extreme wide-angle lenses are required to compensate for the relatively
small image sensor surface. (The same is true with medium format cameras.) Meanwhile, it is
possible to find large format lenses adapted for digital image sensors. With a focal length of 35mm
(equivalent to 25 mm when used with a 35mm format camera) these lenses make perspective
correction possible. Among them, there are some lenses with focal lengths as short as 24 mm; but
due to their narrow image circle, these lenses make perspective correction impossible.
In order to complete the list of large format equipment, scan backs should be mentioned as well.
When inserted into a large format camera, these devices scan an image line by line in the same
manner as a conventional flatbed scanner. The problem with this technology is that during the long
scanning process, objects in the picture must be absolutely still and the light must not change.
Therefore, scan backs are mainly suitable for scientific photography or for the reproduction of art.
Bottom line: Digital architectural photography with large format cameras has certain limitations.
One serious problem is their high cost of tens of thousands of dollars, which can be steep even for
professional photographers. After all, every camera must at some point recover its cost. Many
professional architectural photographers consequently use the versatile and fast digital full-frame
camera, at least for part of their work. It is uncertain how digital technology may affect large
format photography in the future. Either the image sensors must become larger or the lenses must
yield wider angles before digital technology can provide serious competition for analog large
format photography.

The Camera: Conclusion

The deliberations above point out that there is no perfect solution when it comes to the choice of a
camera for architectural photography. Each system has its strengths and weaknesses. The hope of
professional architectural photographers is a digital solution that allows for both image quality and
perspective correction that is on par with an analog large format camera. Until such a system
appears on the market, some professional architectural photographers will continue to work with
analog large format cameras, and will then digitize the exposed film at considerable expense.
Other photographers use digital full-frame cameras with shift lenses, or they correct perspective
projection distortion with the aid of subsequent image processing.
All in all, digital full-frame systems seem to be the most versatile solution at the moment, because
they meet all the requirements of architectural photography: good image sensors, wide dynamic
range, manual setting options, large and bright viewfinders, and low operating costs.
For hobbyists and advanced amateurs with limited budgets, the best bet would be a DSLR with an
APS-C image sensor. These cameras are significantly cheaper than their full-format cousins.
Moreover, there are still fans of analog SLR cameras. However, few will be able to avoid the
need to digitize the resulting images.
One thing can be said with certainty: neither analog nor digital compact cameras are suitable for
architectural photography. Since they do not offer the necessary wide-angle options and image
quality, they are simply not useful for the particular requirements of this field.
The Lens
The choice of lens determines the angle of view, the sharpness of the subject, and the number of
optical aberrations that the sensor captures. Therefore, the optical quality of the lens is a decisive
factor when it comes to image quality. Visual information that does not reach the sensor due to a
lack of lens quality obviously cannot be processed. Therefore, the combination of a more
affordable camera with a high-quality lens is always better than the opposite. Although most
digital and analog single-lens reflex cameras on the market are suitable for architectural
photography, the same cannot be said for lenses, where a more careful selection is needed.
This brings up the question of the particular characteristics of lenses ideal for architectural
applications. Long focal lengths, fast autofocus, and great light sensitivity are musts in sports
photography. Portrait photographers do best with medium focal lengths and good visual quality,
even in the largest aperture settings. But for architectural photographers, there are two main
considerations: focal range and optical imaging quality.

Focal Range
Architectural photography requires a selection of wide-angle lenses ranging from an ultra-wide-
angle to a moderate telephoto lens. Wide-angle lenses image a larger area than normal or telephoto
lenses. This also means that because of the wider viewing angle, objects appear smaller on the
image sensor or film. Lenses which produce an extremely wide angle of view are called super- or
ultra-wide-angle lenses. Normally, these include lenses with focal lengths up to 24 mm which
cover a diagonal angle of view of 84 degrees and more when used with a full-frame 35mm format
camera (Figure 2-18).
If all buildings would sit in the middle of a landscape, undisturbed by intrusive objects around
them, architectural photographers would need only one moderate wide-angle lens. In that perfect
world, a photographer could easily walk around a building and choose the ideal vantage point. But
in reality, locations are almost never ideal, and the photographers choice of positions is usually
limited. The majority of buildings are found in tight urban settings where the photographers
freedom of movement is restricted to surrounding streets and parking lots. Even worse, optically
ideal positions are often obstructed, blocked, or simply not accessible. Objects such as signs,
lamps, or vehicles disturb image composition and aesthetics. In such situations, the photographer
needs to adjust the focal length to the situation at hand. In most cases, this means closer proximity
to the building and a shorter focal length.
 Figure 2-18. 14 mm full-frame format super-wide angle
While small interior spaces often require extreme wide-angle lenses, moderate telephoto lenses
are well suited for emphasizing details on a building or even showing a building from a greater
distance. Ideally, any set of lenses should also include shift lenses that allow for immediate
perspective corrections on location (How Does a Shift Lens Work?).

Optical Quality
Architectural photography calls for lenses with sufficient quality to allow a clean and crisp
rendering of the subject with little aberration over the entire image area (Figure 2-19).
Because of the large dimensions of buildings, the distance between the subject and photographer
needs to be relatively long. In most cases, wide-angle lenses must be used. As a result, selective
use of depth of field does not play an important role. On the contrary, documentary architectural
photography generally strives to show the entire expanse of a building in focus. Apertures will
usually be kept small, which has other advantages; for example, optical errors such as vignetting,
chromatic aberrations, and blurring around the edges are less of a problem. Unfortunately, it is
difficult to entirely avoid chromatic problems and blurring. Chromatic aberrations may be
corrected with image processing software, but edges will often remain less focused than the image
center. This problem is especially prevalent with very wide lenses in cheaper price ranges.
Distortions, on the other hand, are not dependent on the aperture setting. Pincushion- or barrel-
shaped distortions are especially noticeable at the long and short ends of a zoom lens focal length.
Therefore, it is best to leave enough space around the subject so that distortions can be corrected
afterwards via digital image processing.
Many photographers take it as given that lenses with a fixed focal length (also known as prime
lenses, primary lenses, or FFL lenses) deliver better image quality. After all, they have a
simpler optical structure which allows for a more precise design. This may be so, but even though
better image quality is more likely with fixed focal lenses, it is not guaranteed. For example, fixed
lenses designed for analog SLR cameras may sometimes be outdone by modern zoom lenses that
are customized for digital cameras.
Another point to consider is the reduced flexibility of fixed focal lenses. Then again, a deliberate
choice of shooting positions and a few additional steps can circumvent this difficulty. In short, as
long as the optical properties are right, it makes no significant difference whether fixed lenses or
zoom lenses are employed for architectural applications. In most cases, price is the decisive
factor. An expensive lens is almost always better able to avoid aberrations than a simpler and
cheaper beginner lens.
Figure 2-19. Optical aberrations of lenses (from upper left, clockwise: vignetting, chromatic
aberration, barrel distortion, blurred edges)
The Ideal Camera and Lens Combination (for all wallets)
Novices who are not looking for a compact camera will benefit from a basic DSLR system. For
less than $1,000, all the major manufacturers offer kits that include the camera and a zoom lens.
This is certainly enough to gain experience with taking pictures of architecture, and the SLR
construction makes it possible to upgrade to better lenses later on.
For those who want to work more intensively with architectural photography, a super-wide angle
zoom lens should be the first piece of additional equipment. These lenses are offered by all major
lens manufacturers and cost around $500. They make it possible to shoot in a wider variety of
conditions, for example, interiors and enclosed spaces.
For more ambitious photographers, a medium-sized DSLR camera would be a good investment.
The equipment should include a super-wide lens and a high-quality standard zoom lens extending
into the lower telephoto range. In addition, a few lenses with fixed focal lengths will enhance the
toolkit. This will easily push the cost of equipment to more than $2,000.
Semi-professional photographers should seriously consider a full-frame camera and matching
high-quality zoom and fixed focal lenses. A shift lens would also be a good acquisition because it
works ideally with a full-frame sensor. This level of equipment would cost several thousand
dollars.
Professional photographers with unlimited budgets should choose large format cameras with
digital medium format backs for the optimal resolution or the top of the line, digital full-frame
camera models, and matching wide-angle lenses for the best optical quality. Shift lenses are
always part of the toolkit. Any additional lenses that are incompatible with the cameras lens
mount may be connected via matching adapters. Of course, no one should be surprised that the cost
for all of this hardware can easily exceed five figures.
Accessories
Even if someone is only an ambitious hobbyist, there are many essential pieces of equipment.
Some accessories make the work of architectural photographers easier and some are prerequisites
in certain situations. The following is a discussion of useful equipment that should be considered
for purchase.

Tripod
A tripod is a fundamental tool in architectural photography. A tripod can enable focused pictures
that are free from blur caused by camera shake in low light conditions (for example, in interior
spaces, during twilight, or at night). Even daylight conditions combined with small apertures
and/or neutral density filters can easily result in exposure times that are too long for even the most
stable hands.
Of course, shots can be made without a tripod; if the light is bright enough, any shot can be taken
when hand-holding the camera. But the use of a tripod has other advantages in addition to avoiding
camera shake. First, it makes it easier to precisely choose the frame. Second, image composition is
easier because the image in the viewfinder is absolutely stable. This gives the photographer more
time to think about the pictures composition. Third, waiting for the perfect moment to release the
shutter becomes easier as well. If the camera is on a stable mount, the photographer can simply
wait until all distracting objects (such as cars, people, or clouds) have moved out of the frame or
into a desirable position before taking the shot.
The tripod should not be too light or fragile, and it should not be weighed down to its maximum
load-bearing capacity. Unlike other areas of photography, architectural photography does not
demand a high degree of mobility, so it is not necessary to worry about every additional ounce of
weight. Moreover, sudden wind gusts are capable of shaking the camera and ruining the shot. In
short, the more stable a tripod is, the better it is for architectural photography.

Figure 2-20. Regular pan-tilt head with quick-release mounting plate

Tripod Head
In addition to the tripod, the head or mount also plays an important role. In many cases, the mount
is sold separately and can be tailored to individual needs. The most useful designs are the pan-tilt
head (Figure 2-20) and the ball head (Figure 2-21). Ball heads can be adjusted quickly with a
single hand motion. Pan-tilt heads do not have the same agility and ease of use, but their separated
planes of adjustment are more precise and allow the most miniscule adjustments. Both designs are
a matter of individual preference.
As with the tripod, inferior quality can quickly lead to frustrationparticularly if the mechanism
cannot be precisely adjusted and always seems off by a few millimeters. This means that getting
the frame in the viewfinder exactly aligned becomes some kind of gamble. Therefore, cheap tripod
and head combinations should be avoided. This is the wrong place to save money, because the
buyer will soon realize that flimsy tripods are too unstable, and poorly made heads are
overburdened by relatively heavy DSLRs. In such cases, the unavoidable outcome is the follow-up
purchase of another tripod and head, this time of better quality. An investment of at least $100 for a
tripod and $50 for a head will usually lead to enjoyment of the equipment for a long time. If $150
for a tripod and head seems high, consider how many hundreds or thousands of dollars the most
enthusiastic photographers have invested in their equipment. The costs of a long-term investment
like a sturdy tripod and head suddenly seem quite reasonable.

Figure 2-21. Complex ball head bearing with quick-release mounting plate
Quick-change adapter mounting plates are highly recommended but arent absolutely necessary.
They make it possible to quickly mount and dismount the camera without having to screw the bolt.
In many cases, the head already comes with such mechanisms. For photographers who shoot lots of
vertical pictures, a special level tool, a so-called L-bracket or L-plate will help (Figure 2-22).
While not a cheap piece of equipment, an L-bracket makes it easier to shoot vertical pictures from
a tripod, improves stability and reduces the need to recompose. Panoramic photography
enthusiasts may also want to buy a special panoramic head in addition to a regular one.

Figure 2-22. L-bracket for either horizontal or vertical shots

Remote Shutter Release

This is a small and extremely useful accessory. In combination with a sturdy tripod and an
activated mirror lock-up function, it assures images free of blur caused by camera vibrations. For
digital cameras, there are systems based on wires as well as wireless devices using infrared light
or radio transmissions. Some older analog cameras employ mechanical Bowden cables.
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) remote controls are often more expensive than
aftermarket products available from secondary vendors and on the Internet. A wired remote
release is a simple device that can even be homemade by a skilled tinkerer.
In order to achieve precisely stacking High Dynamic Range (HDR) or Dynamic Range Increase
(DRI) images (Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images) the use of a remote control is a
must, as even engaging the regular shutter button can move the camera by a few pixels. The
advantage of a remote control in comparison to a built-in, time-delayed shutter is that it makes it
possible to choose just the right moment to release the shutter. However, some remote controls
engage the autofocus before the actual shutter release, which can shift the focus undesirably. This
can be avoided by deactivating the autofocus before the shot.

Lens Hood
The lens hood or lens shade is an important accessory that is often included with a lens (Figure 2-
23). It is designed to shield light coming from the side from hitting the lens without causing shade
in the corners of the final picture. Unless there is a filter attached to the lens, it is useful to leave
the lens hood in place all the times, even at night when, for example, passing cars often throw light
sideways against the lens and cause undesirable lens flares and reflections in the final photo
(Figure 2-24).

Figure 2-23. Petal or tulip lens hood

Figure 2-24. A lens hood may have helped to minimize this lens flare
A helpful side effect of lens hoods is the protection they provide from scratches, bumps, and
inclement weather. It is important to ascertain that the hood is seated correctly, since a small
misalignment can lead to annoyingly darkened edges.

Lens Filters
The use of filters in front of the lens has diminished with the rise of digital technology. In many
cases, it is possible and easier to create the effects with digital processing. But the effects of some
filters cannot be created by software, and those filters continue to be used in architectural
photography (Using Lens Filters). Some of the most commonly used filters are described here.

Figure 2-25. Circular polarizing filter

Polarizer: A polarizing filter is highly recommended. It only lets light pass through if it matches
the polarization plane of the filter (Figure 2-25). With this filter, it becomes possible to eliminate
reflections from smooth, non-metallic surfaces such as windows or water. Also, the blue of the sky
at a 90-degree angle to the sun can be emphasized or darkened, producing more contrast with
white clouds. On SLR cameras, circular polarizing filters should be used, because they allow the
correct evaluation of distance and exposure. Rotating the front filter ring can modify the intensity
of the polarizing effect.
Graduated neutral density filter: While polarizing filters usually come as round filters with
threading, the ideal shape of a graduated neutral density filter is square or rectangular. They are
inserted into a holder that is then screwed into the lens. Positioning the height of the filter allows
the photographer to selectively darken light areas in an image (Figure 2-26). For instance, a high-
contrast situation consisting of a dark foreground and a bright sky can be dealt with by darkening
the sky, which then produces a more even exposure throughout the frame. The most useful filters
for practical applications are those that do not darken in a linear way from the lower edge, but
rather begin to darken in the middle and have a progressively darker tint toward the upper edge.

Figure 2-26. Graduated neutral density filter with holder

Neutral density filter: A neutral density (ND) filter creates a reduction in light that is equal
throughout the entire frame (Figure 2-27). This results in lower shutter speeds. ND filters are
available in a range of tints. Some reduce the light by just one f-stop, and others ten times as much,
or more. One application for an ND filter is showing the movement of cars or people via motion
blur even in bright light. This effect is frequently used in architectural photography.
 Figure 2-27. Neutral density filter mounted on lens
As with all filters, but especially the polarizer, the overall image quality will suffer the least with
the highest quality filter.

Lens Adapters
Many owners of SLR cameras assume that they must use either OEM lenses or compatible
aftermarket lenses by makers such as Sigma, Tamron, and Tokina. However, this assumption is not
always correct. Adapters make it possible to use older lenses that are not compatible with the lens
mount, such as the M42, Olympus-OM, Pentax-K, Contax/Yashica, Leica-R, or medium format
lenses (Figure 2-28). This capability can be a tremendous advantage for someone who owns old
Leica equipment, for instance. Attached to a modern SLR, Leicas excellent lenses will trump the
optical qualities of many new, high-quality lenses.
Of course, using an older lens means that the focus must be manually set. Exact focusing may be a
problem, especially with telephoto lenses, because their depth of field with an open aperture is
much smaller than that of wide lenses. One solution is an expensive adapter with an autofocus
confirmation chip that lights up the corresponding fields in the viewfinder when the focus is
correct. An alternative solution is to use the magnifying function on cameras with live-view
ability. This function greatly improves focusing when the subject is a stationary object.
Another limitation of using adapters with older lenses is that aperture settings cannot be
transmitted electronically from the the camera to the lens. Therefore, a lens with an aperture ring is
required for setting the aperture. The way around this is to focus this lens with an open aperture,
then to stop down to the working aperture, and adjust the exposure afterwards by using the
cameras internal light meter before triggering the shutter. For the next exposure, the aperture must
be opened again. The entire procedure takes time, but this might not constitute a serious problem
for stationary architectural photography.
Unfortunately, the adoption of aftermarket lenses does not work in all combinations. Special
attention has to be paid to the flange registers of the camera and the aftermarket lens systems. The
flange register (often referred to as flange-to-film distance or flange focal distance) is the
distance between the sensor or film and the flange part of the lens mount. For instance, if the
cameras flange register is too long for the lens system, it is impossible to focus into infinity. This
is why there are few adapters for such lens-camera combinations. Cameras with long flange
registers (for example, cameras with the Nikon F-mount) and lenses for camera systems with short
flange registers (for example, the older Canon FD series) have particular limitations in terms of
adaptability. If such a combination is to be used anyway, it may be necessary to do without the
infinity setting. The only other option would be to use special adapters with additional lens
systems, but these also cause a worsening of optical qualities.
By the way, the Canon EOS system has the biggest range of compatibility with aftermarket lenses,
not only because its lens mount has a large diameter, but also because the lens mount itself has the
shortest flange focal distance of all common SLR cameras. For these two reasons, almost all
lenses from other manufacturers can be adapted to the Canon EOS system.

Figure 2-28. Mount adapter for the use of other systems lenses

Figure 2-29. Viewfinder with special grid screen

Grid Screen
Gridlines projected into the viewfinder make it easier to gauge the cameras precise aiming axis,
which is especially important in architectural photography. If a camera does not have this function
built in, it is worth the effort to upgrade it with a grid-type precision matte focusing screen.
The lines can then be used to align the camera precisely with the vertical and horizontal lines of
buildings. Because this ensures that the camera is aimed correctly during the exposure, much time
can be saved when it comes to digital processing (Figure 2-29). In addition, the proportionately
placed lines also help compose a balanced frame (Image Frame and Composition).

Memory Cards
It is always highly advisable to have enough storage media or film on hand. The number of
exposures needed can rarely be estimated beforehand, since it is impossible to predict with
certainty what the field conditions will be and how quickly they may change. There are days when
it seems the pictures almost want to jump into camera on their own, while on other days all the
pictures seem to be hiding.
With analog film, the possible number of exposures is clearly defined. With digital cameras, it
should be noted that uncompressed RAW files often need much more storage space than one would
assume (What is RAW Format?). Since image sizes of 15 megabytes or more can quickly consume
the available memory space, extra memory cards are well worth the cost.
One advisable technique is to store smaller JPEGs in addition to the RAW images. This makes
sorting pictures on the computer much easier, but requires additional storage space. Photographers
going after panoramic shots (Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images) or HDR and DRI images
(Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images) must take into account that these types of
photography require several shots per image and by extension more storage space.

Batteries and Rechargeables

What goes for SLR storage media is also true for batteries. There should always be available
spares, particularly if the photo shoot takes place over a long period without recharging options. It
should be understood that in colder temperatures, batteries will not perform as well and the
number of possible exposures will decrease. Subsystems that are particularly power-hungry are
bright displays and image stabilizers (regardless of whether they are part of the camera or the
lens).
If the power reserves are low, it is best to power down the camera after each shot and deactivate
the post-shot image playback. If it is necessary to do prolonged shooting without external power,
the purchase of an external battery grip should be considered. Such a device can hold several
rechargeable batteries and often even regular AA batteries, which are commonly available all
over the world. As a bonus, the external power grip also improves the cameras vertical handling
characteristics.

Flash
Flash units do not play a major role in outdoor architectural photography. A plain flash attached to
the camera is virtually useless, and even high-powered flash systems are usually too weak when it
comes to lighting the entire exterior of a building. However, in interior spaces, flash systems can
accentuate and brighten targeted areas. For this purpose, powerful detached flash systems are
needed in combination with suitable reflectors, striplights, and soft boxes. In many cases, interior
shots often appear more natural without artificial flash light because the ambiance of interior
spaces is usually carefully orchestrated by architects and lighting designers.

Additional Accessories
Other accessories worth considering include protective sleeves to keep the camera dry in bad
weather, and tools such as brushes and blowers for cleaning the lenses and sensor. Such items are
usually inexpensive and can be useful in many situations. A right-angle viewfinder attachment can
help when shooting from just above the floor, though many SLR cameras have a live-view function
that does the job when the camera is placed in inaccessible positions.
Creativity Tips
The following section describes some gadgets that can infuse more visual creativity into
architectural shots.

Lensbabies
Lensbabies allow for a playful use of photography. Their flexible tube section allows
photographers to play with the focus (Figure 2-30). Similar to lenses with tilt mechanisms,
Lensbabies produce creative focal plane shifts by angling, expanding, or collapsing the lens. This
causes only a small section of the frame to be in focusthe sweet spotwhile other parts of the
frame are blurred. Of course, there should be no high expectations when it comes to optical clarity
and quality. The basic idea is to integrate the resulting distortions in a creative way.
Theoretically, this design would even make it possible to achieve perspective corrections or
distortions, but in the real world this is only possible in the smallest way because the tube is not
flexible enough.

Figure 2-30. Third generation Lensbaby

Black & White Negative Film

Black and white film presents another option for showing architecture in creative ways (Figure 2-
31). The photographer must know how to work with the qualities of black and white film. When
compared to color film, it offers more opportunities for interpretive freedom. Two strongly
contrasting colors may be rendered in exactly the same shade of gray when shot in black and white.
This loss of information may give a picture a more surreal or abstract quality. Surfaces and
structures of a building become invitations to experiment.
There are good reasons why black and white images remain popular. Many viewers find them
more engaging, and there is a certain aura of uniqueness attached to black and white pictures. This
impression can become stronger with higher film speed and the resulting grainy structure.
Especially interesting outcomes can be achieved by the deliberate use of grain (see Figure 3-102).
Nicely done black and white architectural shots will always capture the viewers attention,
whether the subject is old and ornate or is sleek and modern.
 Figure 2-31. ISO 400 Black & White film

Use of Fixed Focal Lenses

Compared to zoom lenses, fixed focal lenses (FFLs) seem much less versatile, especially
considering that their main advantage is their wider maximum aperturea quality not often needed
in architectural photography. Nevertheless, it can be very rewarding to use only one or two fixed
lenses (Figure 2-32) for an entire day. The set focal length encourages the photographer to become
intensely familiar with the surrounding spaces. More time will be spent choosing positions and
searching for better alternatives. This not only trains the eye for the subject, but also enhances its
perception and brings out new insights about individual positioning choices. At the end of such a
day, many photographers will realize that even though their choices were somewhat restricted,
those limitations were not as crucial as originally assumed.

