Name : SOK Chetra

ID : B20140491
Group: EEE ,E2
2016-2017 Assignment: Telecom 1

1. Twisted-Pair Cable:

Figure

Physical description
consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern
a number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable
twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs
in a cable
Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have different twist lengths to reduce
the crosstalk interference

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 Applications
Most common medium
Telephone network
Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop)

Within buildings
To private branch exchange (PBX)

For local area networks (LAN)

10Mbps or 10Gbps
strong dependence on cable (quality)

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 Transmission characteristics
Analog
Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
Digital
Use either analog or digital signals
Repeater every 2km or 3km
Limited distance
Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
Limited data rate (100MHz)
Susceptible to interference and noise
Unshielded and Shielded TP
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ordinary telephone wire
Commonly used for local area networks
Subject To External Electromagnetic Interference

shielded twisted pair (STP)

twisted pair shielded with
a metallic braid
more expensive
Harder to handle
(a bit thicker & heavier)

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 Categories
Cat 3
up to 16MHz
Voice grade found in most offices
Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
Cat 4
up to 20 MHz
Cat 5
up to 100MHz
Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
Cat 5E (Enhanced)-see tables
Cat 6
up to 250 MHz (suitable for up to 1000Base-T, expected for 10GBase-T)
Cat 6a up to 500 MHz
Cat 7
up to 1000 MHz

Cat7 vs Cat5

Notice the difference in shielding => higher cost

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2.Coaxial Cable
Figure

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 Physical description
a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single
inner wire conductor
inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced
insulating rings or a solid dielectric material
The outer conductor is covered with a plastic covering

Applications
Most versatile medium
Television distribution
Ariel to TV
Cable TV
Long distance telephone transmission
Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
Being replaced by fiber optic
Short distance computer systems links
Local area networks

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 Characteristics
Analog
Amplifiers every few km
Closer if higher frequency
Up to 500MHz
Digital
Repeater every 1km
Closer for higher data rates

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 Types of Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable can carry digital signals for internet connections, cable television,
and other new technology. Some types of coaxial cable have different uses in a
residential or commercial project.

Hard Line Coaxial Cable

Hard line cables are often used for high signal strength applications, as with
radio transmitters or other devices. Hard line cables typically measure up to or
more than 1/2 inch thick. For heavy duty signal transmissions, a variety of popular
brands are available. Each of these produce many specialized types, with varying
properties and capacities.

RG-6 Coaxial Cable

RG-6 is likely the most familiar coaxial cable on this list. Used for relaying
cable TV and other signals, "RG" stands for radio guide and references the
capacity of the cable. However, according to some consumer advocates, an RG
rating does not often accurately indicate the overall quality of the cable or the
materials that it is made with. Since RG-6 is used for high-definition signals, techs
from cable companies are often replacing RG-5 cables with RG-6 in clients'
homes. As the current standard, RG-6 is the desirable cable rating for todays home
and commercial entertainment systems. RG-6 comes in several varieties, some of
which have more waterproofing for underwater or moisture prone areas of
installation.

Semi-Rigid Coaxial Cable

This type of coaxial cable has a harder shielding metal and is therefore less
flexible. It may be useful in situations where cables do not have to curve around
obstacles.

Tri-axial Cable

This extra-strength cable has an additional layer of shield to discourage

electromagnetic interference. It can be helpful in conditions where the cable may
be vulnerable to high-strength electromagnetic forces.

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 Twin-Axial Cable

This paired cable represents another alternative to conventional coaxial cables for a
number of different installation types

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

Figure

Physical description
thin (2 to 125 m), flexible medium capable of conducting an optical ray
made of various glasses and plastics
Ultrapure fused silica
lowest attenuation
difficult to manufacture
Glass fiber
higher loss
more economical
Plastic fiber
even less costly
used for short-haul link

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 core: inner-most section
cladding: surrounding the core
jacket: outermost layer, surrounding one or a bundle of cladded fibers