Figure 2-32. fixed focal lens

Chapter 3. Shooting Techniques
This chapter discusses the question of how architecture should be photographed. It includes all
aspects to be taken into account for a shot. A wide range of factors determines the way a
building appears in a picture. Some of them concern the way a photographer acts on location,
and keeping an eye on these points leads to decidedly better pictures. Others factors, such as
the light or the weather, cannot be freely chosen or are beyond the photographers control.
This chapter also points out that different approaches can produce entirely different results.
One method may present a building directly and authentically, while another might depart from
the buildings original expression to create a new and autonomous visual impression.

Hallmarks of a Good Architectural Picture

A good architectural picture rests on a well-composed frame and direct, compelling visual
language. If a pictures central theme is architecture, other components must not be allowed to play
a dominant role. If, on the other hand, the picture illustrates the relationship between two
buildings, then their connection must be clearly represented. A violation of the rules can
certainly be done on purpose for creative effect, but in that case the deliberateness must be
obvious. Otherwise, the viewer will be inclined to interpret it as incompetence.
Well-executed documentary architectural photography compels the viewer with clear, tidy visual
language and produces a feeling of familiarity with the building, even if the viewer is unfamiliar
with it. In addition, this type of shot serves to enhance the buildings design qualities (Figure 3-1).

Figure 3-1. Documentary architectural photography: clear, organized visual language

 Figure 3-2. Modern architectural photography: integration of the environment
At the same time, modern documentation of architectural features also allows for the viewers
personal interpretation of a building, within certain limits. A skilled photographer can go beyond
the purely exacting and sterile representation of a building and give the entire setting a more
authentic and natural look by using aesthetic means (Figure 3-2).
In contrast, a more artistically inclined approach to architectural photography must be evaluated by
its visual message. The quality of the architecture in such pictures is usually unimportant. Rather,
the picture propounds its own effect independent of the subject. Successful creative architectural
photography captivates the viewer by telling a story, by pointing out contradictions, or by causing
the viewer to notice architectural traits that otherwise would be veiled in subconscious perception
(Figure 3-3).
In any case, the way an architectural picture is perceived depends to a certain extent on the viewer.
For instance, an architect may appreciate the clear lines of a faade without drastic shadows or
extreme angles, while a photographer may be attracted by the play of light and shadow. A viewer
inexperienced in both fields may be impressed by an extraordinary effect on an ordinary faade, or
may find pleasure in recognizing a familiar building.
 Figure 3-3. Artistic architectural photography: visual message is separate from the actual
architecture

Divergent Views of Architects and Photographers

In the field of architectural photography, the two worlds of architects and photographers
crash into each other. Although both are artistically minded forms of expression, the
approaches taken by architects and photographers are quite different.
The architect works with three-dimensional structures and with spaces; the photographer
works with two-dimensional surfaces. The architect measures his draft, his concept, by
constructive points of view. He looks at architecture as a constant, which is bound to exist
over a long period of time. The photographer records the transitory play of light and
darkness, and of dimensionality; he records a subjective perception of a particular moment
in time.
Architects ask for architectural photographs that are rich in information and with a minimum
of perceptional changes to the building; images that depict the buildings intended
impression; images that make the building dimensionally understandable and readily
experienced by the viewer. Conversely, a photographers individual, artistic interpretation
expressed through extreme viewing angles or framing reduces the information density of the
photographic representation.
Due to the fact that every architectural depiction is always interpretive, and because any
interpretation or orchestration has the potential to diminish the architects vision, the
architectural photographers task is a difficult one, for he must unite both viewpoints into
one.
 Figure 3-4. Building as a dominant, central subject

Figure 3-5. Several buildings combined: varying degrees of importance within composition

Figure 3-6. Building in suspenseful relation to an external object

Architecture as a Subject
The central subject of an architectural photograph is obviously a building. Its immobility and sheer
size distinguishes architectural photography from all other photographic work. Architecture is the
dominant element in the visual composition, and all other objects in the frame are subordinate to it
(Figure 3-4). If several buildings are shown in combination, the picture usually shows a scale of
importance. The image is dominated by the building in its center, or by the building covering the
largest part of the frame (Figure 3-5). It is also possible to show several buildings in balance, but
in all cases architecture is the central theme.
One of the traits of more artistic architectural photography is the inclusion of a buildings
environment as part of the image composition, which causes a weight shift. Such images show
architecture in a fascinating relationship with objects such as trees, signs, or people. The building
is no longer the unchallenged center of attention, but it appears in combination with other similarly
important subjects (Figure 3-6).
Even images where architecture plays a secondary role can be classified as architectural
photography. The building may serve as background for another subject or be entirely
unrecognizable. Architecture, while part of the picture, can be skillfully altered and selectively
framed so that the image becomes a play of shapes and lines (Figure 3-7).

Figure 3-7. Abstract depiction of architecture

Before each shot, the photographer must think carefully about how to represent a building. It can be
the central subject, part of a combination of subjects, or assume lesser importance in the overall
composition.

What Kind of Architecture Makes the Best Subject?

In general, each and every building, regardless of how old, decayed, unattractive, or ornate, can be
a rewarding subject. A fascinating subject is not automatically defined by the characteristics of the
building (Figure 3-8). The way in which the building is used visually in the picture is much more
important. Circumstances vary greatly depending on the type of building. On the one hand, central
staging may be the best solution for noteworthy new buildings (Figure 3-9). On the other hand,
older buildings, especially in a state of decay, may be more intriguing when viewed as part of their
environment (Figure 3-10).
 Figure 3-8. Weathered building faade

Figure 3-9. Centralized presentation of modern high-rise building

 Figure 3-10. Inclusion of immediate surroundings of a building left to decay
It is important to notice the many different manifestations of architecturefrom churches, castles,
and palaces of centuries past all the way to modern industrial complexes or warehouses reduced to
their purely functional qualities. Unusual modern buildings are part of architecture, as are the
residential buildings found in any city. Even bridges, temporary buildings, pyramids, air raid
shelters, broadcast towers, and outhouses are presentations of architecture (Figure 3-11). Given
the right creative techniques, all of them can be the subjects of architectural photographs.

An Eye for Subjects

Fundamentally, a photographer needs to develop a good feel for situations and settings. This
ability helps to separate the usual and mundane from the extraordinary and intriguing. Because
architectural photography deals with stationery subjects, it is important to understand and utilize
space and dimension. This begins before the shot with the selection of the best viewpoint and
method of showing a subject. No amount of digital processing afterwards can compensate for
diligence in this first stage. If the picture is not correctly captured at the moment of exposure, even
intense post-processing cannot magically produce an exciting image.

Figure 3-11. A bridge as a subject of an architectural photograph

Unfortunately, the ability to recognize a potential subject or scene is not equally available to all
people. Some photographers can easily find exciting vantage points and incorporate the scene
presenting itself in front of the camera into a photographic composition. These people can look at a
potential subject and already envision a photographic image, while others may not even notice the
subjects potential. But the latter group is not automatically destined to produce poor photographs.
A quote from Ansel Adams may be a consolation: Twelve significant photographs in any one year
is a good crop. The following statement is even more important: Without any doubt, the feel for
situations can be trained and improved.
So how can we train ourselves photographically? In order to sharpen ones senses, it is beneficial
to repeatedly visit places with a variety of architectural subjects. Digital photographers should
make use of voluminous memory cards and not shy away from taking large numbers of shots
(Figure 3-12). A careful evaluation of the images will quickly show which are good, which should
be deleted immediately, and what can be done better next time. By using this quantitative method, a
photographer becomes more familiar with the particular traits, advantages, and disadvantages of a
place. Along the way, new angles, viewpoints, and ways to record a subject will be found. Over
time, this leads to steadily improving shots.
Another method to begin sharpening ones perception for a subject is to shoot overviews of places
with interesting architecture. Later, these images can be carefully studied and analyzed to identify
which parts of the pictures would yield more interesting views or subjects (Figure 3-13). The
computer allows us to crop frames and experiment with different emphases and compositions.
Having these ideas in mind makes the next visit to a place much simpler, with potential subjects
and angles already identified (Figure 3-14).

Figure 3-12. Different depictions of the same location

Yet another method is the deliberate analysis of photographs contained in architectural books.
These questions should be asked: How has the photographer staged the building? How is the image
composed? Why was this particular angle chosen? What would I have done differently? Exposing
oneself to professional images produces new experiences and new realizations that can be
integrated into ones own photographic work.
 Figure 3-13. Overview with various subject concepts

Figure 3-14. Photographically realized subject concepts

Figure 3-15. Comparison: Unchanged perspective from identical shooting location despite
different focal lengths [focal length: 17 mm and 35mm]
Perspective
Photography turns a three-dimensional space into a two-dimensional image. This conversion
follows the laws of perspective, which represent the effect of a subjects space and depth in a
two-dimensional plane. Perspective is fundamentally the projection of space onto a flat surface.
Photographic images follow the rules of central projection, also called vanishing point projection,
preserving the natural perception to which the human eye is accustomed.
Perspective is determined by the cameras position; the spatial relationships within the image
change only when the camera is moved. There is a common belief that perspective is influenced by
focal length, but this is not so. The different impression and wider view of a short lens are created
because a larger picture frame is shown. However, the spatial proportions in an image do not
change with different focal lengths (Figure 3-15).

Roles of the Vanishing Points

Because geometric shapes are so important in architectural photography, perspective vanishing
points have particular significance. If parallel lines in three-dimensional space extend into the
distance, a photographic image will represent them as intersecting on a defined vanishing point
(Vp). If the camera points at the horizon, all truly vertical lines also remain vertical on the image.
This is a fundamental principle of photography, and it is often used in architectural photography.
The number of represented vanishing points has an important bearing on the overall impression of
a depicted building. In central perspective (not to be confused with central projection), all
parallel lines going into the distance end up at a vanishing point located in the middle of the
picture and at the horizon. In the practical application, the photographer faces the building from the
front, and the camera is aimed horizontally at the horizon. This places the buildings faade
parallel to the film or sensor. Such a camera position shows all of the faades parallel lines and
edges as parallel lines in the photograph (Figure 3-16). Although this type of shot looks calm, it is
also rather unspectacular. For some subjects it is also too two-dimensional and flat, because the
buildings heft can hardly be seen.
Two-point perspective, is defined by two vanishing points on the horizon. Such an image shows a
building from its corner. As with the central perspective, the camera has to be aimed horizontally,
but only vertical lines are represented as parallels in the final image (Figure 3-17). A typical
image in two-point perspective has a much more dynamic and three-dimensional appearance,
showing a buildings voluminous size. On the other hand, this effect can also obscure architectural
features because the photographs dynamic qualities can distract from a purely architectural
impression.
 Figure 3-16. Building in central perspective

Figure 3-17. Building in two-point perspective

Photography with three vanishing points is often referred to as worms eye view (Figure 3-18)
and birds eye view (Figure 3-19). The camera is not aimed at the horizon, but rather at an
imaginary point either higher (worms eye view) or lower (birds eye view) than the horizon. This
type of perspective occurs in all cases when the camera is tilted up or down, because there is no
other way to fit the entire building into the frame. Since the viewer does not look at the building
head on, there are no parallel lines. Even vertical lines converge in a point located above or
below the image. This is called perspective projection distortion.
 Figure 3-18. Worms eye view

Figure 3-19. Birds eye view

Figure 3-20. Architectural photograph with slightly converging verticals

Figure 3-21. Perspective correction with shift lens
Perspective Distortion and Converging Verticals
In the real world, the human eye does not consciously notice converging verticals. Our visual
perception is tied to our sense of balance, which compensates for these visual anomalies without
us even noticing. But in two-dimensional imagery, things are different. Our brain does not process
these images in the same way and realizes that something isnt right. If converging verticals
approach each other at a mild angle, a picture can create a restless impression, and a depicted
buildings aesthetics may be compromised (Figure 3-20, Figure 3-21). This impression can be so
strong that the building almost seems to lean over backwards (Figure 3-22). For this reason, it is
important to avoid perspective distortion in architectural photographs as much as possible. If a
buildings edge is really vertical, it should remain so in a photograph. This prevents unwanted
notions of disharmony in the composition and also enhances the buildings exact representation.

Figure 3-22. Architectural photograph with distinctly converging verticals [focal length: 14
mm]
Is it advisable to avoid converging verticals in every situation? Not necessarily. There are times
when converging verticals can and should be used as a stylistic technique by exaggerating their
manifestation. In such cases, converging verticals can be the most important stylistic element in the
composition. Typical uses of this technique are photographing high-rise buildings and any other
buildings where the photographer must be very close and look up at the subject (Figure 3-23).

Figure 3-23. Converging verticals as a main style element in the image composition [focal
length: 28 mm]

How to Avoid Converging Verticals

To represent a building without converging verticals is not always unproblematic. The closer one
comes to the building, the more difficult it is to avoid converging verticals. The reason is that the
camera has to be tilted up in order to fill the frame. So how can truly vertical lines remain
photographically vertical as well?

Figure 3-24. Avoiding converging verticals by shooting from a great distance between camera
and subject [focal length 90 mm]

Greater distance from the subject: The first method of maintaining vertical lines is to simply
move back. If there is enough freedom of movement to do so, a longer focal length can compensate
for the increased distance (Figure 3-24). This alone is enough to markedly decrease perspective
distortion or even avoid them, particularly if the camera is set level with the horizon. Small
corrections can be done later on the computer. Unfortunately, this simple increase in distance is
often impossible in real settings. In many instances, the buildings surroundings will either be
occupied or inaccessible. Another problem is the increased risk of including unwanted objects in
the frame that obstruct the view or disturb the composition. Finally, the greater distance from the
subject results in a distinct visual compression of the perspective representation, and this effect is
not always welcome (Depth Perception).
 Figure 3-25. Avoiding converging verticals by shooting from an elevated position [focal
length: 50 mm]

Moving to higher ground: Elevating the camera is another way to avoid converging verticals
(Figure 3-25). In an ideal scenario, the camera is moved upwards to half the buildings total
height, and then pointed horizontally level at the building. Thus, converging verticals can be
avoided. The higher vantage point automatically results in a vertical composition. Unfortunately,
few buildings have conveniently located bridges, platforms, or higher floors of adjacent buildings
accessible and at the right distance.
 Figure 3-26. Avoiding converging verticals by shooting in portrait orientation with a wide
angle lens and cropping the image [focal length: 14 mm]

Use of short lenses in portrait orientation: This method can be used to avoid converging
verticals caused by close proximity to the building. It uses wider lenses than necessary to frame
the entire building. The portrait (vertical) orientation enables the camera to remain level with the
ground while showing the entire building (which will move toward the top of the frame). Of
course, this approach incorporates a large area in front of the building and produces an unbalanced
composition, but this can easily be corrected by cropping the image in digital post-processing
(Figure 3-26). The disadvantage of this method is that the total image size will be smaller.

Figure 3-27. Perspective correction of converging verticals using software [focal length: 32
mm]

Perspective corrections on the computer: A widespread and nearly always possible method
consists of photographing with perspective distortion and then making corrections on the computer
with image editing software. The image editing corrections involve a trapezoidal distortion of the
entire image that causes the converging verticals to separate from each other (Figure 3-27). A
downside of this method is that it produces an unevenly distributed resolution of details over the
entire picture surface. The pixels in the lower area of the image are slightly compacted, while the
pixels in the upper part of the image move away from each other. If the perspective distortion is
very strong, then this method can seriously compromise the resolution and may reach the limits of
what is possible by artificially creating image data for the upper areas of the picture. Therefore,
this method is best used in combination with one of the other suggestions above. For example, in
addition to digital post-processing, a wide lens can be used in the horizontal format with the
camera tilted only slightly upward.

Figure 3-28. Perspective correction of converging verticals using a shift lens [focal length:
35mm]

Use of a shift lens: The best but also the most elaborate way to do perspective corrections is to
use a specially designed shift lens. Within its parameters, the shift lens allows the corrections to
be made right on location (Figure 3-28). Further processing on the computer is unnecessary, which
not only saves time but also prevents otherwise unavoidable image degradation. In addition, the
desirable frame can be selected immediately and there is more freedom in choosing the camera
position.

How Does a Shift Lens Work?

Because of their special design, shift lenses can move their optical axis in relation to the film or
sensor surface (Figure 3-29). With regular lenses, this would lead to an extreme light fall-off at the
edges. Shift lenses produce a much bigger image circle and can be moved as much as 12 mm in
each direction. Their design usually does not include functions such as autofocus and, in some
cases, automatic aperture control, but these disadvantages do not present a real problem.
 Figure 3-29. Perspective correction by vertical shift of the optical axis, using a shift lens
As an alternative to the shift lens, it is possible to use a medium format lens combined with a shift
adapter on a regular full-frame SLR camera. The effect is similar to a shift lens (Figure 3-30). This
can be done because the image circle passing through a medium format lens is much larger than
that of a lens designed for 35mm format alone. In addition, the medium formats larger flange focal
distance has plenty of room to spare for a shift adapter. However, the maximum possible shift area
is limited with this setup also, and extreme perspective distortions cannot be fully undone.
How is a shift lens used? In the first step, the camera and shift lens are aimed at the building
horizontally and level. A spirit level integrated into the tripod or attached to the cameras hot shoe
makes this task much more precise. Light and distance metering takes place in this neutral position.
This is important since most cameras will not make accurate measurements when the lens is in the
shift position. Once this is done, the optical lens axis can be moved up, which moves the horizon
in the viewfinder down. Areas that were cut off at the top of the image frame now come into view
(Figure 3-31). Although the camera now shows major parts of the image above the horizon, camera
and lens are still level with the ground, resulting in no perspective distortion.

Figure 3-30. Perspective correction by vertical shift of a medium format lens using a shift
adapter
If the vantage point is high, the entire process can be reversed by shifting the lens down instead of
up (Figure 3-32). However, in both scenarios, there will be a visible light fall-off towards the
edges and blurring in the corners of the image, toward maximum lens shift. The maximum shift
position should therefore be used only as a last resort. If the maximum shift is not enough, it is best
to use a combination of lens shift and a slight tilt of the camera. This minimizes perspective
distortion to the point where it can be corrected in the computer without much loss in quality.
Figure 3-31. The shifting technique: orientation on the horizon and shifting of the optical axis
within the image circle
It is interesting to note that the shift lens can be employed not only vertically, but also horizontally.
This can be useful in a case where a house faade must be photographed from central perspective
without an accessible vantage point in the middle. In some cases, the photographer may also have
to deal with his own reflections on a faade. The shift lens makes it possible to choose a position
further to the side without converging vertical or horizontal lines (Figure 3-33, Figure 3-34).
 Figure 3-32. Image with optical axis shifted downwards [focal length: 35mm]
In addition to preventing perspective projection distortion, the shift technique can also improve a
composition. For instance, it enables the photographer to lose a disharmonious foreground in the
lower part of the image and instead draw more sky into the upper part (Figure 3-35). Another
application of shift lenses is the creation of small panoramas, because the angle of view as well as
the total resolution can be significantly increased (Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas).
Some shift lenses have added tilt capability so that the focus plane of the lens can be tilted
according to the Scheimpflug principle. However, architectural photographers use this only in rare
cases. One such situation would be when the photographer is very close to a faade leading into
the distance, and the entire faade must be shown in focus. Owners of shift-tilt lenses should
always make sure that the tilt setting is locked level if only the shift function is desired. If this step
is neglected, some picture elements may be out of focus, even if the aperture is small.
 Figure 3-33. Object on the centerline of the image disturbs the composition [focal length 24
mm]

Figure 3-34. Slightly changed perspective (compare red circles) by moving camera position to
the side (shift to the left) [focal length 24 mm]

Figure 3-35. Comparison: changes in image composition resulting from different shifts [focal
length: 24 mm]
Camera Position
As mentioned earlier, the camera position is the only factor responsible for a buildings
appearance in perspective. Because of this, the vantage point of choice must be well thought out,
as it is of utmost importance for the following steps. Even slightly altered camera positions can
dramatically change a buildings appearance in a photograph.

Figure 3-36. Short distance between camera and subject produces dramatic perspective [focal
length: 14 mm]

Ideal Distance to the Building

The optimal distance is variable, depending on the type of building and its dimensions, the
surrounding environment, and the photographers concept.
If the depth of a building must be shown, then the cameras distance from it must not be too great
because this would lead to a flat appearance (Depth Perception). Also, if there are many
distracting objects around the building, the photographer must move in closer to have an
unobstructed line of view. However, if the building must be shown with its true and undistorted
proportions from the front, the distance should be greater. Also, an enormous building must be shot
from further away than a small building in order to achieve a natural-looking perspective.

Figure 3-37. Close camera position resulting in a disadvantageous view of protruding

building parts from below [focal length: 24 mm]
The most severe problems usually arise with extreme vantage points that are very close or very far
from the building. Too close, and converging verticals cannot be brought under control by any
means. In such situations, distortions must be purposefully and deliberately made a part of the
composition. While this can lead to exciting and dynamic images, the architecture appears
increasingly devoid of realism (Figure 3-36). In cases where the photographer is very close, but a
perspective correction could theoretically still be possible, it is best to seriously consider the
position. When in doubt, the distance should be increased. Otherwise, the narrow distance to the
building leads to surreal and unnatural-looking architecture, perspective correction
notwithstanding. One reason is the dominant visual effect created by looking up at the underside of
protruding features high up on the building, such as balconies and windowsills (Figure 3-37).
A long distance between the camera and the building rarely causes converging verticals to form,
and these can easily be corrected. On the downside, unwanted objects around the building often
compromise such images. Another issue is that such pictures tend to depict architecture as
unnaturally flat and two-dimensional, and they downplay the buildings depth. Between the two
extremes, the latter usually causes less of a problem and might in some cases be used as a stylistic
technique (Figure 3-38).
All in all, the rule of thumb is that the best camera positions are located at a distance of about one
to three times the height of the building. This distance rule is one of the reasons for the
predominance of relatively wide lenses in architectural photography.

Figure 3-38. Large distance between camera and subject produces only minimally converging
verticals [focal length: 150 mm]

Position and Perspective

Even if the main subject itself does not change, depending on the camera position, it can have a
fundamentally different perspective appearance. This results in changes to the image frame, which
can easily be compensated for by changing the focal length. Deliberately choosing the right camera
position can influence the entire composition. Experienced photographers use this principle to
accentuate certain characteristics of a building, for example the quality with which it was drafted
(Figure 3-39, Figure 3-40). In the same way, the negative traits of a building can be masked or
pointed out. A carefully chosen position helps to illustrate proportions and relations in
architecture, or it can lend different weight to specific parts of a building (Figure 3-41). The same
architecture may look calm and clear from some vantage points but dramatically surreal from
others (Figure 3-42, Figure 3-43). A faade may appear transparent and open from one view but
tightly shut from another (Figure 3-44, Figure 3-45). Moving the camera position by just a few feet
can make a huge difference.

Figure 3-39. Large distance between camera and subject resulting in large and monumental
depiction of building [focal length: 200 mm]

Figure 3-40. Smaller distance to building making it appear more slender and pointed [focal
length: 100 mm]
Figure 3-41. Comparison: various proportional distribution through changing camera
position [focal length: 17 mm, 35mm, 50 mm]
 Figure 3-42. Moderate distance between camera and subject resulting in a realistic depiction
of depth [focal length: 58 mm]

Figure 3-43. Close distance between camera and subject leads to a dramatically exaggerated
architectural presentation and extreme depiction of depth [focal length: 12 mm]

By employing these methods, the photographer can influence the impression a building makes
without the viewer being consciously aware of it. As a result, the impression of a building gained
on location can be very different from the perception gained through a photograph. The
photographer must be aware of the effects of the camera position even before the shot is made. It
comes down to what the photographer desires to show and what points communicate the
photographs message. Negative effects of an ill-chosen position can rarely be corrected
afterwards.
 Figure 3-44. Closed appearance of a faade, camera position and angle lead to the fence-like
appearance with little glass visible in between the posts

Figure 3-45. Transparent appearance as a result of a different camera position, and a bigger
viewing angle of the faade

Position and Environment

A change of position not only causes a shift of perspective, but also has considerable influence on
the elements surrounding the subject. The environment can have a positive or negative impact on
the composition and the architecture depicted. Only when a building stands in the middle of
nowhere does the photographer have unlimited freedom to concentrate entirely on its photographic
representation. Whenever this is not the case, the photographer is forced to deal with the
immediate vicinity and choose the camera position accordingly.
A theoretically interesting view of a building may not be all that exciting if the view is obscured,
for example by vegetation. If this is a problem, a small adjustment to the position of the camera is
often all it takes to resolve the problem (Figure 3-46, Figure 3-47). In addition, the purposeful
choice of positions makes it possible to create a variety of moods and thereby show the building in
several different ways (Figure 3-48, Figure 3-49). The weight and emphasis that the photographer
assigns to elements of architecture and the surroundings are also influenced by the cameras
position. (Figure 3-50, Figure 3-51). Consequently, the photographers skill does not only pertain
to finding the perfect viewing angle, but also to incorporating the environment into the final
composition.
 Figure 3-46. Disharmonious foreground disturbs the composition

Figure 3-47. A slight change of the camera position results in a much better presentation of
the architecture

Figure 3-48. Roadway is overpowering the composition and visually separates the viewer from
the building; area in front of building becomes insignificant [focal length: 24 mm]

Figure 3-49. Slightly modified camera position leads to a very different effect: building
becomes directly accessible; the square in front of the building appears larger and wider
[focal length: 24 mm]
Figure 3-50. Building and external space in front dominates the composition; the sculpture is
subordinate [focal length: 24 mm]

Figure 3-51. Different camera position making sculpture dominant [focal length: 24 mm]

Figure 3-52. Camera position on the diagonal axis depicting the building as massive and
monumental
Position and Symmetry
Photographs with symmetrical features always create an extraordinary impression. However, one
needs to distinguish between the symmetry of architecture and photographic symmetry. Even if the
architect designed the building to be symmetrical in shape, the photograph may not necessarily
show it as such. But if the buildings symmetry aligns with that of the photograph, the resulting
image will be particularly dynamic. Most viewers tend to perceive such images as highly
satisfying because their inherent sense of balance leads to a powerful and extraordinary visual
experience. The building seems more monumental and impressive, but sometimes also more
synthetic and less realistic (Figure 3-52).

Figure 3-53. A symmetrical depiction shows an open, inviting interior space

In order to use symmetry as a stylistic device, the photographer must place the camera exactly on
the buildings symmetric axis and align the cameras aim with it. The slightest pan or step to the
side can ruin the effect by causing undesirable tension within the composition. Highly dynamic
symmetrical shots can be achieved along the buildings diagonals because they bring out the entire
depth of the building. Courtyards (Figure 3-53) and round or elliptical faades (Figure 3-54) are
also ideal subjects that yield impressive pictures as long as the photographer gets close enough.
The magnitude of the symmetrical effect always depends on the sides of the building being visible
and leading into depth. Since a buildings depth cannot be seen from the front, the dynamic effect is
widely missing. The symmetry of such a picture suggests balance and tidiness, but the dramatic
tension of symmetrically dynamic lines is not present (Figure 3-55).
 Figure 3-54. Symmetrical image creating a closed, compact architectural body

Figure 3-55. Less symmetrical effect as a result of concealed building depth

Depth Perception
The way depth is perceived in an architectural photograph depends on the chosen vantage point. If
there are several objects located far away from the camera, the space between them seems tighter.
This effect is sometimes referred to as compressed perspective. On the flip side, if the distance
between the subject and the camera is very short, the foreground appears more prominent than the
background. Close objects will appear very large, and objects farther away will appear much
smaller. Spatial proportions will appear wider and more open.
In practical application, long distances call for telephoto lenses and short distances for wide
lenses. Perhaps this gives rise to the myth that the perspective depth perception is a function of
focal length. But it is possible to use a wide lens even with a long distance between the camera
and the subject and then enlarge a cropped segment of the image later. It is also possible to use a
telephoto lens with a short distance instead of a wide lens, shoot a series of mosaic pictures, and
then stitch them together to make a large panorama. The depth perception would be the same for
both methods.
 Figure 3-56. Large distance between the camera and the subject producing a compressed
perspective [focal length: 180 mm]
It is also possible to shoot a building almost like a collage with very little depth. To do this, the
distance between the camera and the building needs to be greatly increased. In the resulting image,
the features toward the rear of the building are represented only marginally smaller than features
on the front. Because of the compressed space, the building is represented in a very flat way with
its three-dimensionality deemphasized. This method can be used to make very abstract shots that
show spatial proportions in a surreal way (Figure 3-56).
If the objective is pure documentation, photographers must try to represent the buildings spatial
characteristics as close to reality as feasible. For this purpose, it is desirable to use moderate
wide-angle lenses wherever possible. On a 35mm format camera, a focal length around 40 mm
leadsas a result of the adjusted distance from which the photograph has to be takento a depth
effect in the image similar to the depth perception with the naked eye. In this manner, the viewer of
a picture is able to realistically perceive the distances and proportions within the image by using
his own visual experiences as a point of reference (Figure 3-57).
The perception of an artificially wide architectural space can be created if the photographer
closely approaches a building and corrects the frame by choosing a much shorter focal length.
Because near objects seem large and more distant ones significantly smaller, an image with a
small distance between the camera and the subject produces the perception of a deep space. This,
in turn, produces the impression of spacious width (Figure 3-58) or extreme perspective (Figure 3-
59) depending on the architectural circumstances. In contrast to photography over wide distances,
where the viewer gets very little information about distance and relations of objects within the
scene, the technique described above represents spatial depth in an exaggerated way, but only to
the point where the viewer can still interpret it.

Figure 3-57. The camera position and a moderate focal length produce a realistic, spatial
depiction of depth [focal length: 40 mm]

Figure 3-58. Close distance to the building and very short focal length result in an
unnaturally wide appearance of the architectural space [focal length: 14 mm]

Figure 3-59. Close distance between camera and subject producing extreme perspective
within the image [focal length: 17 mm]
Figure 3-60. Telephoto lens enhancing building details in front of a flat background [focal
length: 100 mm]
Focal Length
The choice of focal length is closely related to the choice of camera position. The exact method
varies from photographer to photographer. Some photographers consciously choose a particular
position first and then tailor the lens to it. Others prefer to choose a particular focal length first and
then (within reason) move around to find the perfect spot.
Of course, owners of zoom lenses have more freedom to choose their position because the
adjustments can be made gradually. Photographers who prefer to use fixed lenses often do more
legwork, but this is hardly ever a serious disadvantage in the real world.
Because of their special optical effects, lenses with extreme focal lengths are rarely used in
architectural photography. However, they do allow shots that would otherwise not be possible.
Ideally, an architectural photographer will have a wide range of lenses to choose from, which
greatly expands the range of possible camera positions.

Long Focal Lengths

As described earlier, long focal lengths are rarely used in architectural photography because they
require the photographer to move far away from the building in order to capture it completely.
Therefore, telephoto lenses are only used for special purposes.

Figure 3-61. Long focal length and large distance producing a compacted view [focal length:
180 mm]
Long lenses are perfect for emphasizing small details and building materials (Reduced Frame). But
it must be understood that as the focal length becomes longer, the depth of field becomes smaller.
This characteristic of long lenses can only be counteracted by stopping down the aperture as much
as possible in order to avoid areas within the image that are out of focus.
Long focal lengths also mean a narrow viewing angle and a background less populated with details
and visible objects. Therefore, the telephoto lens offers an opportunity to move certain parts of the
building into the center of the composition, and also to separate them more clearly from a less
dominant, flatter background (Figure 3-60).
By utilizing the effect of compressed perspective caused by the large distance from the subject, a
long focal length can show several buildings in an unusual virtual constellation (Figure 3-61).
With this technique and a clever choice of camera positions, buildings separated by a significant
physical distance can relate to each other in a picture (Figure 3-62). In fact, they can be combined
to such a degree that an entirely new visual expression arises. This is clearly an indication of
creative architectural photography (Figure 3-63).

Figure 3-62. Long focal length producing a visual relationship between buildings that are
distant from each other [focal length: 150 mm]

Figure 3-63. Focal length and framing produce a composition dominated by shapes and
surfaces [focal length: 120 mm]

Very Short Focal Lengths

Extremely wide-angle lenses enable the photographer to shoot very close to or inside a building.
Short focal lengths make it possible to take photos in places that would not be feasible with
moderate focal lengths. But in practice, photography in tight spaces with very wide-angle lenses
leads to dramatic perspective and the appearance of unnatural width. Of course, this effect can be
welcome for producing an artistically exaggerated representation. To apply it, the camera is
placed in close proximity to the building. An unusual angle in combination with a very wide lens
creates dynamic, but also strongly distorted, architectural images (Figure 3-64).
 Figure 3-64. An extreme wide angle lens, in combination with this special camera position,
lead to a very dynamic look [focal length: 16 mm]

Figure 3-65. Neighboring buildings make a more distant camera position impossible and
necessitate the use of a short focal length [focal length: 14 mm]
To achieve realistic documentation, only moderate wide-angle lenses may be used. Extreme wide-
angle lenses are only permissible if the local conditions leave no other choice for positioning the
camera (Figure 3-65).
When using extreme wide-angle lenses, converging verticals result from the slightest tilt out of
level position. This is often bewildering for photographers using these lenses for the first time
(Figure 3-66). To avoid this effect, it is essential to precisely aim the camera. Although short focal
lengths cast good depth of field even with an open aperture, an architectural photographer should
always reduce the aperture to avoid image problems.
Wide-angle zoom lenses are also afflicted by very visible barrel distortion, since such lenses are
difficult to design with extreme focal lengths. It is advisable to leave enough space around the
subject to allow for image correction later on the computer (Image Corrections).
Fisheye lenses with extremely short focal lengths are rarely used in architectural photography
because they produce images with bizarre distortions. However, in special cases these lenses are
good for interesting experiments with unusual views (Figure 3-67).
Figure 3-66. Slight camera tilt downwards combined with a very short focal length lead to
strongly converging verticals [focal length: 14 mm]

Figure 3-67. Fisheye lenses produce extremely distorted representations of architectural

reality

Figure 3-68. Rectilinear panorama consisting of three shots in portrait orientation [focal
length: 17 mm]
Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas
If the focal length of a lens is not sufficiently short to show the entire building, panoramas provide
another option. Two or more staggered, vertical images can be placed next to each other, and then
the images can be stitched together with panorama software tools (Figure 3-68, see also
Rectilinear Panorama).
To maintain a realistic perception of space, rectilinear panoramas should be chosen instead of
cylindrical panoramas so that the picture format appears less extreme. More importantly,
vertical and horizontal lines protruding from the image center are rendered in correct perspective.
The tradeoff is that a rectilinear panorama is limited to less than 180 degrees. Truthfully, this is
usually sufficient. For rectilinear panoramas, it is important to shoot the component pictures with
the same camera settings. With SLR cameras, this is best achieved with manual focus and exposure
control. If each shot is exposed differently, the border zones will show visible differences in
brightness that are extremely difficult to correct. A positive side effect of a rectilinear panorama
consisting of multiple shots is the higher resolution of the final image. Especially when the images
are to be printed poster-sized, the increase of image data is very welcome.

Figure 3-69. Architectural image consisting of two shots with different shift settings of the
 lens [focal length: 35mm]
If the camera is held by hand, it should be twisted around its virtual center of gravity and not from
the hips of the photographer. This saves trouble later, especially with close subjects, when the
images are fitted together.

Figure 3-70. Panoramic shift adapter mounted on a tripod using an L Bracket; camera can be
moved horizontally
A very precise way to expand the viewing angle with multiple images is to use a shift lens. Two
images are taken from the exact same position, but with the lens shifted to opposite ends. A
montage of the images can be done later on the computer (Figure 3-69, see also Shift Panorama).
This works well both in horizontal and vertical directions. The big advantage of this method is the
ease with which the images can be stitched; the cameras aim does not change from shot to shot, as
it would if the camera were panned or tilted. However, the objects in the image should be as
distant as possible, because even the minimal shift of the lens axis has a negative effect on the
appearance of objects close to the lens. The consequence is a slight shift of the image elements,
which of course complicates the stitching process.
Here is a trick to maximize the image fit: mount the lens on the tripod instead of the camera. Some
shift adapters allow this setup with a special attachment. Once this is done, the camera can be
moved but the optical axis remains in the same spot (Figure 3-70).
Picture Format
The pictures orientation can make a big difference in the finished architectural photograph. The
most commonly used orientation is the wide or horizontal format. This corresponds most closely
with the way the human eye perceives the world. The portrait or vertical format is not frequently
used in architectural photography, but it is essential to represent a vertical shape.
In contrast to the horizontal and portrait formats, the square format is the calmest because it doesnt
emphasize either side (Figure 3-71). The film or sensor determines the aspect ratio, usually 2:3 or
3:4. The photographer then has a choice between portrait and horizontal formats. Cropping
afterwards can also create completely different aspect ratios. Extreme or misaligned formats have
an immense bearing on how the image is perceived, because unusual dimensions jump right out at
the viewer.

Figure 3-71. Horizontal, portrait and square formats

Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images

A pictures aspect ratio can be so extreme in either the vertical or the horizontal dimension that
one side is a multiple of the other. This is called a panoramic image. It represents an unusual
visual sensation for the viewer because it does not match our natural field of vision (Figure 3-72).
This strange perception can also influence the way the subject is perceived. For instance, if the
height of an image is severely cropped, the spatial proportions appear relatively undistorted and
only the narrow format stands out (Figure 3-73). On the other hand, stitched panoramas show
extremely wide or high angles of vision.
 Figure 3-72. Normal human field of vision: about 170 degrees horizontally and 130 degrees
vertically

Figure 3-73. Image strongly cropped in the vertical dimension

Unlike rectilinear panoramas, cylindrical panoramas curve all level lines that are above or below
the horizon (Figure 3-74). Individual images can be stitched to make a full 360-degree image.
There are also spherical panoramas that produce a circular image of exactly 360 degrees
horizontally and 180 degrees vertically. These images are optimized for viewing on a monitor. It is
not possible to compare the impression given by these kinds of images with a super wide-angle
lens, but there are reminders of the view one would get from a fisheye lens. The purpose of
cylindrical and spherical panoramas is not the correct and authentic representation of an
architectural object, but rather an overview based on an extremely wide field of vision. Their
proportions and dimensions bear no resemblance to reality. A good panorama is characterized by
a suspenseful distribution of its elements. The combined image must have an appealing
composition over its entire width and height.

Figure 3-74. Cylindrical panorama: lines not at the level of the horizon will be rendered
curved
So how is it done? Horizontal, cylindrical panoramas composed from many partial images are best
shot from a tripod. If the camera is aimed precisely at the horizon, subsequent problems with
converging verticals can be avoided. In order to capture a large vertical angle, it is best to make
the shot in portrait orientation using a 90-degree attachment for the tripod head, for example an L-
bracket (see Figure 2-22). Even better is a panorama head that matches the lens and camera. A
panorama mounting plate and a spirit level attachment for the cameras hot shoe are other useful
accessories that allow a perfectly horizontal orientation over the entire panning range. To achieve
an even panorama, all images should be made with the same exposure settings. If the light
conditions vary too much, adjustments may be called for. This will result in additional work when
the images are stitched, but most panorama software has dissolving functions that smooth the
transition from one image to the other.
When each shot is taken, it should be remembered that clouds passing by can create different light
and shadow effects. Another problem to contend with is moving objects. Ideally, these should not
be located in the transition area between images, where they would definitely be noticeable later
when the images are combined. If no tripod is available, the alternative is to shoot from the hand
using gridlines, either from an attached grid-type focusing screen or an electronic projection. At
the very least, the AF metering zones in the viewfinder can form a provisional guide. Again, it is
essential to keep the camera level to the horizon for each shot.

Orientation
All rectangular images have a defined aspect ratio that results in two possible orientations:
vertical or horizontal. A building with a wide horizontal expanse is usually photographed
horizontally, while a building with domineering height is usually depicted vertically. Typically,
the choice of image orientation is a function of architectural shape.
However, the image orientation can be affected if the photographer includes other objects in the
buildings vicinity. In this case, architecture is no longer the only factor in the format choice.
Adding other image elements can lead to a new, dynamic orientation (Figure 3-75).
When the image orientation is deliberately not matched to the image content, tension builds up
within the composition. This can completely change the visual impression of a building. The image
format may even be contradictory to the architectural orientation (Figure 3-76, Figure 3-77). In this
case, the photographer takes the role of arranger and deliberately emphasizes opposites and
relationships. As a result, the photographs visual expression gains in intensity and the
architectural expression becomes subordinate. This is a characteristic of artistically inclined
architectural photography.

Figure 3-75. Additional compositional element (airplane) determines the directional

orientation of the image
Figure 3-76. Vertical dimensions and building structure is contrasted by horizontal image
format

Figure 3-77. Overview

Image Frame and Composition
Before pressing the shutter release button, photographers should always think about the desired
image frame and composition. Of course, it is possible to make changes with digital image
processing software or in the darkroom, but for a good picture the foundation is laid with the
exposure. Photographers must contemplate how the synthesis of objects, shapes, edges, and
proportions can be turned into a unified, well-thought-out whole. Ideally, viewers will be
captivated by an interesting composition, and the structure of the image will follow the lines of the
desired visual message. While it is quite possible to show drastic contradictions without
interfering with the harmonious overall composition, poor distribution of elements can make even
the most impressive building appear dull. In the worst case, the negative appearance of an image
becomes identified with the architecture itself.

Composition
There is no recipe for a perfect composition. In general terms, it can be said that a centered
placement of the subject almost always brings forth an even, but static composition. This is the
kind of presentation preferred by documentary architectural photographers (Figure 3-78). When a
buildings symmetry needs emphasis, central staging is usually an absolute necessity (Position and
Symmetry). However, as in other kinds of photography, the traditional central placement is often
forsaken in favor of more dynamic and suspenseful arrangements.

Figure 3-78. Calm, static composition as a result of center placement of the building
Once the main subject is removed from the image center, new possibilities open up. Principles of
composition like the golden ratio or the rule of thirds offer recipes for successfully arranged
photographs (see Golden Ratio and Rule of Thirds). Structuring a picture according to these rules
creates visual harmony, while at the same time the photograph appears more dynamic and filled
with tension than a centered composition (Figure 3-79).
In some cases, pictures may be more powerful if they break all the rules of photography,
aesthetics, and proportion (Figure 3-80). However, such a composition must be done deliberately.
Beginners should proceed with caution, since there is a thin line between brilliant execution and
miserable failure. Architecture needs plenty of space, both in reality and in a picture. Too much
architectural density on one side can throw off the balance and seemingly tip the entire image over.
 Figure 3-79. Suspenseful, dynamic image composition by employing the the golden ratio

Figure 3-80. One-sided composition creating an unusual look

A building does not always have to be shown in its entirety. Parts of the structure that are not
essential for the intended message can be placed outside the frame. The faade can be only
partially visible and still transmit enough information about the building as a whole. In many
instances, the photographs chosen angles can be more interesting than an overview (Figure 3-81).
About such cases, Robert Capa said, If your pictures arent good enough, youre not close
enough.
The importance of showing emptiness is often neglected in compositions. Empty space plays an
important role in architecture, so each photographed building also needs space to breathe. If a
photograph is cropped too tightly, the resulting impression is often confined and compressed
(Figure 3-82). It is therefore essential to regard empty space as a vital compositional element
(Figure 3-83).
 Figure 3-81. Deliberately chosen viewing angle

Figure 3-82. Limited perception as a result of an extremely restricted frame

Figure 3-83. Use of disembodied space

Golden Ratio and Rule of Thirds

The golden ratio refers to a distinct proportion (a:b = 1.618). It is widely employed in the
arts and in architecture and has been universally recognized as the ideal proportion, as well
as the epitome of aesthetics and harmony. Therefore, an image composition in accordance
with the golden ratio usually leads to compelling architectural pictures.

a:b = b:c = c:d = 1.618

The rule of thirds is a similar technique used to achieve compositional harmony. It
involves mentally dividing the image into three sections of equal width. If the most
significant edges and surfaces of the subject area are arranged on these lines and on their
intersections, the result will usually be a balanced, interesting composition.

Image Composition and Environment

Architecture and its environment are intertwined. Objects in the vicinity of a building can influence
its appearance as much as the building influences its surroundings. Therefore, it is vital to plan
which objects in the buildings vicinity are to be included in the image (Figure 3-84). These are
comprised of stationary objects such as street lights, signs, trees, and walls as well as moving
objects, such as people, vehicles, or even clouds. Involving these elements in a composition can
give the viewer more personal, direct access to the building. On the other hand, they can also
distract from the buildings general appearance.
 Figure 3-84. Objects in the buildings vicinity included in the image composition

Figure 3-85. Clearly structured image composition without distracting environmental

elements leads to a utilitarian, impersonal look

Stationery Surrounding Objects

Before each shot, the photographer needs to clarify how the architecture should be
photographically presented. A clinically precise look requires a clear, comprehensively structured
composition with no distracting objects to obscure the architectures expression. Such a
presentation creates a straightforward impression, but it also is artificial and distant (Figure 3-85).
On the other hand, incorporating nearby objects can deliberately enhance the architectural
expression. A good example of this is an airport tower, where its form and functionality only
becomes evident if it can be seen in the context of the surrounding airport. A bridge is another
example; its presentation makes sense only if the space it crosses is also part of the image.
Other than that, objects in the vicinity can enliven the image and provide accents that relate the
viewer to the image in a more direct and personal way (Figure 3-86). Such objects can also serve
as reference points for the buildings spatial dimensions (Figure 3-87). In creative architectural
photography, the incorporation of surrounding objects is often employed to illustrate the
relationship between the building and its environment (Figure 3-88).