Applications
long-haul trunks
increasingly common in the telephone network
routes average about 900 miles in length high capacity
typically 20000 to 60000 voice channels
metropolitan trunks
joining telephone exchanges in a metropolitan or city area
average length of 7.8 miles
as many as 100000 voice channels
rural-exchange trunks
link towns and villages
circuit lengths ranging from 25 to 100 miles
most have fewer than 5000 voice channels
local area networks
total capacity of 100 Mbps

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 subscriber loops
fibers run directly from the central exchange to a subscriber
telephone networks evolve into full-service networks capable of handling
not only voice and data, but also image and video

Characteristics
Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
Portions of infrared and visible spectrum
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Cheaper
Wider operating temp range
Last longer
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
More efficient
Greater data rate
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Optical Fiber Transmits. Modes

Multimode step-index
Multimode graded-index
Single-mode

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Multimode fiber
Inside a multimode fiber, there is a finite number of possible paths for the light
to take. These paths are called modes.
The number of possible paths depends on the diameter ofthe core.
Example,
For a fiber with a core diameter of 62.5nm using light of wavelength
1300nm, the number of modes is around 400.
The problem with multimode operation is that some of the
paths taken by particular modes are longer than other paths.
This means that light will arrive at different times. Therefore
the pulse tends to disperse as it travel through the fiber.

To reduce the time difference in different paths, the

refractive index of the core changes gradually from the
center to the edges.
Light travel down the center of the fiber experiences a higher
refractive index than light travels further out towards the
cladding
(Note: the refractive index is defined as the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum over the speed of light in a medium)
Single-mode fiber
If the fiber core is very narrow compared to the wavelength of the light in use
then the light cannot travel in different modes and thus the fiber is call
single mode.
The core diameter is typically between 8 and 9m.

Light sources
light-emitting diode (LED)
less costly
operates over a greater temperature range
longer operational life
injection laser diode (ILD)
more efficient
can sustain greater data rates

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4.Radio Transmission
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of
electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light

In telecommunication, transmission is the process of sending and

propagating an analogue or digital information signal over a physical p-to-p
or p-to-multipoint transmission medium.

Characteristics of Radio Transmission

Radio frequency (RF) waves are easy to generate.
It can travel long distances, and can penetrate building easily.
It is widely used for communication, both indoors and outdoors.
Radio waves also are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all
directions from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have to be
carefully aligned physically.
The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent.
At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well.
The power falls sharply with distance from the source at least as fast as 1/r2
in air as the signal energy is spread more thinly over a larger surface. This
attenuation is called path loss.

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 At high frequency, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce
off obstacles.
At all frequencies, radio waves are subject to interface from motors and
other electrical equipment.
In the VLF, LF and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground
These waves can be detected for perhaps 1000km at the lower frequencies,
less at higher ones.
In the HF, and VHF band, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the
earth.
It is use to way for broadcasting through the air medium with the help of
ionosphere.
Types of transmission
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic

communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio
carrier wave
Signals of AM band (450-1650 KHz)
Frequency Modulation (FM) is a system by which the modulating audio to
change the instantaneous frequency of the carrier.
Frequency modulation (FM) is the standard technique for high-fidelity
communications as is evident in the received.
Signals of the FM band (88-108 MHz)

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 Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an
integral part of many digital transmission coding schemes that underlay a
wide range of technologies like WiFi, GSM and satellite television
PCM Transmitters send a digital signal embedded in the FM radio wave. A
digital processor in the transmitter encodes the signals and sends it out
through a regular FM radio wave.

Propagation
Radio waves travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields
that pass through the air and the vacuum of space
Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some
property of the radiated waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase,
or pulse width
Applications
Audio
Telephony
Video
Navigation
Radar
Data (Digital Radio)
Radio control
Advantages
Simple Circuit
Cheap
No Licenses Needed
High Speed/Bandwidth
Covers Large Areas (Penetrates through walls)
Disadvantages
Limited number of free frequency bands
Shielding is difficult
Interference with other electrical devices

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 Greater Power Consumption
Limited Spectrum of Frequency

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