Figure 3-86. Placing an additional emphasis by incorporating a tree into the image
composition

Figure 3-87. Surrounding objects enliven the composition and convey information about the
buildings spatial dimensions
 Figure 3-88. The combination of stationary objects and a clearly structured faade adds
suspense to the image

Figure 3-89. Pedestrians passing through the subjects vicinity

Moving Objects
Objects in motion, such as rolling vehicles or walking people, are usually just passing through the
subjects surroundings (Figure 3-89). This means that they can either be incorporated or kept out of
a shot at will (Figure 3-90, Figure 3-91).
The topic of whether or not people should be included in architectural photographs has long been a
point of contention. With their own dynamic properties, human figures may have a positive or
negative effect on a scene. Historically, humans have been kept out of architectural photographs so
as not to disturb the buildings role as the central point of attention. This is an interesting notion,
given the fact that no building has any practical value without human use. But it is also true that
human figures can distract from the depicted architecture.
Modern architectural photography is no longer radically sterilized of human presence. In many
cases, people are purposefully integrated into a composition in an effort to infuse a sense of
movement and dynamic tension (Figure 3-92). Also, human figures can be placed so as to
demonstrate spatial relations and dimensions, giving the viewer a more personal point of reference
(Figure 3-93). If people are visible in a shot, they should be in close proximity to the building to
show the scale and relationship. Human figures in close proximity to the camera will dominate the
composition and overpower the building.

Figure 3-90. Human figures deliberately included in the composition

Figure 3-91. Human figures deliberately kept out of the composition

Figure 3-92. Human figures enliven the image, but they also capture the viewers eyes

Figure 3-93. Deliberate inclusion of human figure to illustrate dimensions and spatial
proportions
 Figure 3-94. Parked vehicles obstructing the view of this building

Figure 3-95. A clear view of the same building at a different time

Figure 3-96. Inclusion of moving objects in an artistic architectural image; [2 sec., f/11, ISO
100, neutral density filter]
When moving objects such as vehicles or clouds are likely to impact a shot, it is best to wait for
the perfect moment. Parked cars represent a common problem because they block the view and
cannot be moved. In such cases, the photographer is forced to treat the cars as stationery objects
and integrate them into the shot. The only other options are changing camera positions or coming
back to the location at a different time (Figure 3-94, Figure 3-95).
Similar to the purposeful inclusion of stationery surrounding objects, the intense integration of
moving elements is often employed in artistic architectural photography (Figure 3-96).

Reduced Frame
By choosing a smaller frame and showing only a segment of a building, the photographer can target
a specific architectural trait. This can be used to tremendous advantage, since the viewers
attention is not led astray by information about the buildings overall shape and dimensions. For
example, this technique can illustrate the details of certain building elements (Figure 3-97), or the
structure of materials used in a faade (Figure 3-98). Tight framing can therefore direct the
viewers gaze to the intrinsic structure of a building. However, this deemphasizes the buildings
overall appearance and gives it a more abstract quality (Figure 3-99).
Figure 3-97. Reduced frame emphasizes shape and detail design of particular components
[Focal length: 105 mm]

Figure 3-98. A reduced image frame emphasizes the special qualities of this building

Figure 3-99. Internal building structures are being emphasized by the reduced image frame
[focal length: 150 mm]
Shooting Parameters
For each shot, shooting parameters include shutter speed, aperture, and sensor sensitivity setting
(ISO value) or film speed. All of these are important for a correct exposure. In architectural
photography, extreme experiments are not possible, and for subsequent processing, a precise
exposure setting adapted to the light situation is important.

Shutter Speed
Shutter speed is of secondary importance in architectural photography because buildings are
stationery objects. In contrast to other kinds of photography, the subject cannot be the cause of
motion blur. This makes shutter speed the most flexible parameter, especially if a tripod is used.

Figure 3-100. Long exposure time makes movement visible; moving and standing people
become distinct [2 sec., f/4, ISO 100]
At slow shutter speeds, moving elements such as people or vehicles become blurred, but this can
be an advantage because it makes the moving objects less dominant and distracting in the
composition. Also, the impression of movement in a shot can make it more dynamic. The
photographer can show the interaction between architecture and the human element. Streams of
people become visible, people standing still become distinct from people moving, and the shot
comes alive (Figure 3-100).
If the shutter speed is extremely slow, moving objects may be kept out of a shot altogether. The
blur induced by fast motion during the exposure may be so strong that the object is barely
perceived in the final image.

Aperture
In order to avoid poor pictures with inadequate depth of field, the aperture should generally be
stopped down to a certain extent. Wide lenses usually have their best focal performance over the
entire frame at aperture settings of f/8 to f/11. Fixed focal lenses with a high lens speed may
achieve their maximum performance at f/5.6. However, regardless of the focal length of a lens, the
maximum depth of field is obtained at the highest aperture value (i.e., the smallest opening).
Care is needed: If the aperture is closed too much, optical blurring may occur as a result of
diffraction. This is related to the real aperture diameter and gets stronger under a certain value. In
digital cameras, the density of pixels on the sensor is another deciding factor. On a sensor with
small pixels, the aperture diffraction occurs earlier, because the circles of confusion caused by
diffraction more easily hit surrounding pixels.
The smallest usable aperture without the side effect of diffraction is referred to as diffraction
limit. For digital cameras with a high pixel density, the diffraction limit would be from about f/8
to f/11. Cameras with larger pixels (usually full-frame SLRs) may allow the closing of the aperture
under f/11 and up to f/16 without a visible loss of focal clarity.

Figure 3-101. Large aperture opening results in narrow depth of field; here, the viewers eyes
are directed to gaps between the stones [focal length: 18 mm, 1/60 sec., f/2.8, ISO 100]
Every architectural photograph represents a compromise between the greatest possible depth of
field and minimal blur caused by diffraction. If all parameters are considered, the ideal aperture
for architectural photography is generally between f/8 and f/11. Of course, there are rare cases
when it is a good idea to leave this range and use selective focus as a stylistic element. A large
aperture can be used to hide specific parts of a building in a blur, while at the same time
emphasizing the rest of the building by showing it in clear focus (Figure 3-101). Of course, this
method usually results in an unfamiliar representation of the building.

Light Sensitivity
Architectural photography calls for the lowest possible ISO number, whether film or digital
technology is used. Film has the finest grain and greatest crispness at low sensitivity. This allows
for larger prints and for enlargements of cropped areas. Considering price, availability, and
performance, high-quality negative stock with an ISO rating of 100 to 200 is best suited for daily
use. More sensitive film should be used only if the grain is intended as a stylistic tool (Figure 3-
102). Slide films are less suitable because of their inherent weakness in rendering high contrasts
between light and shadow areas.
 Figure 3-102. By choosing a light sensitive film, grain is purposely used as a stylistic tool
With digital sensors, lower ISO settings have two advantages: aberrations such as image noise are
less of a nuisance, and the largest dynamic range possible can be utilized. This generates more
qualitative reserves in case corrections must be made during digital processing. For instance,
bright areas may need to be darkened, and vice versa. Some digital cameras have a special setting
that puts the ISO value lower than the lowest standard value. The lower light sensitivity is almost
always achieved by an electronic trick which leads to no qualitative gain. Rather, the camera
intentionally overexposes the image and then electronically reduces it by one step. This process
brings with it a reduction of dynamic range, which is why this setting should not be used with
contrast-rich subjects. A neutral density filter is a much better tool for making long shutter speeds
possible.
 Figure 3-103. The sun behind the photographers back produces rich contrasts on the faade,
whereas the sky area is dark [1/25 sec., f/11, ISO 100]

Exposure
The cameras exposure control system evaluates the ideal combination of shutter speed and
aperture, taking the ISO setting into account. Thus, an optimum exposure of the targeted subject is
virtually guaranteed. How the subject is evaluated in relation to its surroundings depends on the
metering system applied (matrix metering, center-weighted average metering, or spot metering). In
architectural photography, an even exposure without drastic peaks or lows is of primary
importance. This is usually best achieved with matrix metering or center-weighted average
metering settings. In contrast to spot metering, these methods include the entire frame area in the
metering process. However, it often becomes necessary to do manual corrections because the
cameras electronics can misinterpret light situations. A small, strongly reflecting detail on a
building can confuse the camera and lead to an underexposed overall image. With digital cameras,
the histogram (see The Histogram) is much better suited for exposure control than the visual
evaluation on the camera display; the small screen does not provide exact color representation,
and brightness depends on the viewing angle.

Figure 3-104. Shooting against the sun leads to faades poor in contrast in the final image;
the sky is overexposed [1/40 sec., f/11, ISO 100]
Weather and the cameras position in relation to the sun exert a major influence on the exposure.
Completely cloudy skies sharply reduce the contrast, and it is often desirable to enhance the
contrast afterwards by extending the histogram. Direct sunlight intensifies the contrast between the
brightest and the darkest parts of the picture. If the sun is behind the photographer, it remains
relatively simple to produce a correctly exposed image. On the one hand, direct light produces
drop shadows that lead to hard contrasts within a faade. On the other hand, it makes the sky
appear saturated and intense in color (Figure 3-103). This makes it easier to accomplish an even
exposure than shooting against the sun, where the faade is in shadow and therefore poor in
contrast (Shadows and Reflections). The sky, however, appears overexposed, it is washed out and
lacking structure as a result of the films or sensors limited dynamic range (Figure 3-104). The
cameras computer will try to compensate, but this leads to an underexposed faade. This calls for
manual correction, yet the contrast differential remains high. It is best to avoid shooting against the
sun, but if it cant be avoided, one can shoot an exposure bracketing sequence (Exposure
Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images). This allows the photographer to create an HDR or DRI
image that captures the extreme range of contrasts (Figure 3-105). In some cases, a graduated
neutral density filter (see 3.10) can also help (Figure 3-106).

Figure 3-105. DRI-Image from a bracket sequence mitigates the problematic light situation
when shooting against the sun [1/10 + 1/40 + 1/160 sec., f/11, ISO 100]

Figure 3-106. Using a graduated neutral density filter in a shot against the sun [1/40 sec.,
f/11, ISO 100]

Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images

HDR (High Dynamic Range) and DRI (Dynamic Range Increase) images make it possible to
capture subjects with an extremely high range of contrast by combining several shots with different
exposure settings (HDR and DRI Images). This method can be applied when light conditions
produce contrasts too great to be captured by a single shot. In professional architectural
photography, HDR or DRI images should not be readily recognizable as such. Their purpose is
best limited to producing even exposure in all image areas, without over- or underexposed areas
(Figure 3-107). When overused, this method produces images that look more like paintings,
causing the real message to fade (Figure 3-108).
 Figure 3-107. HDR-image allows an even exposure across the entire image area

Figure 3-108. Architectural image with overly applied tone mapping effect
For HDR and DRI shots, the camera should ideally be mounted on a tripod. This ensures that each
frame matches the others. In the next step, the exposure bracketing function is activated and the
bracket steps are set to 2/0/+2 or 3/0/+3 EV. These values represent the various exposure
compensation settings, i.e., underexposure, normal exposure, and overexposure. The bracket
sequence should only be taken in the aperture priority mode. This keeps the aperture at the same
set value but varies the shutter speed accordingly.
In order to avoid capturing changes in moving objects such as clouds or trees, it is best to shoot the
exposure bracketing sequence in continuous shooting mode. This will expose the shots in the
shortest time possible. For night shots, it is a good idea to activate the mirror lock-up to keep
mirror vibration from blurring the image.

The Histogram
Histograms are graphical representations of the brightness distribution within an image. The
higher the peak in one area of the histogram, the more often this brightness value occurs in
the image. A wide histogram indicates that the corresponding image is rich in contrasts; a
narrow histogram results from an image poor in contrasts. Primarily used as a gauge to
judge exposure, histograms can be found in image processing software such as Photoshop,
but can also be displayed on many digital cameras. This makes it possible to evaluate the
correctness of the exposure even on very small screens or under bright light conditions. For
example, an overexposed picture will be shown with a one-sided peak on the right side of the
histogram. Some digital cameras also allow the representation of each color channel, making
it possible to analyze each exposure in even more detail.
Using Lens Filters
Generally speaking, filters are used to create, enhance, or prevent special optical effects (Lens
Filters). Round, adjustable polarizing filters are used to avoid reflections off flat, non-metallic
surfaces or to enhance blue skies (Figure 3-109, Figure 3-110). Graduated neutral density filters
make it easier to shoot unevenly lit subjects by darkening specific image areas. By doing so, a
more even exposure can be achieved, and over- and underexposed areas can be avoided.
However, this is only possible when there are clearly defined, large dark or bright areas
(Figure 3-111). Neutral density filters have no influence on colors, but they reduce the amount of
light hitting the film or sensor. Depending on the filters intensity, it can dramatically lengthen the
exposure speed and show movement within a composition (Figure 3-112).

Figure 3-109. Using a circular polarizing filter, the sky appears naturally bright and the main
faade has no reflections

Figure 3-110. Circular polarizing filter turned by 45 darkened the sky and allowed visible
reflections to be seen on the main faade
Figure 3-111. Images taken without (left) and with (right) a graduated neutral density filter;
left: [1/160 sec., f/9, ISO 100]; right: [1/50 sec., f/9, ISO 100]

Figure 3-112. Using a neutral density filter in daylight to decrease the shutter speed [1/2 sec.,
f/11, ISO 50]

Figure 3-113. Interior shot showing body and volume of space, emphasizing the spatial
distribution
Figure 3-114. Interior shot showing the confluence of architecture and interior design
Photographing Interior Spaces
There are some fundamental differences between interior and exterior architectural photography.
In the former, the photographer is in a clearly confined space surrounded by architecture. No
information about the buildings form, dimensions, or the general appearance can be transmitted.
Exterior architectural photography shows an object in space, while interior architectural
photography tries to capture an enclosed space and its shape, or a sequence of spaces that are
connected through passages (Figure 3-113). In this context, it is interesting to note that some
external spaces feel more like internal ones. Consequently, they should be photographed as such.
For example, interior courtyards may be completely enclosed on all sides, and if it were not for
the missing ceiling, they would have all the characteristics of interior spaces.

Subject
Interior photography does not depict the building as a whole, but rather an isolated interior space.
Since the architecture forming the space is complimented by functional or aesthetic decoration, the
architecture itself is no longer the central subject. In addition to spatial divisions, decorative
elements have equal importance in the composition (Figure 3-114). Rarely does a photographer
have the opportunity to shoot interior spaces that are devoid of decorations. That kind of image
often seems abstract (Figure 3-115).

Figure 3-115. Interior shot showing unfurnished interior space

Perspective and Camera Position

Converging verticals present less of a problem with interior shots, because the discrepancy
between camera height and ceiling height is not as significant. Compared to exterior shots, interior
shots usually contain few relevant objects in the upper half of the image which is why it is easier
to work with a level camera position. Nevertheless, it is essential to be mindful of the cameras
level orientation or to perform a perspective correction later. Even very slight converging
verticals will suggest tilting walls. The procedure when shooting extremely high interior spaces,
for example in churches and cathedrals, is similar to shooting exteriors because the huge interior
dimensions produce similar problems as, for instance, perspective distortion. When shooting
interiors, a photographer is faced with the problem that he does not view his subject from the
outside, but instead is standing in the middle of it. This opens the door to new challenges, one
being that when shooting from the inside, the choice of viewpoints is much reduced compared to
shooting from the outside. In order to maintain a realistic sense of space, the photographer must
often stand with his back against a wall or use passageways that allow a greater distance from the
subject.

Focal Length
Because confined interior spaces have a small number of possible shooting positions, very wide-
angle lenses are particularly suitable for showing a room in its entirety. However, the wide
viewing angle resulting from the short focal length, in combination with the short distance between
camera and subject, creates the impression of extreme width (Figure 3-116). The architectural
space will appear unrealistically large, and the spatial proportions of the image will be less
realistic as well. This effect is usually tolerated in interior shots, since it actually enhances the
architectural impression instead of hurting it. This is in contrast to exterior photography, where the
realistic depiction of proportions is usually more important.

Figure 3-116. Extremely short focal length in combination with a short distance between
camera and subject leads to extraordinary spatial width [focal length: 14 mm]

Picture Format
For interior shots, the chosen picture format should match the orientation of the space to be
photographed. This will produce the most precise rendering of the space (Figure 3-117). In most
cases, the photographer does not have an opportunity to incorporate other elements, such as plants
or the sky, into the composition so that a different choice of format would make sense. Experiments
with formats that are opposed to the rooms orientation usually produce unattractive results. For
example, a vertical shot of a wide room will result in an unbalanced composition rather than a
more dramatic image, because the ceiling and floors (which are mostly irrelevant) will dominate.
 Figure 3-117. Orientation of image matches the dominant orientation of the subject and its
space

Image Frame and Composition

The same principles of harmony apply to both interior and exterior architectural photography.
However, the compositional choices are more limited indoors where it is not possible to
incorporate environmental objects or the sky. If the frame is narrowed to a small section of a room,
the reproduction scale is significantly bigger in comparison to the whole building, and other parts
remain invisible outside the frame. Instead, decorative items take on a more important role
(Figure 3-118). A careful analysis of the spatial relationships is necessary in order to produce
relatively dynamic images. The creative integration of passageways, vistas, and connected spaces
can yield extraordinary images (Figure 3-119). In addition, the transitional space between the
inside and the outside worlds offers a variety of compositional options (Figure 3-120).

Figure 3-118. Reduced frame of an interior shot emphasizing decorative objects

Figure 3-119. Creative integration of passageways, vistas, and connected spaces add suspense
to this interior shot

Figure 3-120. Interior shot showing both interior and exterior spaces

Shooting Parameters
Shooting parameters remain the same for indoor and outdoor architectural photography. But
because the interior of a building is usually much darker than the exterior (even with artificial
light), longer exposure times call for the use of a tripod. The drastic difference in brightness
between indoors and outdoors produces contrasts surpassing the range that can be imaged by
digital or analog cameras. Areas of a room may appear too dark while other areas that receive
exterior light appear too bright in the final photograph.
There are several options to deal with such situations. The most simple solution is to accept the
fact that bright surfaces will be overexposed while the interior space is exposed properly. Another
option is to use a flash system to approximate the brightness level of the outside light (Figure 3-
121). This demands very powerful flashes with lighting devices like reflectors or soft boxes,
which may be beyond the reach of an amateur photographer. In any case, a flash system will alter
the customized lighting mood that has been carefully planned by the architect and lighting designer
(Figure 3-122). Therefore, exposure bracketings are a good way to deal with contrast-rich
interiors. These images can be post-processed as HDR or DRI images and combined into one
image with a pleasing and even exposure. However, HDR and DRI effects should be used
conservatively in order to produce a realistic representation (Figure 3-123).

Figure 3-121. A flash was used to balance interior and exterior lighting

Figure 3-122. To preserve the mood of the available light, no flash was used
Unfortunately, tripods or flash units are not allowed in some buildings. In those cases, the
photographer has no other choice but to shoot by hand.
 Figure 3-123. Interior shot with subtle use of the DRI technique

Shadows

In architectural photography, one often deals with various manifestations of shadows. They
are usually caused by nearly parallel rays of light coming from the main light source present
in almost all architectural photographs: the sun. A cast shadow is the shadow of an object (A)
projected onto a surface or other objects. An object will also create its own shadow, which
covers the surface facing away from the light source (B). This area is only lit indirectly by
reflections coming from the surrounding area. It is interesting to note that the edge of the
cast shadow is originated by the edge of the objects own shadow (striped red line).
Exterior Conditions and Influences
Exterior conditions include all the factors that influence a shot but which cant be altered: shadows
and reflections, the weather, the time of day, and the seasons. The quality of architectural
photographs is determined by the skill with which the photographer adapts to these conditions.

Shadows and Reflections

Shadows or reflections caused by the sun can enhance the dynamics and aesthetics of a buildings
representation, but they can also do the opposite. A cast shadow paints silhouettes of buildings and
objects on faades, walls, floors, and ceilings, depending on the suns position. A shadow
projection with sharp contours across a faade can distract from the architectural impression, and
it makes the correct exposure much more difficult to achieve (Figure 3-124). In some cases, this
problem can be solved by using a graduated neutral density filter or by making an HDR or DRI
image.
Sometimes the additional structure produced by the cast shadow can enhance a flat or boring
surface (Figure 3-125). The shadow thus becomes a compositional element that heightens the
dynamic effect of the image (Figure 3-126).

Figure 3-124. Harsh, cast shadow of an adjacent building makes the correct exposure of this
faade very difficult

Figure 3-125. A cast shadow enhances the image composition

Most problems arise when the sun is low behind the photographer. This can cause shadows cast by
the camera, the tripod, or the photographer to show up in the imageusually with a detrimental
effect. In such lighting conditions, it is best to position oneself within the shadow cast by a
building segment or another object in the vicinity, or to choose a different camera angle altogether
(Figure 3-127). Faades that are not flat can also produce short and powerful shadows. Such
shadows can become important for the depiction of spaces because they emphasize the
architectures plasticity.

Figure 3-126. Dynamically cast shadows enliven the architectural depiction

Faades in the buildings own shadow have a much smaller range of contrasts. In a comparison,
they seem flatter, less dynamic, and more two-dimensional; on the other hand, they bring out
structures better. On a directly lit faade, the shadowed areas will often seem completely black,
while the lit areas come out unnaturally bright (Figure 3-128).
Reflections can produce effects similar to shadows (Figure 3-129), and they can be a positive or
negative factor in an architectural image. The effect will vary depending on the materials used in a
faade. For example, the image of another building or surrounding objects can appear in a modern
glass faade (Figure 3-130). Such reflections can either emphasize the material or become so
dominant that they distract from the buildings appearance.

Figure 3-127. A cleverly chosen camera position neutralizes the shadow cast by the
photographer
 Figure 3-128. Comparison: faade in its own shadow (left) and directly lit (right)

Figure 3-129. Beams of light as a result of the specific materials used in a faade

Figure 3-130. The structure and texture of faade materials in the foreground is creating
another (reflected) image
Weather
Weather is a factor that cannot be influenced, but it has a great impact on the way a building is
perceived. Direct sunlight from a clear sky produces tremendous contrasts with harsh shadows,
intense colors, and three-dimensionality. On sunlit surfaces, the buildings materials are
represented very clearly, and the various faade elements stand out by color and contrast. Such
conditions can produce very aesthetic images and show the building in its best light, so to speak
(Figure 3-131).

Figure 3-131. Direct sunlight creates a three-dimensional, colorful look with clearly visible
cast shadows

Figure 3-132. Cloud cover creates a flatter, less contrasted look with soft shadows
An overcast or cloudy sky yields much less contrast. There are no harsh shadows, and the light is
dimmed and diffused. Like giant lampshades, the clouds soften and spread light over a wide area,
and the transition from dark to light becomes less intense (Figure 3-132).
The same goes for reflections. Overcast weather renders architecture less punctuated and less
three-dimensional. However, depending on the type of building, this may not be a disadvantage.
Faades facing north are easier to photograph when the sky is cloudy because shooting into the sun
can be avoided or at least reduced (Figure 3-135).
If the intent is documentation, the photographer should wait for weather that is as generic as
possible. In other words, the weather should be typical for the location. An image of a building
amid unusual weather does not lend itself to an authentic image. An extreme example would be the
depiction of a beach house covered in snow. Then again, this contradiction may enhance the
images artistic qualities. Thus, unusual weather produces unusual moods, attracts the viewers
attention, and makes a picture appear more abstract. During and after a rain shower, water puddles
and drops create interesting reflections (Figure 3-133). Snow and fog are other factors that lead to
a surreal, but oftentimes suspenseful, presentation of architecture (Figure 3-134).

Figure 3-133. The weather situation allows a depiction of reflections in a rain puddle

Figure 3-134. Snow leads to a surreal, suspenseful presentation of architecture

 Figure 3-135. Clouds reduce harsh light and make it easier to photograph a buildings north
faade

Time of Day
The time of day can influence an image more than any other exterior condition. If the sky is cloudy,
the light differs little between morning and afternoon. But if there is sunshine, dramatically
different lighting situations occur throughout the day (Figure 3-136). In the morning, a faade may
be in shadow, but in the afternoon it may be in direct sunlight. In addition, the time of day also
determines the way environmental objects cast their shadows. Some buildings are wedged among
others to the degree that the sun only lights up certain sides at a precise moment. If the
photographer is not familiar with the location, it is advisable to research the building and its
surroundings on maps and satellite pictures before the shoot takes place.

Figure 3-136. Effects of light and shadows depend on time of day

An extremely potent moment for an architectural image is the blue hour (lheure bleue). This
refers to the time between sunset and darkness. Just after the sun has set and the sky is still
indirectly lit, artificial light makes an increasing appearance. This special mood shows the sky in
intense colors combined with indirect and diffuse light. It is not yet a night shot, and unlit areas are
still visible. The effect is caused by the diffusion of light coming from the sun below the horizon.
This same effect can also be observed in the early morning (Figure 3-137).
Figure 3-137. The light during blue hour can greatly enhance a pictures mood [2 sec., f/11,
ISO 100]
With the onset of night, a reversal of light conditions takes place in and around the building
(Figure 3-138). Due to reflections and dark interiors, it is often impossible to see into a building
during the day. But at night, the building radiates from the inside-out. With adequate lighting, it is
possible to see parts of the interior. During the day, windows are often the darkest part of the
faade, but at night they turn into shining, transparent surfaces. In contrast, unlit areas of the faade
now seem dark and devoid of color. Because of the strong differences between light and dark
areas, HDR or DRI images may be a good way to precisely document the buildings true
appearance (Figure 3-139).
Figure 3-138. Classic night shot, architecture glowing from the inside [10 sec., f/6.7, ISO 100]
 Figure 3-139. Night shot with slightly used HDR effect [1.5 sec. + 5 sec., f/9, ISO 100]

Seasons
There is little one can do about the season. The vegetation around a building may undergo
significant changes throughout the year. A building may be obscured by foliage in summer, but may
present an entirely different, clear view through naked tree branches in winter. Colorful fall
foliage creates a completely different atmosphere compared to the fresh green of spring (Figure 3-
140). Of course, this impression is also attached to the architecture. The color ambience of a
building and its environment has a direct influence on the way an image is perceived. Cool, blue
tones generate a different impression than warm, red tones.

Figure 3-140. Architectural image showing colorful autumn foliage

Throughout the year, the suns path across the sky varies strongly. In winter, the sun remains lower
above the horizon, so sunlight tends to come from a lower angle and cast longer shadows. The
suns light travels a greater distance in winter than in summer, therefore diffusion due to
atmospheric dust and moisture is increased. Lower winter sun also increases the likelihood of
situations where it is necessary to shoot against the sun, which makes exact metering difficult. In
summer, the sun climbs much higher in the sky, causing shadows to become shorter. For these
reasons, architecture shown in the summer looks less distant and more accentuated than in the
winter months (Figure 3-141, Figure 3-142).

Figure 3-141. Architectural image in late summer at noon: powerful contrasts and colors,
high sun angle

Figure 3-142. Architectural image in the winter at noon: overall cooler look, diffuse light, low
sun angle
Creativity Tips
The following sections offer some ideas for photographing architecture more creatively.

Radical Frames
A skillful composition with radical framing can dramatically alter the buildings true appearance.
A creative photographer can focus on precisely targeted areas and reduce a building to a very
stylized representation (Figure 3-143). In a similar fashion, the photographer can purposefully
create images that combine several levels in a single composition, producing an immensely
complex impression. In such artful pictures, the various levels merge into an intricate construction
of shapes and surfaces where spatial relationships are no longer recognizable (Figure 3-144). An
omission of reference points can, in some compositions, cause the viewer to be at a loss when it
comes to proportions. Therefore, the image will appear very abstract (Figure 3-145).
These techniques may be used to such a degree that the architecture becomes completely devoid of
realism. The building becomes nothing more than an element in a composition of surfaces, and
graphic structures or abstract patterns take precedence (Figure 3-146).

Figure 3-143. Unusual frame selection emphasizes geometric structures [focal length: 200
mm]

Figure 3-144. A layered structure of several planes creates an abstract look [focal length: 88
mm]
Figure 3-145. An image devoid of reference points leads to unclear proportions [focal length:
32 mm]

Figure 3-146. Extremely cropped frame detaches the visual impact from the architecture;
patterns and structures become the focal point [focal length: 40 mm]

Figure 3-147. The unusual vertical view upwards creates a dynamic, yet strange depiction of
the architecture [focal length: 17 mm]
Figure 3-148. A large sky becomes the canvas for these strongly converging highrise buildings
in this upward shot [focal length: 14 mm]

Looking Up
Typically, human beings perceive the world horizontally and straight ahead. We rarely lose view
of the horizon. Therefore, unusual visual directions, such as straight up, also produce unusual
views of architecture. The buildings context can no longer be clearly established, and the viewer
becomes lost in space (Figure 3-147). Without reference points, the viewer may mistake a ceiling
for a wall, and walls for ceilings or floors. The unusual perspective leads to abstraction. Whereas
ordinarily the image might feature landscapes, other buildings, or plants, this view may use the sky
as a canvas. Because of its even and large surface structure, the sky forms an ideal background for
staging the subject. The vertical angle also makes it possible to turn the image in every direction
without optically violating the laws of nature (Figure 3-148).

Serial Images
Another possibility for creative architectural photography is to create a series of images. Some
images only achieve their maximum effect in combination with others. Such pictures usually show
a selected subject as part of a universal theme. Each image in the series may strongly vary in
colorization, viewing angle, or material properties, as long as all of them are grounded and tied to
the theme (Figure 3-149). The effect of this form of presentation comes from the combination and
juxtaposition of the images, which is an indication of artful architectural photography.
 Figure 3-149. A series of images works through the combination of different shots with a
common theme

Extreme Reflections
Reflections can have a strong effect, especially on faades where they create a second-level image
with independent content. Skillful composition can make use of this effect to infuse symbolism or
special meanings. Examples are the depiction of contradictions such as old and new, glass and
masonry, and light and heavy (Figure 3-150).
In addition, reflections can be used in such an abstract manner that the depicted spaces can no
longer be logically comprehended by the viewer. Through compositional extremism reflections
can intermingle sequences, layers, and masses into an entangled web of shapes, colors, and details.
In this case, the architecture is reduced to a canvas for a detached visual expression (Figure 3-
151).

Figure 3-150. Reflections can have special symbolic qualities: here, wood forms part of the
faade, in its original form (tree) but also in applied form (building material)
 Figure 3-151. Unclear spatial relationships caused by mirror effects

Intentional Under- or Overexposure

Another method to show architecture more creatively is the deliberate use of under- or
overexposure, which can drastically alter a buildings appearance. Underexposure emphasizes the
bright parts of a subject by representing its highlights as midtones and its lower tonal values as
shadows. This effect radically alters the material appearance of the architecture and makes for a
surreal presentation (Figure 3-152). Deliberate overexposure creates the opposite effect. Because
all surfaces above a certain level of brightness show up completely white, large, overly lit
sections yield an image that appears devoid of frames and limitations (Figure 3-153). Shapes and
surfaces become the images main focus. Such a presentation of architecture is not authentic
because shapes and planes dominate the images message. Deliberately under- or overexposed
images often remind the viewer of graphics or computer-generated images.

Figure 3-152. Special look produced by intentional underexposure

Before-and-After Images
Images of a building at various stages of construction are an impressive means to show changes
that take place over time. For example, a building can be photographed in different seasons but
from the same perspective. This method can also be used to document a building from construction
to completion (Figure 3-154), before and after renovation, or before and after a change of use.

Figure 3-153. Special look produced by intentional overexposure

Figure 3-154. Before-and-after depiction catches the viewers interest

Solving Problems
HDR images without tripod: Light conditions with immense contrasts may make it necessary to
shoot exposure brackets and combine them later into an HRI or DRI image. But what if no tripod is
available?
For every HDR or DRI image, multiple, precisely matching frames must be shot with different
exposure settings. The slightest difference in framing the base images will lead to problems when
the images are combined. So, when shooting HDR or DRI images without a tripod, it is important
to keep the framing differences between shots to an absolute minimum. The shorter the distance
from the subject, the more problems will result from slightly changed perspectives.
If a tripod is not available, the cameras continuous shooting mode is convenient. In combination
with the exposure bracketing function, it allows rapid shooting of several images with different
exposure settings, allowing for minimal framing differences even when the camera is hand held.
However, it is important to keep the shutter speed for the brightest image as short as possible to
avoid camera shake. This technique works only in good light and should be viewed as a
provisional solution.
Steady shots without remote control: Ideally, a remote control should be used when making
shots from a tripod in poor lighting conditions. This prevents camera shake while activating the
shutter release button. However, there are other methods for achieving vibration-free shutter
release. The cameras self-timer is one solution. After the appropriate setting is made and the
shutter release button is pressed, the photographers hands can be removed from the camera. After
a few seconds, the shutter releases. The obvious advantage is that the camera is not manually
disturbed at the time of exposure. In addition, an engaged mirror lockup separates the mirror
movement from the opening of the shutter, which prevents vibration caused by the mirror popping
up.
Unfortunately, this method makes it impossible to select the perfect moment. Instead, there is a time
delay between engaging the release mechanism and the actual exposure. If this will not work in a
given situation, there is no alternative but to release by hand. This rarely presents a problem during
the day, but may at night or twilight. Camera shake can be somewhat reduced by using the other
hand to support the wrist of the release hand.
Avoiding blurred images: In poor weather, shutter speeds may become so long that stable, sharp
shots cannot be accomplished by hand. The longest exposure time that can safely be done by hand
can be calculated with the following formula:

1. 1 : (focal length crop factor) = longest exposure time in seconds

For example: To achieve a sharp handheld shot with a Four-Thirds camera (crop factor 2) and a
focal length of 200 mm, the longest exposure time would be 1 : 200 2 = 1/400 second. It should
be noted that this rule of thumb was devised when all cameras were analog, and with small prints
in mind. For larger prints or digital cameras with very small pixels, blurring can become a
problem much sooner. To be on the safe side, a faster shutter speed should be set. Many modern
SLR cameras and lenses incorporate image stabilizers that further reduce blurring, but even these
technical gadgets have limitations.
With modern digital cameras, it is a good idea to select a higher light sensitivity setting. Setting a
higher ISO value should be the first countermeasure against possible blurring through camera
shake. Even so, the highest ISO values should only be set in emergencies, because these settings
increase image noise drastically while decreasing the possible dynamic range. Also, accidental
underexposure is to be avoided.
Although opening the aperture can reduce blurring, opening the lens all the way is rarely
recommended in architectural photographyespecially with lenses of less than stellar optical
quality. The maximum aperture brings out optical aberrations to a higher degree. Therefore,
opening the lens all the way only makes sense in case of an emergency and when the ISO setting is
already maximized. A correctly exposed image (and this is important!) taken with a high ISO value
usually looks much better than an image with blurring around the edges, chromatic aberrations,
vignetting, or poor depth of field.
In addition, there are several other ways to avoid blurring. One of the most effective ways is to use
a provisional tripod or mount on locationwalls, railings, or protruding edges, even tables,
chairs, or vehicles. To avoid scratching the camera or the surfaces, a piece of cloth or similar
insulation can be used. Another useful item is a so called bean pod. This is a bag with a leather or
cloth cover half filled with dried beans. This not only makes a relatively soft work platform, but
also allows slight camera alignments while insulating the camera from vibrations. If no flat surface
can be found, a wall can be utilized. This works best when the camera is used in portrait
orientation and pressed against the wall while a finger or small object is held between the front of
the lens and the wall for keeping distance.
An old method of avoiding camera shake uses a simple cord with no elasticity. One end of the cord
is tied to the camera housing, and the other into a loop through which the photographers places his
foot. The cord should be just long enough so that when it is kept under tension, the camera ends up
in the usual shooting position at eye level. This simple but effective method stabilizes the camera
and cuts down on noticeable camera shake.
If none of the options mentioned above are available, there is nothing to rely on but a steady hand.
It is always a good idea to lean against a wall or any stable object, because this at least stabilizes
the torso. With breath control, the shutter should be released at the low exhalation point after
breathing out slowly. If lighting conditions are poor, it is always best to shoot several exposures
so that the image with the least amount of blurring can be chosen later.
Commentary by Marcus Bredt
Architectural Photographer

About architectural photography

First of all, architecture is a rewarding subject for photography. Buildings stand still, they do not
need to be directed, and they are available both day and night. Upon first glance, it might seem that
selecting how to depict a building is a simple choice. But an architectural photographer is
challenged with showing an ordinary, everyday building in such a way that its shapes and
structures appear fresh and interesting.
We may pass an office building daily without noticing anything special about it. We may use a
railroad station for the usual reasons. Manufacturing facilities and warehouses do not raise
expectations of artistic value. In all of these cases, the architectural photographers objective is to
show those things that would ordinarily go unnoticed. This may happen by emphasizing a
geometric shape so that the reduction to the essential brings out its own aesthetic beauty
something that may have been hidden before. It is possible to incorporate simple details into an
image so that a seemingly barren subject takes on a new quality. Yet in the quest to make an image
more interesting, it becomes important to avoid too many effects or to distract from the actual
subject (Figure 3-155).

About the first steps as an architectural photographer

Of course, it is fun to try out and practice new effects. This is a normal process when trying to find
ones own style. Early on, technical expertise and finesse may take the front seat. But then again,
the subject is even more importanta great building usually also leads to a great picture. For this
reason, my first assignments for the architect Libeskind were lucky breaks. The spectacular
architecture was perfectly suited for me to seek technical perfection, explore lighting, change the
viewing position, and try out frontal views against diagonal shots. Still, there is a difference
between my pictures from back then and my pictures today. Becoming an architectural
photographer is a slow process; one that eventually leads to a personal signature. Technique is
important, but it certainly is not everything. There is a great deal of instinct and intuition involved
as well.
 Figure 3-155. Denver Art Museum; Photograph: Marcus Bredt

About the profession of architectural photography

These days, it often happens that the subject comes to me, and not the other way around. Of course,
much of my work is assigned. But even with contract work, there are a great variety of
possibilities such as perspectives, light conditions, postprocessing, and coincidences.
Architectural photography is more than the mere depiction of a building, and a building is more
than an assemblage of materials. One learns to perceive a building in a holistic, all-inclusive way
when technical questions are no longer the main concern and one concentrates on the diverse
aspects of the building. This does not only involve seeing, but also hearing, tasting, and smelling.
When I look at a building, is it less important that I capture the building with my eyes. Rather, the
building grips me and draws me into a dialog with it. The building is not just an object in front of
me. Not until I work with a building, I can turn it into the image I have in mind. This also involves
the weather, the surroundings, the functionalityin short, life itself becomes part of the image.
For me it is especially important to point out that we do not just live in our environment, but with
it. Just as we have an influence on natural processes, urban development, and people with whom
we interact, these influence us in return so that there is a steady field of mutually applied tension
(Figure 3-156). Architecture is not only a static edifice. Ideally, it can join art and functionality,
natural and constructed environments. It manifests the ongoing communication between man and
material, between technology and nature. Capturing this dialogue momentarily, and making its
liveliness visible, is always a novel experience for me. Even the most subtle force from inside or
outside can change the entire ensemble. The fleetingness of a moment consisting of past and
present, stasis and dynamism, observation and experience, is collected at once by pushing the
shutter release button (Figure 3-157). Capturing this moment, while becoming one with the
environment and the image, is the real payback in searching for the perfect effect.
The most important partners of the photographer are light and weather. A building in front of a
gleaming blue sky is nice, but usually rather boring and too rich in contrast. Clouds, precipitation,
and fog have more to offer and create a suspenseful mood (Figure 3-158).
Architecture can be documented, but it can also tell stories. I love to tell little tales with my work.
Again, it is important that the narrative does not supersede the subject, but rather enhance it. These
images speak in a variety of ways. There are fast sequences of action, slow observations of
details, romantic moments, and even fleeting humor. Sometimes there are contradictory scenes in
which place and story do not match, color contrasts blur things out, or nature appears in bizarre
juxtaposition to technology. Such shots invoke a special effect and fascination in the viewer
(Figure 3-159, Figure 3-160).

Figure 3-156. Denver Art Museum; Photograph: Marcus Bredt

Figure 3-157. Berlin Main Railway Station, Germany; Photograph: Marcus Bredt
 Figure 3-158. Olympic Stadium, Berlin, Germany; Photograph: Marcus Bredt

Vita
Marcus Bredt was born in 1968 in Gttingen, Germany. He has worked as a photographer in
Berlin, Germany, since 1992. After training at the Lette-Verein Berlin, he and a colleague founded
the firm BitterBredt-Fotografie. Since 2001, he has worked worldwide by himself under the name
Bredt-Fotografie. His clients include architects such as Studio Libeskind, gmp Architekten, and
Sauerbruch Hutton Architekten, as well as magazines and various institutes such as the
Museumsverbund Gerhart Hauptmann.
Figure 3-159. Contemporary Jewish Museum of San Francisco; Photograph: Marcus Bredt
Figure 3-160. Detail; Photograph: Marcus Bredt
Chapter 4. Post-Processing Techniques
This chapter illustrates post-processing techniques for use after the shoot has taken place. For
analog cameras, the film must first be chemically developed and then scanned to produce
digital images. Professional scanners achieve significantly better results than more affordable
film and flatbed scanners with backlit modules hooked up to a computer. After digitizing, the
images can then be manipulated on the computer without further restrictions.
For digital cameras, the extra steps of developing and digitizing can be omitted. The image
data can simply be transferred to a computer via a connection cable or a memory card reader.
The advantage is that not only the JPEG or TIFF images can be transferred to the computer,
but also the digital negatives or RAW files, which give many more options for post-
processing.

Digital Image Formats

What is RAW Format?
RAW format is a data format specific to each camera manufacturer as well as to camera models.
RAW files are written on a memory card with barely any processing through the cameras
software. To process the image on the computer, a RAW converter is necessary. This software
offers fundamental processing options and also transforms the files into cross-platform formats,
such as TIFF or JPEG, that can be opened by all image processing software.

Difference Between RAW and JPEG Formats

Unlike JPEG format, RAW format allows degradation-free storage of data coming from the image
sensor. Parameters such as white balance, noise reduction, color saturation, contrast, and
sharpness do not alter this data set, which is why these parameters can be applied later without
compromising image quality. Only exposure settings such as shutter speed, aperture, and ISO are
not variable.
When JPEG format is used, the data file is processed immediately after the shot and before
storage. While Bayer interpolation replaces missing color values with information from
neighboring pixels (see Bayer Sensor, Bayer Interpolation), the subsequent in-camera workflow
includes image optimization steps like adjustment of internal sharpness and contrast, color depth
reduction, and data compression (Figure 4-1). Changing these parameters later is possible with
additional steps in an image-processing program, but keep in mind that since the data is no longer
original, there will be some loss of quality.

Advantages of RAW Format

RAW formats advantages begin at the time of shooting because the photographer has fewer
parameters to consider. For example, it is no longer necessary to choose the correct white balance
setting on location, because this can be done later and more precisely during the RAW conversion
process. As a result, the photographer has more time to concentrate on composition and exposure.
One of the biggest advantages of RAW format is the possibility of lossless processing. All settings
on the RAW converter can be undone without hassle or loss of quality. This is because all user-
specific data are stored in a small changes file while the original RAW data are not altered.
Theoretically, one could access the RAW data after many years and still make adjustments and
changes without data loss.

Figure 4-1. Processing: from exposure to data file

Another point is that RAW format offers the highest image quality in combination with the most
flexibility for processing. RAW converters on the computer are far superior to the algorithms
integrated into the cameras software. Hence, the processing power of modern computers can
perform more elaborate interpolations, achieve better color values, and deliver more performance
and quality reserves than the cameras own electronics. Therefore, it is not surprising that RAW
data conversion on the computer results in better images (Figure 4-2).
Compared to JPEG files, RAW files incorporate the maximum range of image information. This is
the best foundation for correcting mistakes that happen on a shoot. JPEG format has a color depth
of 8 bits per color channel, which means that only 256 levels can be shown. By comparison, RAW
format allows 12 or even 14 bits per color channel, which translates into 4,096 shades or 16,384
shades! When intensive post-processing takes place, the inferior color depth of a JPEG image is
immediately apparent; areas with smooth transitions of color and brightness (for example, a clear
sky) produce visibly harsh gaps and levels.
 Figure 4-2. Image quality of RAW and JPEG formats (strongly enlarged detail)
The much finer gradation of a RAW image allows plenty of room for post-shoot exposure
correction. Brightness information is retained to a much higher degree in RAW files as compared
to JPEGs. It is not surprising that while working on under- or overexposed images, more image
information can be retrieved from a RAW data set than from an already lossy JPEG.
Another positive aspect of RAW format becomes apparent when image errors caused by the lens
must be corrected. Many RAW converters allow for a nearly perfect correction of vignetting and
chromatic aberrations. The results are often much better than with other software solutions applied
after the conversion to JPEG or TIFF has already taken place.
White balance is used to match the camera with the color temperature of the predominant light. To
achieve perfect white balance on location, a white (or gray) scale card is necessary. Furthermore,
the cameras LCD display is not an accurate gauge to begin with. Therefore, the manual white
balance tool in the RAW conversion software is an enormous help. As long as RAW files are
processed, white balance is lossless and can be undone without problems.
Many cameras utilize internal noise suppression technology for converting and optimizing images,
especially with high ISO settings. This process usually comes at the expense of small image
details; JPEG files may look as though they had been ironed flat. Here lies another advantage of
RAW data. The noise will seem stronger if the image is displayed in the RAW converter software
because it has not yet been suppressed. However, suppression by the RAW converter or by other
noise reduction utilities usually yields superior results, because it has more options to address the
noise type of each individual image.
When using RAW format, the photographer does not have to define a specific format or color
space right from the start. RAW format allows a delay of this decision up to the point when all
settings are made in the RAW converter.

Disadvantages of RAW Format

In spite of all its advantages, RAW format also has a few negative sides. RAW data files are much
larger than JPEG equivalents of the same resolution, so writing RAW files onto a memory card
takes longer and uses more space. Moreover, RAW format is more demanding on computer
hardware because functions like conversion and preview take a lot of processing power. This
drags down the work tempo because every step takes longer. Without appropriate conversion,
RAW files are not suitable for a quick look or processing of images. Another hassle is that the
various RAW converters must be customized for each camera model. Software updates often
become necessary to make the converter compatible with a new camera.

Conclusion
When the advantages and disadvantages of RAW files are compared, it becomes clear that the use
of RAW format represents an enormous advantage for architectural photography. The advantages
associated with image quality, flexibility, and post-processing alone are enough to recommend the
use of RAW format without restrictions.

Ideal Computer Hardware

In particular, two computer components will affect the speed of image processing: the
processor (CPU) and Random Access Memory (RAM). By comparison, the requirements
placed on the other computer components are less important. A fast processor, ideally with
two or more cores, will ensure speedy processing of files when applying tools such as filters
and so on. The larger the data files, the more important RAM capacity becomes. If the RAM
space is filled up during processing, programs such as Photoshop will move data to the much
slower hard disk. This can cause serious delays in the workflow. A RAM size of 4 GB and
more seems like a good investment for serious photographers. However, with RAM of this
size you should take care not to use 32-bit operating systems, because these usually max out
at 4 GB of RAM. It is better to upgrade to a 64-bit system.
A good monitor is essential for digital image processing. Today, flat LCD screens have
almost completely replaced cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors. When it comes to contrasts,
color rendering, and display quality when viewed at an angle, the quality of the integrated
LCD panel is the deciding factor. As is often the case, you usually get what you pay for.
Screen calibration devices are highly recommended, as they guarantee a good rendering of
colors when using software that supports active color management.
RAW Conversion
The following section explains the steps needed for a typical RAW conversion of an architectural
photo. The software used in this example is Adobe Camera Raw (ACR Converter). It forms an
important part of Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Photoshop Elements, and it shares many
similarities and settings with Adobe Photoshop Lightroom.

Workflow
1. Image analysis: This image shows the Reichstag Building and a small part of the Paul-Lbe-
House (on the right) in Berlin, Germany. The picture was taken from the opposite riverbank
under slightly diffused light conditions. A wide-angle shift lens was used, which shows the
building for the most part without converging verticals. The lighting is even, and there are no
extremely overexposed or underexposed surfaces. The adjustment sliders of the RAW
converter are at their standard settings. Only the white balance was automatically imported
from the cameras settings (Figure 4-3).

Figure 4-3.
2. The first step adjusts the white balance. The relevant settings can be chosen from the palette
Basic in the ACR converter. There are three different methods for adjusting white balance:
The sliders for Temperature and Tint can be moved until the image is properly adjusted.
There is also the White Balance tool (Figure 4-4). Finally, there are standard settings
corresponding to Daylight, Cloudy, and Shade. In practice, however, these settings are only
rough values which rarely deliver perfect results. The setting Auto may be activated, but
automated processing often leads to less than ideal results. For manual white balance, you
would first use the Temperature slider until the color temperature in the image is properly
adjusted. If necessary, small adjustments can be made with the Tint slider underneath. The
half-automated method with the White Balance tool is in theory more precise, but
realistically it cannot be used with all subjects. For this method, you first identify an area of
the image that is not too dark and corresponds to neutral gray in the real world. Then select it
 with the eyedropper tool. The RAW converter now calculates the white balance based on this
area. In our example, the side of the Paul-Lbe-Haus facing toward the right edge of the
image is ideally suited for this (Figure 4-5). However, not every image has a gray patch that
is well suited for correcting white balance. In such cases, it becomes necessary to slowly
approach the best settings by experimenting with the Temperature slider. Luckily,
architectural photography differs from fashion or product photography in that it does not
demand perfect white balance. It is often more important to match the white balance with the
general mood of the image.

Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-5.
3. The next step is a close inspection of the Histogram in the upper control surface. This is a
graphic representation of the distribution of brightness values within the image (see The
Histogram). Our example shows a wide range of brightness levels. The bright, large sky
shows up as major spikes on the histograms right side. To control clippings of highlights and
shadows, activate the triangular icons Shadow clipping warning and Highlight clipping
warning at the top of the histogram. In the preview, they will show highlight and shadow
areas that are rendered without any detail due to over-or underexposure (Figure 4-6). The
visual aid marks these areas in two different colors. Clipped highlights are marked in red,
clipped shadows in blue. In our example, the areas are relatively small because the image
exposure was very precise and even. For every picture, the histogram is an excellent
reference tool; it always shows the values objectively, whereas the representation of light and
dark areas varies from monitor to monitor.
 Figure 4-6.
4. In the following step, we can make further corrections in the Basic panel. In order to use the
source materials entire dynamic range, it is a good idea to slide the Contrast slider
somewhat to the left, and to adjust shadows and highlights individually by using the Recovery
and Fill Light sliders (Figure 4-7). As a consequence, the overall contrast is reduced, and the
histogram contracts. The image will appear less three-dimensional and less brilliant, but the
risk of cutting off shadows and highlights in subsequent processing steps is also reduced. The
contrasts can be individually enhanced again later. The Clarity setting increases the local
contrast within the image, but it can also lead to unwanted halos on contrast-rich edgesso
this setting must be used with great care. The sliders for Vibrance and Saturation can be left
in the neutral position because they can be adjusted with more precision in later parts of the
workflow.
 Figure 4-7.
5. The Tone Curve panel can be used for precise corrections. Adjusting the tone curve
determines the brightness within the image. The ACR converter offers two methods: Point,
which allows for manipulating the curve directly, or Parametric for choosing the desired
parameters. The latter is done via four sliders: Highlights, Lights, Darks, and Shadows. With
these, the corresponding tonal ranges can be raised or lowered. Both methods are adequate,
so the one chosen depends on personal preference. In our example, only small corrections are
necessary. The middle range was enhanced a little, and the highlights were reduced
(Figure 4-8). In some cases, it might be necessary to darken bright sections by adjusting the
curve, or to enhance the contrast by making a slight S-curve.
 Figure 4-8.
6. In the Details panel, it is advisable to perform only minor Sharpening because this should be
one of the final steps in the digital workflow. If high values are set at this point, unsightly
sharpening artifacts may appear in later steps. It is best to set the Amount value between 10
and 20, the Radius not higher than 1, and Detail between 5 and 15. The slider for Masking
can be left at a low setting. To assess the sharpening setting, select a detail-rich section and
zoom in to the 100% view (Figure 4-9). The ACR converter keeps the Noise Reduction
relatively simple. Effective noise reduction works much better with Photoshop plug-ins
because they identify the exact type of noise. However, a slight reduction of color noise via
the Color slider can and should be done as part of the color corrections.
 Figure 4-9.
7. In addition to the Basic, the Tone Curve, and the Details panels, individual color correction
tools can be found in the HSL / Grayscale panel. HSL stands for Hue, Saturation, and
Luminance. Hue is used to execute small corrections within selected colors. In our example,
the skys blue is corrected for the redness typical of digital images (Figure 4-10). Color
intensity can be corrected with the Saturation adjustment. It is possible to completely
eliminate certain colors and enhance others. This type of correction creates abstract images
that range from unreal to suspenseful. But in most practical applications, the Saturation
adjustment is usually employed for small intensity corrections that become necessary as a
result of earlier manipulations. While bright areas that were manually darkened or dark areas
that were manually brightened automatically seem to have more intense colors, the darkening
of already dark areas and the brightening of already bright areas results in some loss of color
intensity (Figure 4-11). Luminance defines the brightness values of respective colors. In our
example, blue tones are darkened to give the sky more definition. A slight increase of yellow
and red tones leads to a softening of the buildings shadow on the north faade (Figure 4-12).
For a conversion to black and white, activate the check box under Convert to Grayscale.
This combines all three HSL settings into one called Grayscale Mix. By moving the
respective sliders, gray values can be set for each color individually. With a little
experimentation, one can produce black and white images with a unique look.
Figure 4-10.

Figure 4-11.
 Figure 4-12.
8. The Split Toning panel allows the individual adjustment of colors for bright and dark areas.
This may be helpful when areas in the shadows show up tinted while other areas show in the
correct colors. The tool is also useful for tinting images that have been converted to gray
scale in the preceding step. These settings are seldom used in daily practice. In our example,
no adjustments are made here.
9. The next panel, Lens Corrections, is almost always used by architectural photographers
doing RAW conversions. Optical phenomena caused by the lens, such as color fringes, so-
called chromatic aberrations, and Lens Vignetting (i.e., a fall-off of light toward the corners
of an image) can all be corrected. Our example used a shift lens with a moderate shift
position, a larger image circle, and a stopped down aperture, so vignetting associated with
the lens was only a minor consideration. Other lenses may cause much stronger vignetting and
dark corners may also be much stronger depending on the situation and chosen aperture.
Therefore, the Amount and Midpoint values must be adjusted each time. Chromatic
aberrations usually show up as red or cyan tinted areas, but some lenses produce the same
phenomena in yellow or blue. In most cases, they cannot be completely removed. There is no
solid rule for the process. In general, one should use the 100% or 200% view and choose a
contrast-rich section at the edge of the image with strong chromatic aberrations (Figure 4-13).
In the Chromatic Aberration environment, we can first adjust the Fix Blue/Yellow Fringe
slider until all edges have typical red/cyan colors. These can then be eliminated with the Fix
Red/Cyan Fringe slider. In the Defringe input area, there is an option for All Edges. This is
perfectly suited for removing aberrations completely (Figure 4-14). If specific lens values are
entered in Presets, they can be recalled for fixed lenses and similar aperture settings
(Figure 4-15). Zoom lenses are a different matter. Their aberrations depend on the focal
length, so the ideal correction settings can vary a great deal.

Figure 4-13.
 Figure 4-14.

Figure 4-15.
10. The ACR converter offers yet more options. (We will not use them in our sample picture.)
One example is the Spot Removal tool (Figure 4-16). This is a great way to remove specks
caused by dust on the sensor. This tool is very intuitive in its application and effectively
removes spots in big surfaces, such as the sky. Other useful functions are the classic Crop and
Straighten tools (Figure 4-17). The latter allows you to draw a virtual line through the
picture, which the software then uses to straighten out the image. This works well with
horizontal as well as vertical edges. However, when doing RAW conversions, you should
refrain from using the Crop and the Straighten tools if you plan to correct distortions later on
in the work flow. The correction parameters used by software such as PTLens or LensFix are
applied to the entire image surface, and the results will not be entirely accurate if the image
has already been altered. A comparatively new tool is the Graduated Filter that can be useful
for particular applications (Figure 4-18).

Figure 4-16.

Figure 4-17.
 Figure 4-18.
11. Before initiating a conversion with the Open Image button, take one final look under the
output settings, at the Workflow Options. This dialog box can be opened by clicking on the
blue, underlined image descriptions at the lower edge of the ACR converter. Here you have
the option of choosing the Color Space (Space) for the image. In general, the sRGB color
space (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) is best suited for images intended for the Internet or for
processing at a photo lab. The larger Adobe RGB color space is better for prepress or for
any instance when you use an output device capable of showing this enlarged color range.
(This includes special monitors and some high-end ink jet printers.) In every case, 16
Bits/Channel should be selected for Depth in order to prevent the color range from being
confined. The downside is that this setting generates a need for greater computer processing
power. If the machine is low on power, one might consider reducing the color depth setting to
8 Bits/Channel. The Size setting should usually be left alone. In some special cases (for
example, creating an extremely large print), it is a good idea to interpolate the image to a
larger format at this step, when the software is still working with the unadulterated raw data.
This will ensure the highest possible quality. The value for Resolution can be set to anything.
It has no bearing on the actual resolution, but it reflects the size of a displayed image at a
given pixel density. Finally the Sharpen For setting should usually be set to None and the
checkbox Open in Photoshop as Smart Objects unchecked. (Figure 4-19).
 Figure 4-19.

Summary: RAW Workflow Using the ACR Converter

Setting the white balance (adjusting colors according to subject)

Optimizing the histogram (exposure, contrast, shadows/highlights)
Fine-tuning the curves
Slight basic sharpening
Choosing HSL/Grayscale settings according to the desired effect
Correcting vignetting and chromatic aberrations
Removing spots and cropping or aligning frame if necessary
Checking workflow options
Converting the image
Post-Processing

Image Corrections
Processing does not end with RAW conversion. The conversion simply produces the best source
material for further corrections and manipulations. The following sequences form an example of a
possible workflow. It is not necessary to follow it to the letter. Over time, every user of image
processing software develops individual ways of doing things. However, it should be noted that
changing the order of some steps could have a negative effect on the result. For the beginner, it is
best to use the following workflow as a guide.

Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop

1. Using the RAW converter options, we performed adjustments of white balance, exposure and
colors, reduced chromatic aberrations, and removed slight vignetting. After conversion, our
sample picture ended up as a 16-bit file (Figure 4-20).

Figure 4-20.
2. Changes to framing or a correction of converging verticals should be done simultaneously or
after the correction of lens-induced distortionsnever before, since distortion correction is
only precise if the entire image is processed.
Distortion and Perspective Corrections in Photoshop: Photoshop contains a useful tool
which enables the image editor to remove image distortions from the picture by using visual
criteria. This tool can also be used for perspective corrections. Beginning with Photoshop
CS2 and above, the relevant window can be found under Filter > Distort > Lens Correction.
In our example, moving the Remove Distortion slider slightly to the right corrects the barrel
distortion typical for wide-angle lenses (Figure 4-21). The ideal setting depends on the lens
and focal length. To facilitate the visual control, it is best to perform perspective control in
this step as well. The optimal values are found by combining the two correctional measures.
Crooked lines stand out more once perspective is corrected, and without crooked corners, the
building can be more easily aligned with the grid. To remove converging verticals, we use
the sliders in the Transform area. In our example, we need only one correction using the
Vertical Perspective sliders. For images in which the film or sensor orientation does not
exactly line up with the building, the Horizontal Perspective slider may be used. The
Straighten tool compensates for the slight twist of the image already seen in the RAW
converter. The principle is the same: A virtual line is drawn through the image, and the
software reorients the image parallel to the line. After clicking OK, the software reverts to the
original workspace.

Figure 4-21.

Figure 4-22.
 Figure 4-23.

Figure 4-24.
Distortion and Perspective Corrections with Plug-ins: More exact solutions are available
with tools such as PTLens or LensFix (for Mac). Both employ the same database of camera-
lens combinations and make it possible to perform automatic corrections. Unlike Photoshop,
these programs also automatically correct wavy distortions. To take advantage of these
software tools, modern lenses must be used in combination with digital SLR cameras capable
of filing camera, lens, and focal length data along with the pictures Exif information (see
Exif Information). In our example, we process the sample image with the plug-in version of
PTLens. First, we open PTLens through the menu choices Filter > ePaperPress > PTLens
and locate the Barrel-Pincushion area (Figure 4-22). In most cases, the software will detect
the camera model, lens, and focal length from the Exif data. Sometimes, these choices must be
made by hand (but usually only once). If the Correct > Preview box is checked and Barrel-
Pincushion is active, distortion data are retrieved from the database and applied to the
image. The results can be seen right away. Labor-intensive manual adjustments are redundant,
and the result is very precise. The sub-window Perspective now allows the perspective
correction as explained above. The grid should be turned on. PTLens also offers the option of
moving the picture via a four-way lever. Ideally, vignetting and chromatic aberrations should
be corrected during the RAW conversion, but that can also be done here. We click OK to
apply the changes, and the software takes us back the previous workspace.
 Figure 4-25.
Perspective Correction Using the Transform Command: Distortion-free images (or
images after distortion correction) can also undergo perspective correction with the
Photoshop command Transform. First, guide rulers are drawn or the grid is turned on. (The
necessary commands can be found in the View menu.) Next, the background layer is made
editable by double-clicking on the layers thumbnail (Figure 4-23) and then clicking OK in
the resulting dialog box (Figure 4-24). In our example, the layer is now called Layer 0. Via
the Edit > Transform > Perspective or Distort command, respectively, the image
perspective can now be distorted at will (Figure 4-25). It is important not only to move the
upper corners outward, but also to move the lower corners inward. Otherwise, the image will
look vertically compressed and the strong interpolation will lead to visible jaggedness in the
upper image area. After the correction, Layer o can again be sent to the background (Layer >
Flatten Image).

Figure 4-26.
Adjusting the Image Frame: Cropping the image is best done after performing the steps
 above. First, we use the Crop tool to draw a frame around the selected areas of the image and
confirm the choice by double-clicking (Figure 4-26). In our example, we are interested in the
largest possible image area showing the subject, but this also alters the aspect ratio. To
counteract this change, we crop to a specific aspect ratio. To do this, we activate the
Rectangular Marquee tool and then select Style > Fixed Ratio from the tool options bar
entering the aspect ratio (Width and Height) before drawing our rectangle above the selected
section. Then we select the Image > Crop command.

Figure 4-27.
3. The following steps demonstrate various methods for selective brightness adjustments.
Selective Darkening: In our example, we want to begin by darkening the sky. First, we
duplicate the background layer (Layer > Duplicate Layer) before making adjustments in the
newly created layer (Figure 4-27). If there is a clearly defined transition edge between the
sky and the building, we can select the sky by applying the Magic Wand tool. Holding the
Shift key enables you to expand the selection. When complex structures such as trees reach
into the transition area, another method works better. From the Select > Color Range menu
selection, we access a window where specific brightness and colors can be selected. Under
Select, we select Sampled Colors and then click on an area of the sky in the preview box.
White areas mark the selected surfaces, and the deselected surfaces show up in black
(Figure 4-28). With the Add to Sample eyedropper, all other areas of the sky can be selected.
The Fuzziness slider should remain at the lower setting. The ideal value depends on the
subject, and must be customized individually. This method always adds areas outside of the
desired sky which can be corrected in a subsequent step. What is important is that the
transition from the sky to the building and to its surroundings is clearly defined (Figure 4-29).
After clicking the OK button, the selected areas show up in the main window. Since
Photoshop CS3, the Refine Edge command can be used for fine tuning the edges. This
window can be opened from the tool options bar or the Select menu. The ideal values for
Radius and Contrast must be determined with experiments, and the Smooth and Feather
sliders should be set to 0. To avoid halos around the selected edges, it is advisable to set the
Contract/Expand slider between +5 % and +10 %, which slightly expands the selection
(Figure 4-30). In Photoshop versions prior to CS3, the Select > Feather command does a
similar job. The radius value has to be set between 0.5 and 1.5 pixels. After clicking the OK
button, we check to make sure that the duplicated layer is active before choosing the Add
Layer Mask command (Figure 4-31). This layer mask results in a different opacity of the top
layer. In this manner, entire areas of a layer can be faded out without deleting any pixels. The
faded out areas can be reconstructed with ease, for instance by painting with a white brush
within the layer mask. In the next step, we make the black and white layer mask visible by
clicking on it while holding the Alt key (Figure 4-32). Afterwards, we use a black brush to
paint over all white areas outside of the sky. As an alternative, we could select all areas not
belonging to the sky with the Polygonal Lasso tool, for example (Figure 4-33). After
selecting the relevant area, we open the Fill option from the Edit menu, then select Use >
Black in the dialog box that pops up (Figure 4-34). This technique can be repeated in other
image areas. Detailed corrections can now be done with the Brush tool. After selecting the
layer thumbnail again, we darken the selected part of the sky in the upper corner by selecting
Levels from the Image > Adjustments menu and sliding the gray triangle in the middle slightly
toward the right side (Figure 4-35). This preserves shadows and highlights while darkening
only the midtones. As an alternative, Curves can be used. Because we are working with a
layer mask, all changes only apply to the selected areas. Another elegant option is to use an
adjustment layer instead of duplicating the background layer in the first step. (Layer > New
Adjustment Layer > Levels or Curves, respectively.) Selective Brightening: In the next step,
we create another layer. (As soon as we work with at least two layers, they should be given
individual names to avoid confusion.) With the new layer, lighten (Figure 4-37), we will
now make dark areas of the image brighter. We might use the color range selection again
(Select > Color Range), select Shadows instead of the blue sky areas, and apply strong
softening to the layer mask. Another method is demonstrated on our sample image. First, we
activate the lighten layer by clicking on the layers thumbnail, after which the entire image
is brightened slightly by applying Levels (Figure 4-38). As before, Curves can be used as
well. Next, we create a new layer mask. It is white at first, but we fill it with black (Figure 4-
39) by selecting Fill in the Edit menu or the command Image > Adjustments > Invert. At
first, the brightness changes we just completed disappear again. We select a large, soft brush
from the Brush tool, set the foreground color to white, and reduce the opacity of the brush to a
small value (in our example, 30 %). Now we can use the brush to paint over the selected,
dark parts of the layer mask that are too dark (Figure 4-40). Doing so makes the previously
brightened image areas visible again. After the brightness changes are executed, all of the
layers can be combined again into a single background layer (Layer > Flatten Image). A
couple of other ways to brighten dark image areas or vice versa are explained in Selective
Contrast And Brightness Adjustments (In-Depth: Selective Contrast and Brightness
Corrections).
Figure 4-28.

Figure 4-29.
Figure 4-30.

Figure 4-31.
Figure 4-32.

Figure 4-33.

Figure 4-34.
Figure 4-35.

Figure 4-36.
Figure 4-37.

Figure 4-38.

Figure 4-39.
 Figure 4-40.
4. The next step would be to eliminate background noise from strongly brightened images or
images produced with high ISO settings. Photoshop offers the command Filter > Noise >
Reduce Noise. However, our example does not require any noise reduction. In general, noise
reduction should be approached with caution, since it is always associated with some loss of
detail. In most cases, an image with a small amount of noise looks superior to an image in
which fine details have become the victim of aggressive noise reduction. In addition to
Photoshops tools, there are many effective noise reduction plug-ins, for example Noiseware
Professional, Neat Image, and Noise Ninja. Their acquisition can be worth it.
5. Next, color corrections can be done in addition to what has already been accomplished
during the RAW conversion. In the Selective Color dialog box, under Image > Adjustments,
we can make color corrections with great precision (Figure 4-41). Depending on the subject
and type of image, the settings will vary a great deal. Only experimentation will lead us to the
desired result. To give our sample image a somewhat cooler look, we will first create a new
layer by choosing New > Layer from the Layer menu and selecting Color as the blending
mode (Figure 4-42). Afterwards, we will color the new layer blue by choosing Fill in the
Edit menu and sharply reduce the opacity of the new layer (Figure 4-43). The result is a slight
tint toward blue. By applying a layer mask, the effect can be limited to defined image areas.
Another option is the Photo Filter (Layer > New Adjustment Layer), which can also be
customized (and retracted at any time) in form of an additional layer (Figure 4-44).
 Figure 4-41.
6. If necessary, the saturation can be enhanced or reduced in the same way by choosing Layer
> New Adjustment Layer > Hue/Saturation (Figure 4-45).
7. If, after these corrections, an image still lacks contrast, the histogram can be individually
optimized by using the manual Levels function or the Auto Contrast function which stretches
the histogram until the darkest parts of the image are rendered black and the brightest areas
become pure white. (Both functions can be found in Image or Image > Adjustments,
respectively.) Our sample picture already uses the entire range of the histogram, which is why
only local contrast is enhanced. For this purpose, we again duplicate the background layer
and adapt the Unsharp Mask function in the Filter > Sharpen menu. (Actually, this command
is intended for sharpening the image.) Choosing a large Radius not only enhances the contrast
along detailed edges, but also renders large image areas richer in contrast as a whole. The
value can be adjusted based on the image and individual preference by moving the Amount
slider (Figure 4-46). The disadvantage of this method is the light overflows (halos or
blooming effects) formed at the transitions from the contrast-rich edges to the larger image
surfaces (Figure 4-47). These areas can be retouched by applying a layer mask and using a
black paintbrush. As this effect should be used in moderation, the opacity of the layer must be
somewhat reduced (Figure 4-48). An exaggerated application does more harm to the picture
than one that is too discreet. After completing the procedure, all the layers can be combined
into a single background layer.
Figure 4-42.

Figure 4-43.
Figure 4-44.
Figure 4-45.
Figure 4-46.

Figure 4-47.
 Figure 4-48.
8. One of the last steps in the workflow should be sharpening the image. Using the Unsharp
Mask command yields excellent results if a moderate Amount is selected, the Radius remains
between 0.3 and 1.0 (depending on the original sharpness of the image), and the Threshold is
set between 0 und 3 (Figure 4-49). If Amount and Radius are exaggerated, ugly sharpening
artifacts will pop up (Figure 4-50). Setting the Threshold too high will reduce the noise
caused by the sharpening effect within flat image areas, but the actual sharpening effect is lost
more and more. An alternative method to the Unsharp Mask command contained in later
Photoshop versions is Smart Sharpen. In addition, complex sharpening tools like Nik
Sharpener Pro or FocalBlade (Figure 4-51) may offer even better results.

Figure 4-49.
 Figure 4-50.

Figure 4-51.
9. Before we close Photoshop, the image we worked on must be saved. The universal TIFF
format or Photoshops proprietary PSD file format are well suited for a lossless saving with
high color depth. The downside of these formats is that they take a large amount of storage
space. If the image will never be processed further, but needs to be archived without quality-
robbing compression, the data set can be reduced to 8 bits before saving. This function is
found under Image > Mode > 8 Bits/Channel (Figure 4-52). To save the image in a more
compact form, JPEG format with a low compression setting is ideal. From the export dialog
box, select a JPEG Quality of 10 or 11. For presentation on the Internet, the image should be
reduced to a web-compatible size, for example 800 600 pixel by choosing the Image >
Image Size command. Then select Save for Web & Devices from the File menu. It is
important to define JPEG as the export file format and to set the Compression quality to High
or Very High. Saving a file this way also removes Exif data (see Exif Information).
Removing the checkmark in Embed Color Profile has a similar result as it deletes the color
profile from the image data.

Figure 4-52.
 Figure 4-53. In comparison to the unedited image stored in the camera as JPEG file, the
image version adjusted in Photoshop conveys an enhanced expression.

Summary: Image Corrections in Photoshop

Correcting pincushion and barrel distortion

Correcting perspective projection distortion
Adjusting brightness and contrast
Reducing noise
Balancing colors
Optimizing contrast
Sharpening
Saving image file

Exif Information
The Exif (Exchangeable Image File Format) is based on a standard adopted in 1998. It is
used in practically all modern digital cameras and defines how the various supplementary
data sets relevant for the rendering of an image are integrated into the image data. Exif
information is written into the so-called header of an image file. Therefore, they are
embedded into data formats such as JPEG or TIFF. Exif data may include data such as
shutter speed, aperture, time and date of the exposure, focal length, ISO setting, flash, white
balance, and more. By reading the Exif information, a photographer may study the settings
used for a particular shot, thereby gaining insights as to why the shot may have been
unsuccessful. Many image management programs can directly access Exif data, and employ
them to sort images and process them individually.

A part of the Exif information associated with a RAW file

In-Depth: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections
When processing architectural photographs, contrast and brightness corrections must often be done
selectively. In other words, targeted darkening or brightening may be done in defined under- or
overdeveloped areas of the image, or to balance out large contrast differences. We have already
seen selective brightness correction via the color range selection (Select > Color range) as well
as by painting on the layer mask of a brightened layer (Image Corrections). There are other, highly
effective methods for selectively brightening or darkening image areas. Among them are the
Shadows/Highlights function (part of Photoshop CS1 and above), the application of a contrast
mask, and special plug-ins such as LightMachine.

Workflow: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections

1. In our example, the large faade areas are too dark (Figure 4-54). To correct this, we can use
Shadows/Highlights in the Image> Adjustments menu. This function is well organized. The
first stage shows only two sliders for shadows and highlights. Clicking on Show More
Options opens more expanded selections (Figure 4-55). To brighten dark image areas, use the
sliders for Amount, Tonal Width, and Radius in the Shadows area of the dialog box. Amount
controls the intensity of the effect. The optimal value varies from image to image, but it
should not be set too high. Tonal Width determines which hue of shadow is affected by the
process. Small values only have an effect on extremely dark areas; larger values also change
brighter areas. A medium value is usually the best choice. Radius determines the size of the
processed area surrounding the shadows. If the value is too small, there might be bright bands
or halos; but if the value is too large, the effect only works on large surface areas. In addition,
the slider for Midtone Contrast in the Adjustments area of the dialog box can restore the
overall contrast if it has become diminished.

Figure 4-54.
 Figure 4-55.

Figure 4-56.
2. The application of a contrast mask is another useful procedure for brightening dark image
 areas. First, we duplicate the background layer (Layer > Duplicate Layer). Then we remove
the saturation from the new layer by applying Image > Adjustments > Desaturate and
changing the layer to a negative image using Image > Adjustments > Invert (Figure 4-56).
Afterwards, we apply Gaussian Blur from the Filter > Blur menu at a Radius of 5 to 15
pixels, depending on the size of the image (Figure 4-57). In the final step, we set the layer
under blending mode to Overlay while reducing the Opacity to a value from 30 to 50 %
(Figure 4-58).

Figure 4-57.
3. Add-on plug-ins generally work in similar ways, but they can be adjusted more exactly and
therefore offer more options for making changes. One example is LightMachine (Figure 4-59).
It allows the selective brightening or darkening of highlights and shadows in
Shadows/Highlights mode. In the Auto Mask window, minute adjustments to the respective
image areas can be made so that no halos are produced and the image still maintains good
contrast.

Figure 4-58.
 Figure 4-59.

Figure 4-60. From top left, clockwise: unprocessed image; after application of depths-
lights tool; after application of contrast mask; after processing with LightMachine
Panoramas
Combining several partial images into one single image is not done on a daily basis in
architectural photography, but it is often useful in special situations. Panoramas can be assembled
in different ways depending on the source material and the image concept. Spherical panoramas
can be used for interactive presentations on a computer screen. Cylindrical panoramas can give a
very wide overview of a buildings surroundings and context; however, in architectural
photography, the creation of rectilinear panoramas and panoramas with shift lenses and adapters is
of greater importance, because they still follow the laws of central perspective and approximate
the way a building is perceived by the human eye. For this reason, we deal with the practical
workflow for these two types of panoramas. For those who want to immerse themselves more
deeply in panorama photography, the book Mastering Digital Panoramic Photography by Harald
Woeste, published by Rocky Nook, is highly recommended.

Rectilinear Panorama
Our first example consists of three images of the German History Museum in Berlin, which we
will combine into a rectilinear panorama (Figure 4-61). The images were shot with a handheld
camera, without any additional technical aids, and with portrait orientation. Many software
solutions are available to assemble the images in a process called stitching. In this case, two
different work-flows for stitching the shots are described as we use the cross-platform free-ware
Hugin in combination with Autopano, as well as Photoshops internal functions.

Figure 4-61.

Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Hugin

1. Before we can work on images in Hugin, they must first undergo the usual RAW conversion.
It is important to correct chromatic aberrations right away as it is virtually impossible to
correct them later in the process. An exact distortion correction with tools such as PTLens or
LensFix might also make sense, so that this does not have to be done in Hugin later. After
these corrections are completed, the image should be saved in the lossless TIFF format or as
a JPEG.
 Figure 4-62.
2. When we open Hugin for the first time, we go to the Preferences dialog box in the File menu
and make a couple of changes: In the Control Points Editor palette, the checkmark should be
set on Enable rotation search (Figure 4-62); in Autopano, the option Use alternative
Autopano-SIFT program should be activated (Figure 4-63); and the program path should be
selected. To achieve a flowing transition without brightness spikes, the Enblend tool which is
already part of the Mac OS and Windows versions should be activated in the palette with the
same name (Figure 4-64).
 Figure 4-63.
3. Back in the main window, we avoid the automatic assistants and click on the Images palette
(Figure 4-65). Then we add our three images by clicking the Add individual images button
(1). In the next step, we activate the middle image (2) and select Anchor this image for
position and Anchor this image for exposure in the Reference Image area (3). Afterwards,
we click on Create control points to automatically identify matching points in each separate
image (4). We can also enter a value much higher than 10 under Points per Overlap.
 Figure 4-64.

Figure 4-65.
4. By bringing up the Camera and Lens palette, focal length and cropping information can
automatically be calculated from the Exif data of the image (see Exif Information). If these
values are not defined automatically, they can be added manually (Figure 4-66). Because the
images have already been corrected for vignetting and distortions, the more complex settings
on the palette can be ignored.
5. In the Crop palette, our example does not require any changes.
6. The Control Points palette is of great importance for an exact stitching result. It defines
specific identical points within all partial images. In our example, the software has found
several such points, but they are all located in the central area (Figure 4-67). This means that
especially in the upper area, some points must be set manually. To accomplish this, we first
enlarge a section of the image by clicking on the image at the right side of the wndow. Then
we select a definitive point (in our case, the upper edge of the building) with great precision
(Figure 4-68). The software automatically finds the corresponding point in the other images,
though in some cases, a manual correction becomes necessary. Clicking Add confirms the
point and puts it into the lower box section (Figure 4-69). We repeat these steps several times
until the control points are selected in all the important sections. In our example, the lower
image area does not warrant much consideration, because it will be cropped later (Figure 4-
70).

Figure 4-66.

Figure 4-67.
Figure 4-68.

Figure 4-69.
 Figure 4-70.
7. In the next menu, the software optimizes the image, taking all the control points into account.
There are several ways of doing this; the best method can be found by trial and error. In our
case, we select Optimise > Positions (incremental, starting from anchor) and press
Optimise now!. The Optimisation result is quite good, considering that the shots were
panned and taken handheld and the maximum control point distance was 3.828 pixels
(Figure 4-71).

Figure 4-71.
8. It is good practice to open the panorama preview with the View > Preview window command
(Figure 4-72). Here, the image can be adjusted and aligned, and the panorama type can be
selected. For a rectilinear panorama, we select projection (f) on Rectilinear (1). In some
cases, the preview will be very small, which can be circumvented by choosing Fit (2). The
sliders on the side and bottom also allow image magnification to be adjusted individually (3).
The Straighten command button (4) performs its function automatically, but doing it manually
is usually more exact. To do this, we just click on a point in the preview, ideally one in the
middle of the compiled image and at the shooting height of the camera (here, at eye level) (5).
 This will almost entirely do away with converging verticals.

Figure 4-72.

Figure 4-73.
9. By selecting Optimise preset > Low dynamic range and Optimise now! in the Exposure
palette, the software optimizes vignetting, the camera response curve, and exposure for all the
photos (Figure 4-73).
10. The final menu is called Stitcher (Figure 4-74). We click the buttons in sequence: Calculate
Field of View (1), Calculate Optimal Size (2), and activate Blended panorama in the Output
area (3). Finally, we choose File formats > TIFF (4), select the Stitch now! command (5),
and choose the appropriate file folder and file name. The panorama will now be compiled in
full resolution.
11. After saving, we can open the image in an image-processing program such as Photoshop, crop
it to the desired size, and make further adjustments.
 Figure 4-74.

Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Photoshop

1. The workflow in Photoshops panorama function is much less complex than the procedure in
Hugin. The downside is that it offers fewer options. The panorama function can be found
under File > Automate > Photomerge. The initial screen prompts the user to select the
respective partial images. Unlike other panorama programs, Photoshop allows the direct use
of RAW images. Before going this route, all adjustments should be made in the RAW
converter, especially corrections for chromatic aberrations and vignetting. A conversion,
however, is not necessary. Clicking the Done button in the RAW converter ensures that the
changes are taken into account as part of the subsequent panorama workflow. After the files
(in our case JPEGs) have been selected and the Perspective checkbox is activated in Layout,
we initiate the assembly of the pictures by clicking OK (Figure 4-75). This launches the
automatic stitching process.
 Figure 4-75.
2. While Photoshop renders the assembled panorama in its entirety, the individual images are
split into different layers. The advantage of this is that transitions can be corrected manually
(Figure 4-76). If the result of three or more partial images is uneven (for example, if one side
is considerably more distorted than the other), it is important to do the initial image selection
so that the middle image is on the bottom of the image selection (Figure 4-77).

Figure 4-76.
 Figure 4-77.
3. To remove converging verticals, we use the Distort and Perspective functions in the Edit >
Transform menu. Turning on the grid or rulers from the View menu assists with maintaining
the proper orientation (Figure 4-78).
4. As a final step, we can choose the ideal image frame with the Crop tool (Figure 4-79) and
make individual brightness, color, and sharpness corrections (see Figure 3-68).
 Figure 4-78.

Figure 4-79.

Shift Panorama
Panoramas done with a shift lens consist of partial images taken from an identical viewing
direction. With regular shift lenses, the slightly shifted light path produces a very slight difference
in perspective. Above a certain distance to the subject, this is of little significance. Some shift
adapters can even produce perfectly matching transitions because the adapter and lens, rather than
the camera, are connected to the tripod (see Figure 3-70).

Workflow: Shift Panorama with Photoshop

1. We took these two sample images with a shift lens and differing vertical shift. Because we
pointed the lens precisely at the horizon, there are no converging verticals. After the RAW
conversion process with identical settings, we open the partial images in Photoshops main
window (Figure 4-80).
2. To expand the upper image downward, we select the Layer > New > Background From
Layer command and open the Canvas Size dialog from the Image menu. Then we select the
unit percent, and define Height with a value of 200. In the Anchor area we activate the upper
middle square; this expands the workspace downward (Figure 4-81). Clicking OK sends us
back to the main window.

Figure 4-80.
3. In the next step, we activate the Move tool and switch to the lower partial image. Then we
drag it into the upper image while holding down the left mouse button (Figure 4-82). Now that
 both images are combined into one file, we continue to work with the image containing the
layer composition and close the remaining source file.
4. In Photoshop CS3 and above, images can be automatically positioned against each other. To
do this, we select both layers while holding down the shift key, then choose Auto-Align
Layers from the Edit menu (Figure 4-83). We keep the Auto setting and click OK. This
sequence causes Photoshop to position each layer side by side, just like in a rectilinear
panorama. Then we can use the Auto-Blend Layers command to adjust slight brightness
differences between the two partial images automatically. After selecting the command, a
dialog box is displayed. Activate the option Panorama and confirm with OK. Of course, all
this can be done manually instead, with somewhat more work. To do this, we would first
select the 100% view, change the upper layer to 50% opacity, and stack the images using the
Move tool. The transparency makes it possible to match identical structures precisely, and the
keyboards arrow keys can be used for minute adjustments (Figure 4-84).

Figure 4-81.
Figure 4-82.

Figure 4-83.
 Figure 4-84.
5. In the next step, we manually create the transition borders between the two partial images.
This method generally makes sense because differences in brightness and even the slightest
misalignments show up best when the images transition straight into each other. Even with
shift lenses and identical exposure parameters, partial images with slight differences of
brightness cannot be completely avoided because of small lighting changes on the subject
caused by clouds, light scattering, or reflections. Slight misalignments can also arise from a
slightly altered optical axis during the shifting process, or from small vibrations during the
movement of the shift slide. The transition border is created with a layer mask and therefore
can be changed at any time. On images with lots of details (like our sample) the Polygonal
Lasso tool works best. The Magnetic Lasso tool is even simpler to use; it creates a selection
based on the contrast-rich image structures (Figure 4-85). Afterwards, we can perfect the
selection by using the Rectangular Marquee tool while holding down the shift key (Add to
selection mode), until the selection area (which should be taken from the upper layer) is
completely captured (Figure 4-86). By clicking Add layer mask (see Figure 4-31), we
produce a borderline matching the internal structures of the image. It should run through the
image unobtrusively. After activating the respective layer thumbnail image, the brightness can
be synchronized with Levels or Curves in Image > Adjustments (Figure 4-87). To further
perfect the image, we can apply the Burn tool or the Dodge tool with a large Master
Diameter. This allows the precise darkening or brightening of selected sections with a low
value under Exposure (Figure 4-88). In large, even sections (such as the sky), the layer mask
should also be softened with a broad brush and minimal Hardness, as our example
demonstrates (Figure 4-89). This makes the image transition practically invisible.
Figure 4-85.

Figure 4-86.
 Figure 4-87.
6. After choosing the ideal image frame with the Crop tool (Figure 4-90) and flattening the
image to one background layer (Layer > Flatten Image), we can proceed with the usual
processing workflow (see Figure 3-69).

Figure 4-88.
Figure 4-89.

Figure 4-90.
HDR and DRI Images
The raw material for HDR and DRI images consists of several images with the same frame but
different exposure settings. There are several procedures that can be used to combine these
exposure brackets into a single image with an expanded contrast range.
The HDR technique combines several shots into one 32-bit HDR image with an extremely high
contrast range. Tone mapping then transforms the image into a format used for printing and
presentation on a computer monitor. The simpler DRI method combines the exposure bracketing
sequence by dissolving them into each other without the conversion of color depth.
Many autonomous software solutions are available to combine the exposure brackets. We will
demonstrate a procedure on the Photomatix Pro application from HDRsoft. This program can
process both HDR and DRI images. We will also show a procedure for using Photoshop to apply a
manual DRI workflow. Since the CS2 version, Photoshop is also capable of HDR processing in
32-bit mode.

HDR with Photomatix Pro

Photomatix Pro can open some RAW formats directly, but it is better to convert exposure brackets
from RAW format into 8-bit or (better) 16-bit TIFF files (Figure 4-91). This is because
corrections such as the reduction of aberrations can no longer be done as precisely after the HDR
conversion.
 Figure 4-91.

1. We begin the workflow by clicking Generate HDR image. In the newly opened dialog box,
we select the images and click OK (Figure 4-92).
2. Even if the images were not handheld shots, but rather made from a tripod, it makes sense to
check the options Align source images > By matching features and Ghosting reduction
settings > Background movements in the next window. If objects such as tree branches have
moved slightly, the option Ghosting reduction settings > Moving objects/people can be
highly effective. Larger movements by people or vehicles between exposures cannot be
corrected entirely. Next, we close the dialog box by clicking OK (Figure 4-93).
3. After the conversion, the HDR image opens in a new window. It will appear quite strange
because the complete tonal values of an HDR image cannot be rendered due to the computer
screens limited dynamic range. The HDR viewer can be used for spot-checking the
alignment of the merged images and give a preview of the potential end result (Figure 4-94).

Figure 4-92.
Figure 4-93.

Figure 4-94.
 Figure 4-95.
4. From the Tone Mapping tab we arrive at the tone mapping dialog box. Here, Photomatix Pro
offers two options: the slightly more complex Details Enhancer, which often yields the best
results, and the simpler but quicker Tone Compressor. On the left side of the dialog we find
the relevant sliders that control the dynamic compression result. After we choose Details
Enhancer, the standard settings lead to a somewhat dark presentation in our example
(Figure 4-95). We compensate for this with the Luminosity, White Point, and Gamma sliders.
To achieve a realistic looking image, the value for Strength should not be made too high.
Although we do not change them in our example, other important sliders include Black Point,
Light Smoothing, and the slider in the Smoothing Settings submenu (Figure 4-96). The
optimum settings differ drastically from image to image. Therefore, only experimentation can
lead to the perfect result. In our case, the goal of tone mapping is not to produce a final image
with dramatic effects, but rather an image with a balanced histogram. This approach delivers
the ideal raw material for further processing in Photoshop. Finally, we click on Process to
apply the tone mapping process to the image.
 Figure 4-96.
5. After the tone mapping is completed, the final image is displayed in the main window. By
using the File > Save As command, we can save the image for further processing in
Photoshop or in other image processing software.
6. In some cases it is a good idea to make a second HDR version with the Tone Compressor
method to have a comparison between the two. To do this, we click on Process > Undo Tone
Mapping and repeat the tone mapping with Tone Compressor (Figure 4-97).
Figure 4-97.
 Figure 4-98.

Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro

The DRI function in Photomatix Pro is relatively simple. Using the existing highlight and shadow
details from the source images, it calculates a new image with expanded contrast range. This
process does not change the color space or color depth. No HDR files are created.

1. In the first step, we click on Exposure Blending before selecting the images from the
exposure bracketing sequence in the next window. At this point, it makes sense to check the
option Align source images > By matching features (Figure 4-98).
2. Clicking OK takes us to the next window. Here we activate Highlights & Shadows - Adjust
(Figure 4-99). This allows us to move the sliders for options like Accentuation, Blending
Point, and Color Saturation individually. To see the results of these settings, we can use the
magnifying glass to toggle between detailed and overall views. We then combine the images
by clicking the Process button.

Figure 4-99.

Workflow: HDR with Photoshop

1. Photoshops HDR tool is hidden in the File > Automate command path where we locate
 Merge to HDR. In the dialog box, we choose each file from the exposure bracketing
sequence. In the Photoshop environment, we can choose all RAW formats supported by
Adobes ACR converter. We import the RAW images after optimizing them in the RAW
converter. This offers two advantages: the adjustments made in the RAW converter are
integrated into the images, and we gain the best possible source material for processing. Of
course, we can also make HDRs from other image formats, such as the TIFF format used in
our example (Figure 4-100).

Figure 4-100.
2. After we click OK, the conversion process runs automatically. While it is in progress, a
preview window opens (Figure 4-101) that gives us thumbnail views of each shot on the left
side and shows the exposure levels based on Exif information (see Exif Information). We can
eliminate images by unchecking their checkmarks. The White Point Preview slider simplifies
the assessment of all tonal areas and matches the brightness levels with the central preview
image. However, the value chosen here only changes the HDR preview on the screen and has
no bearing on the actual contrast range of the HDR image. We must keep in mind that just like
in Photomatix Pro, the screen image only shows a limited spectrum of the total range of
contrasts in the 32-bit file. The choice of Bit Depth is very important for the successive
workflow. If you choose either 8 Bit/Channel or 16 Bit/Channel, a new dialog box called
HDR-Conversion is displayed. If we choose 32 Bit/Channel, however, the transformation
process ends at this point. The HDR image can now be saved and undergo more processing
later. In this case, to get back to the HDR-Conversion dialog box, the command must be
executed via Image > Mode > 8 Bits/Channel or Image > Mode > 16 Bits/Channel
(Figure 4-102).
 Figure 4-101.

Figure 4-102.
3. The HDR-Conversion dialog box offers several automated and manual methods for dynamic
compression. Local Adaptation is the most flexible. There are no universal values for Radius
und Threshold, but the settings used in our example often work well. The alignment of the
toning curve with the HDR histogram is very important. First, we expand the window by
clicking the corresponding icon. Then, we slide the demarcation points of the toning curve
along the beginning and end areas of the histogram peaks as demonstrated in our example. A
soft S-curve increases the overall contrast. We then click OK and move on to further
processing steps (Figure 4-103).
Figure 4-103.

Figure 4-104.
 Figure 4-105.

Workflow: DRI with Photoshop

1. Photoshop does not explicitly offer a DRI function, but there is a way to manually combine
exposure brackets. First, we open each of the exposed images and move them as seen in our
example with the Move tool on top of the brightest shot (Figure 4-104). We then organize the
newly created layers in the sequence of exposure.

Figure 4-106.
2. We make the top layer (the darkest image) invisible by clicking on the eye symbol and
activating the layer underneath. With the Select > Color Range command and subsequent
activation of Select > Highlights we can create a selection encompassing only the bright
areas of the middle image (Figure 4-105).
3. After activating and showing the upper layer thumbnail, we apply the selection to the image
by clicking Add layer mask (Figure 4-106). Surfaces that appear black in the layer mask lead
to a transparent representation of the corresponding image area. The areas appearing white
remain visible in the image.
4. Using Gaussian Blur from the Filter > Blur menu, we soften the layer mask. Depending on
the size of the image, we choose between 100 and 250 pixels (Figure 4-107). Since
Photoshop CS4, an even better technique is provided by the Refine Mask command (Select >
Refine Edge) using the Feather slider (Figure 4-108).

Figure 4-107.
5. Then we repeat the same procedure (steps 2-4) with the next layer (the middle image). To do
so, we make all layers invisible except the background layer (Figure 4-109), activate the
background layer, and select Highlights in the Color Range window. This selection is then
applied to the middle layer and then softened.
6. Next, we set the opacity of the middle layer to 66% (Figure 4-110) and the top layer to 33%.
(These values are only approximations.) The ideal settings can vary greatly from subject to
subject.
7. Because the blurring of the layer masks creates small halos in the transition zones between
both detailed areas and large untextured areas, as well as between dark and light surfaces, the
affected areas should be corrected with a very soft brush. We can do this by drawing in the
active layer mask with a white brush, which eliminates the halos (Figure 4-111).
8. To make further enhancements at this point, it is possible to experiment with various fill
methods, such as Multiply (Figure 4-112).
9. Finally, we compile all the layers into one background layer with Layer > Flatten Image and
perform further processing in the usual manner.
Figure 4-108.

Figure 4-109.
Figure 4-110.

Figure 4-111.
Figure 4-112.
Creativity Tips
The sections below demonstrate how digital processing can be used to make creative
enhancements to images.

Digital Graduated Neutral Density Filter

An optical graduated neutral density filter actively reduces the light falling on the film or image
sensor. The digital version is not as effective, since it is only a simulation using Photoshop;
however, it is still a very useful tool, and because it works as its own layer, it can always be
removed.
To produce the effect digitally, we first select deep black as the foreground color in Photoshop
(Figure 4-113). After that, we create a new fill layer by using the Layer > New Fill Layer >
Gradient command path and click OK in the next dialog box. (Alternatively, we can click on the
Create new fill or adjustment layer icon in the layer palette and then select Gradient, Figure 4-
114.) Next, the Gradient Fill dialog box pops up which requires some adjustments. In the
Gradient menu, a gradient from black to transparent should now be displayed (Figure 4-115). A
double-click leads to another dialog box (Gradient Editor) that allows for individual adjustments.
Here, we activate the adjuster in the upper right preview (as seen in the example) and set a value
of 60 in the Location field (Figure 4-116). A click on OK returns us to the Gradient Fill window.
Here, in the Style dropdown, we select the setting Linear; in the Angle dropdown we select a
value of 90; in the Scale window, we enter the value 100; and lastly, we check both the Reverse
and Align with layer boxes (Figure 4-117). After we set all of these parameters, we return to the
workspace by clicking OK. Then we set the fill method for the fill layer to Soft Light (Figure 4-
118). With this step, the digital filter is deployed successfully. Individual adjustments can be made
at any time by double-clicking on the layer thumbnail. To avoid performing these steps manually
for every image, we can set up an Action (Window > Actions) in Photoshop to automate the
process.
Figure 4-113.

Figure 4-114.

Figure 4-115.
Figure 4-116.

Figure 4-117.
 Figure 4-118.

HDR from a Single RAW Image

Compared to JPEG files, RAW images have large reserves of information defining very bright and
dark image areas. Therefore, software such as Photomatix Pro can be used to turn a RAW file into
a pseudo-HDR image (Figure 4-119).

Figure 4-119.
We perform this conversion by opening the RAW image with the File > Open command. The
previously described tone mapping procedure can be applied by clicking on Tone Mapping. Of
course, it is a prerequisite that Photomatix Pro supports the camera-specific RAW file. (As an
alternative, a converted 16-bit TIFF file can be used.) Needless to say, the result will be inferior
to an HDR assembled from several images. The difference shows up as additional noise and
blown-out highlights (Figure 4-120).
On the other hand, Photoshop does not support creating an HDR image from a single RAW image.
Photoshop simply refuses to proceed if only one file is selected in the Merge to HDR dialog box.
But one can get around this by using the RAW converter to develop two separate images with
different exposure settings and combine them in the usual manner into a DRI.

Figure 4-120. Comparison: HRD image taken from bracketing sequence (left) and pseudo-
HDR from one shot (right)

Black and White Conversion in Photoshop

With the Black & White command in the Image > Adjustments menu, Photoshop CS3 and above
offers new possibilities for converting color images into black and white. To make the effect
reversible, the function should always be used in combination with an adjustment layer.
For this, we first create a layer with the Layer > New Adjustment Layer > Black & White
command path and confirm the next dialog with OK. Alternatively, we can click on Create new fill
or adjustment layer in the layer palette (Figure 4-121). In the newly opened window, we use a
slider for the individual adjustment of each color source. If the slider is positioned on the right
side, the colors will be converted to a very bright gray. If the slider is on the left, the respective
colors will be converted to a very dark gray (Figure 4-122). For faster results, the various preset
values can be used. For example, we can simulate typical color filters as they are used in analog
black and white photography. We can also tint the image slightly, for instance in sepia, by
activataing the Tint option and then adjusting the color. Since it is part of a layer, the black and
white conversion can be reversed at any time without data loss.
 Figure 4-121.
Users of previous Photoshop versions must work with either the Image > Adjustments >
Desaturate or Image > Adjustments > Hue/Saturation commands. In the latter, we set a saturation
value of 100. Another alternative is the complex Channel Mixer that can be accessed by the
Image > Adjustments > Channel Mixer command path. In the dialog box, the Monochrome option
must be activated. In addition, the RAW converter can accomplish the black and white conversion.
Figure 4-122.
Index

A note on the digital index

A link in an index entry is displayed as the section title in which that entry appears. Because
some sections have multiple index markers, it is not unusual for an entry to have several
links to the same section. Clicking on any link will take you directly to the place in the text in
which the marker appears.

A
accessories, The Ideal Camera and Lens Combination (for all wallets)
Adobe Camera Raw, RAW Conversion
Adobe Photoshop, RAW Conversion, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow:
Rectilinear Panorama with Photoshop, Shift Panorama, Workflow: HDR with Photoshop,
Workflow: DRI with Photoshop, HDR from a Single RAW Image
Adobe RGB, Workflow
advertising photography, Manifestations of Architectural Photography
aliasing, Image Aberrations
analog film, Comparison Between Analog and Digital, Image Aberrations, Aperture
analog large format, Analog and Digital Medium Format
analog medium format, Analog and Digital Medium Format
analog SLR cameras, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras
anti-aliasing filter, Image Aberrations
aperture, Shooting Parameters
APS-C standard, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras
APS-H standard, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras
architect, Manifestations of Architectural Photography, Memory Cards, Hallmarks of a Good
Architectural Picture, Position and Symmetry, Shooting Parameters, Commentary by Marcus Bredt
archiving, Authenticity and Archiving
artistic architectural photography, Manifestations of Architectural Photography, Hallmarks of a
Good Architectural Picture
authenticity, The Authenticity of an Architectural Photograph, Authenticity and Archiving

B
ball head, Tripod
banding, Film Grain vs. Digital Noise
barrel distortion, The Ideal Camera and Lens Combination (for all wallets), Workflow: Image
Corrections in Photoshop
batteries, Memory Cards
Bayer interpolation, Image Aberrations
before-and-after images, Intentional Under- or Overexposure
birds eye view, Roles of the Vanishing Points
black & white, Additional Accessories, Light Sensitivity, HDR from a Single RAW Image
blown-out highlights, Resolution and Range of Contrast, HDR from a Single RAW Image
blue hour, Time of Day
blurring, Focal Range, How Does a Shift Lens Work?, Shooting Parameters, Exposure Bracketing
for HDR and DRI Images, Solving Problems, Workflow: DRI with Photoshop
bridge camera, The Camera

C
calotypes, The Invention
camera, The Camera, Analog Large Format
camera obscura, The Invention
camera position, Camera Position, Position and Perspective, Position and Environment, Position
and Symmetry, Perspective and Camera Position, Shadows and Reflections
cast shadow, Shooting Parameters
center-weighted average metering, Exposure
central perspective, Roles of the Vanishing Points, Panoramas
central projection, Perspective
chromatic aberrations, Focal Range, Workflow, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
color, Film Grain vs. Digital Noise, Image Aberrations, Advantages of RAW Format, Workflow,
Workflow, Image Corrections, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image
Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, HDR and DRI Images,
Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro, Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro
- corrections, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
- depth, Advantages of RAW Format, Image Corrections, Workflow: Image Corrections in
Photoshop, HDR and DRI Images, Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro
- fringe, Workflow
- noise, Film Grain vs. Digital Noise
- shift, Image Aberrations
- space, Workflow, Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro
commentary, Commentary by Marcus Bredt
compact camera, The Camera
composition, Camera Position, Position and Environment, Image Frame and Composition, Image
Composition and Environment
compressed perspective, Depth Perception
computer hardware, Conclusion
continuous shooting mode, Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images
contrast mask, Workflow: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections
control points, Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Hugin
converging verticals, Perspective Distortion and Converging Verticals, Perspective Distortion and
Converging Verticals, Very Short Focal Lengths, Perspective and Camera Position, Workflow:
Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Photoshop
creative architectural photography, Manifestations of Architectural Photography, Hallmarks of a
Good Architectural Picture
creativity tips, Additional Accessories, Creativity Tips, Creativity Tips
crop factor, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame
Format Cameras, Solving Problems
cylindrical panorama, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images

D
daguerreotype, The Invention
decoration, Photographing Interior Spaces, Picture Format
depth of field, Focal Range, Focal Length, Shooting Parameters, Solving Problems
depth perception, Depth Perception
developing, Comparison Between Analog and Digital
diffraction, Shooting Parameters
digital, Comparison Between Analog and Digital, Number of Exposures, Analog and Digital
Medium Format, What is RAW Format?
-camera backs, Analog and Digital Medium Format
-image formats, What is RAW Format?
-image processing, Number of Exposures
-noise, Comparison Between Analog and Digital
distance, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, Camera Position, Depth Perception
distortion, Focal Range, Very Short Focal Lengths, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop,
Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
documentary architectural photography, The Authenticity of an Architectural Photograph,
Hallmarks of a Good Architectural Picture
DRI, Exposure, Shooting Parameters, Exterior Conditions and Influences, Seasons, Solving
Problems, HDR and DRI Images, Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro, Workflow: DRI with
Photoshop
dust, Consequences of Lens Quality, Workflow
dynamic range, Resolution and Range of Contrast, The Camera, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-
Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format
Cameras, Light Sensitivity, Exposure, Solving Problems, Workflow, HDR and DRI Images

E
emptiness, Composition
environment, Position and Environment, Image Composition and Environment
Exif, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop,
Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Hugin,
Workflow: HDR with Photoshop
exposure, Exposure, Shooting Parameters, Exterior Conditions and Influences, Intentional Under-
or Overexposure, Solving Problems, What is RAW Format?, Workflow, Workflow: Rectilinear
Panorama with Hugin, Workflow: Shift Panorama with Photoshop, HDR from a Single RAW
Image
exposure bracketing, Exposure, Shooting Parameters, Solving Problems, HDR and DRI Images,
Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro
exterior conditions, Exterior Conditions and Influences
extreme reflections, Extreme Reflections
eye for subjects, What Kind of Architecture Makes the Best Subject?

F
field of vision, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images
film grain, Comparison Between Analog and Digital
fisheye lens, Very Short Focal Lengths
fixed focal lens, Black & White Negative Film
flange focal distance, Lens Adapters, How Does a Shift Lens Work?
flash, Memory Cards, Shooting Parameters
focal length, Focal Length, Perspective and Camera Position
focal length multiplier, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras
focal range, The Lens
FocalBlade, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
format factor, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras
Four-Thirds Standard, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras
frame, Image Frame and Composition, Moving Objects, Picture Format, Creativity Tips,
Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Photoshop,
Workflow: Shift Panorama with Photoshop
full-frame, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras
fundamentals, Fundamentals
FX-format, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras

G
golden ratio, Composition, Composition
graduated neutral density filter, Lens Hood, Using Lens Filters, Creativity Tips
graininess, Film Grain vs. Digital Noise
grid screen, Grid Screen, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images

H
HDR, Exposure, Shooting Parameters, Exterior Conditions and Influences, Seasons, Solving
Problems, HDR and DRI Images, Workflow: HDR with Photoshop, Digital Graduated Neutral
Density Filter
higher ground, How to Avoid Converging Verticals
histogram, Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images, Workflow
history, Architectural Photography: What is it?
hue, Workflow
Hugin, Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Hugin
human figures, Moving Objects

I
image, Resolution and Range of Contrast, Image Aberrations, The Camera, Digital Compact and
Bridge Cameras, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Digital
SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Analog 35mm Format and Digital
Full-Frame Format Cameras, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras,
Analog and Digital Medium Format, How Does a Shift Lens Work?, Camera Position, Image
Frame and Composition, Image Frame and Composition, Image Composition and Environment,
Moving Objects, Picture Format, Creativity Tips, What is RAW Format?, Workflow: Image
Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
-aberrations, Image Aberrations
-circle, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Analog 35mm
Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras, Analog and Digital Medium Format, How
Does a Shift Lens Work?
 -composition, Camera Position, Image Frame and Composition, Image Composition and
Environment
-corrections, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in
Photoshop
-format, What is RAW Format?
-frame, Image Frame and Composition, Moving Objects, Picture Format, Creativity Tips
-sensor, Resolution and Range of Contrast, The Camera, Digital Compact and Bridge Cameras,
Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Analog 35mm Format
and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras
interior spaces, Photographing Interior Spaces
ISO, Light Sensitivity, Solving Problems, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop

J
JPEG, Memory Cards, What is RAW Format?, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop

L
L-bracket, Tripod, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Extreme Formats and Panoramic
Images
large format, Analog and Digital Medium Format
lens, Consequences of Lens Quality, Remote Shutter Release, Lens Hood, Lens Adapters, Lens
Adapters, Using Lens Filters, Workflow
-adapters, Lens Adapters
-corrections, Workflow
-filters, Lens Hood, Using Lens Filters
-hood, Remote Shutter Release
-mount, Lens Adapters
-quality, Consequences of Lens Quality
Lensbabies, Additional Accessories
LensFix, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
light sensitivity, Comparison Between Analog and Digital, Aperture, Solving Problems
light yield, The Camera, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards,
Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras
LightMachine, Workflow: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections
local contrast, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
long focal lengths, Focal Length
looking up, Looking Up
luminance, Workflow

M
matrix metering, Exposure
medium format, Analog and Digital Medium Format, How Does a Shift Lens Work?
memory card, Number of Exposures, Grid Screen, Advantages of RAW Format
moir, Image Aberrations
moving ambient objects, Moving Objects
N
negative film, Comparison Between Analog and Digital
neutral density filter, Lens Hood, Moving Objects, Using Lens Filters
night shot, Time of Day
noise, Comparison Between Analog and Digital, HDR from a Single RAW Image
noise reduction, Advantages of RAW Format, Workflow, Workflow: Image Corrections in
Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
number of exposures, Number of Exposures, Grid Screen

O
optical, Analog and Digital Medium Format, Focal Range, How Does a Shift Lens Work?,
Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Workflow: Shift Panorama with Photoshop
-axis, How Does a Shift Lens Work?, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Workflow:
Shift Panorama with Photoshop
-bench, Analog and Digital Medium Format
-quality, Focal Range
orientation, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images
overexposure, Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images, Intentional Under- or
Overexposure, Workflow

P
pan-tilt head, Tripod
panorama head, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images
panoramic image, Picture Format, Panoramas
pattern noise, Film Grain vs. Digital Noise
perspective, Perspective, Camera Position, Perspective and Camera Position
perspective correction, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, How Does a Shift Lens Work?,
Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
perspective distortion, Perspective Distortion and Converging Verticals
photographer, Hallmarks of a Good Architectural Picture, Commentary by Marcus Bredt
photographic technology, Photographic Technology
Photomatix Pro, HDR and DRI Images, Workflow: DRI with Photomatix Pro
Photoshop, RAW Conversion, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Rectilinear
Panorama with Photoshop, Shift Panorama, Workflow: HDR with Photoshop, Workflow: DRI with
Photoshop, HDR from a Single RAW Image
picture format, Picture Format, Focal Length
pincushion distortion, Focal Range
pixel size, Resolution and Range of Contrast, Image Aberrations, Analog 35mm Format and Digital
Full-Frame Format Cameras
plug-ins, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop,
Workflow: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections
polarizer, Lens Hood, Using Lens Filters
portrait orientation, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, Picture Format
position, Camera Position, Position and Perspective, Position and Environment, Position and
Symmetry, Perspective and Camera Position
post-processing techniques, Post-Processing Techniques
postcard photography, Manifestations of Architectural Photography
presets, Workflow
profession, About the profession of architectural photography
pseudo-HDR image, Digital Graduated Neutral Density Filter
PTLens, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop

R
radical frames, Creativity Tips
range of contrast, Resolution and Range of Contrast
RAW, What is RAW Format?, RAW Conversion, Digital Graduated Neutral Density Filter
RAW conversion, RAW Conversion
RAW workflow, RAW Conversion, Image Corrections
rechargeables, Memory Cards
rectilinear panorama, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Panoramas, Workflow:
Rectilinear Panorama with Photoshop
reduced frame, Moving Objects
reflections, Exterior Conditions and Influences, Extreme Reflections
remote shutter release, Tripod, Solving Problems
resolution, Resolution and Range of Contrast
ruggedness, Consequences of Lens Quality
rule of thirds, Composition, Composition

S
saturation, Workflow, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Selective Contrast
and Brightness Corrections
scan backs, Analog Large Format
Scheimpflug, How Does a Shift Lens Work?
seasons, Seasons
selective, Aperture, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop, Workflow: Image Corrections in
Photoshop, Workflow: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections
-brightening, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
-corrections, Workflow: Selective Contrast and Brightness Corrections
-darkening, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
-focus, Aperture
sensor size, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Analog 35mm
Format and Digital Full-Frame Format Cameras, Analog 35mm Format and Digital Full-Frame
Format Cameras
serial images, Looking Up
shadows, Shooting Parameters, Weather
sharpening, Workflow, Workflow: Image Corrections in Photoshop
shift, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Perspective
Distortion and Converging Verticals, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, How Does a Shift Lens
Work?, How Does a Shift Lens Work?, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Expanding
the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, RAW Conversion,
Shift Panorama, Shift Panorama
 -adapter, How Does a Shift Lens Work?, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas
-lens, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Perspective
Distortion and Converging Verticals, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, How Does a Shift
Lens Work?, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, RAW Conversion, Shift Panorama
-panorama, Expanding the View: Rectilinear Panoramas, Shift Panorama
shooting, Shooting Techniques, Shooting Parameters, Shooting Parameters
-parameters, Shooting Parameters, Shooting Parameters
-techniques, Shooting Techniques
short focal length, The Lens, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, Depth Perception, Very Short
Focal Lengths, Perspective and Camera Position
shutter speed, Shooting Parameters, Solving Problems
silver crystals, Comparison Between Analog and Digital
slide film, Comparison Between Analog and Digital
solving problems, Solving Problems
spherical panorama, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images
spirit level, How Does a Shift Lens Work?, Extreme Formats and Panoramic Images
split toning, Workflow
spot metering, Exposure
sRGB, Workflow
subject, Architecture as a Subject, Photographing Interior Spaces
surrounding objects, Stationery Surrounding Objects
symmetry, Position and Symmetry

T
telephoto lenses, The Lens, Lens Adapters, Focal Length
time of day, Time of Day
tone curve, Workflow
tone mapping, HDR and DRI Images
tripod, The Ideal Camera and Lens Combination (for all wallets), Extreme Formats and Panoramic
Images, Solving Problems
tripod Head, Tripod
two-point perspective, Roles of the Vanishing Points

U
underexposure, Exposure Bracketing for HDR and DRI Images, Intentional Under- or
Overexposure, Solving Problems, Workflow

V
vacation photography, Manifestations of Architectural Photography
vanishing points, Roles of the Vanishing Points
viewfinder, Digital SLR Cameras with Four-Thirds, APS-C, and APS-H Standards, Analog and
Digital Medium Format, Grid Screen, Additional Accessories, How Does a Shift Lens Work?
vignetting, Consequences of Lens Quality, Focal Range, Workflow, Workflow: Image Corrections
in Photoshop, Workflow: Rectilinear Panorama with Hugin
W
weather, Weather
white balance, Advantages of RAW Format, Workflow
wide-angle lens, The Lens, How to Avoid Converging Verticals, Depth Perception, Very Short
Focal Lengths, Perspective and Camera Position
workflow options, Workflow
worms eye view, Roles of the Vanishing Points