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    Unit II - Physical Layer Functionalities

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    ray mutanga

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Unit II - Physical Layer Functionalities

    Uploaded by

    ray mutanga
    4 views5 pages

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    [2] Unit II_Physical layer functionalities

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    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    4 views5 pages

    Unit II - Physical Layer Functionalities

    Uploaded by

    ray mutanga

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 5

    The Physical Layer

    • Signalling, modulation, multiplexing, line coding and synchronization


    • Transmission media, Common media characteristics
    • Network performance measures including throughput, delays are
    presented.
    • DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating
    Equipment), Connector Cables

    Common Media Characteristics


    When deciding which kind of transmission media to use, you must match your
    networking needs with the characteristics of the media.

    1. Throughput
    Throughput is the measure of how much data is transmitted during a
    given period of time. The most significant factor in choosing a
    transmission method is its throughput. Using fiber-optic cables allows
    faster throughput than copper or wireless connections. Noise and devices
    connected to the transmission medium can further limit throughput.

    2. Cost
    Cost of cable itself, Cost of installation, Cost of new infrastructure versus
    reusing existing infrastructure, Cost of maintenance and support, etc

    3. Noise Immunity
    Some types of media are more susceptible to noise than others. The type
    of media least susceptible to noise is fiber-optic cable, because it does not
    use electric current, but light waves, to conduct signals.

    Recap: A common source of noise is EMI (electromagnetic


    interference), or waves that emanate from electrical devices or cables
    carrying electricity. Motors, power lines, televisions, copiers, fluorescent
    lights, manufacturing machinery, and other sources of electrical activity
    (including a severe thunderstorm) can cause EMI.

    Cable Types
    1. Coaxial Cable

    It has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh. Both conductors


    share a common center axial, hence the term "co-axial".

    1|Page
    Coaxial cable consists of a central metal core (often copper) surrounded
    by an insulator, a braided metal shielding, called braiding or shield, and
    an outer cover, called the sheath or jacket. The core carries the
    electromagnetic signal, and the braided metal shielding acts as both a
    shield against noise and a ground for the signal. The insulator layer
    usually consists of a plastic material such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or
    Teflon. It protects the core from the metal shielding, because if the two
    made contact, the wire would short-circuit. The sheath, which protects the
    cable from physical damage, may be PVC or a more expensive, fire-
    resistant plastic.

    Because of its shielding, most coaxial cable has a high resistance to noise.
    It can also carry signals farther than twisted pair cabling before
    amplification of the signals becomes necessary (although not as far as
    fiber-optic cabling). On the other hand, coaxial cable is more expensive
    than twisted pair cable because it requires significantly more raw
    materials to manufacture.

    Coaxial cabling comes in hundreds of specifications: RG-6 coaxial cables


    are used, for example, to deliver broadband cable Internet service and
    cable TV, particularly over long distances.
    RG-59: Less expensive but suffering from greater attenuation than the
    more common RG-6 coax, RG-59 is still used for relatively short
    connections, for example, when distributing video signals from a central
    receiver to multiple monitors within a building.

    The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the BNC
    (Bayone-Neill-Concelman) connector, which is shown below.

    There are two types of coaxial cable namely thin coaxial


    which is also referred to as thinnet and thick coaxial which is
    also referred to as thicknet
    .
    The 10Base2 is the IEEE standard for Ethernet running on thin coaxial cable.
    The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters.
    This is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

    The IEEE standard for Ethernet running on thick coaxial cable is 10Base5. The
    5 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 500 meters.

    2|Page
    Thicknet has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
    from the center conductor. Its major disadvantage is that it is difficult to bend
    and install.
    2. Twisted Pair Cable
    Twisted pair cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper
    wires, each with a diameter of 0.4 to 0.8 mm. Every two wires are twisted
    around each other to form pairs, and all the pairs are encased in a plastic
    sheath. The more twists per foot in a pair of wires, the more resistant the
    pair will be to cross talk. The number of twists per meter or foot is known
    as the twist ratio. Because twisting the wire pairs more tightly requires
    more cable, however, a high twist ratio can result in greater attenuation.
    For optimal performance, cable manufacturers must strike a balance
    between minimizing cross talk and reducing attenuation.

    Twisted pair cable is relatively inexpensive, flexible, and easy to install,


    and it can span a significant distance before requiring a repeater (though
    not as far as coax). Furthermore, twisted pair can handle the faster
    networking transmission rates currently being employed.

    All twisted pair cable falls into one of two categories: STP (shielded
    twisted pair) or UTP (unshielded twisted pair).

    STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)


    STP cable consists of twisted wire pairs that are not only individually
    insulated, but also surrounded by a shielding made of a metallic substance
    such as foil. Some STP use a braided copper shielding. The shielding acts
    as a barrier to external electromagnetic forces, thus preventing them from
    affecting the signals traveling over the wire inside the shielding.

    UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

    UTP cabling consists of one or more insulated wire pairs encased in a


    plastic sheath. As its name implies, UTP does not contain additional

    3|Page
    shielding for the twisted pairs. As a result, UTP is both less expensive
    and less resistant to noise than STP.

    The standard connector for UPT cable is an RJ-45 connector, which looks
    like a large telephone modular connector

    Cat 3 (Category 3)—A form of UTP that contains four wire pairs and
    can carry up to 10 Mbps of data with a possible bandwidth of 16 MHz.
    Cat 3 has typically been used for 10-Mbps Ethernet.

    Cat 5 (Category 5)—A form of UTP that contains four wire pairs and
    supports up to 1000 Mbps throughput.

    Cat 5e (Enhanced Category 5)—A higher-grade version of Cat 5 wiring


    that contains high-quality copper, offers a high twist ratio, and uses
    advanced methods for reducing cross talk.

    Comparing STP and UTP


    Throughput - STP and UTP can both transmit data at 10 Mbps, 100
    Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10 Gbps, depending on the grade of cabling.
    Cost - STP is more expensive than UTP because it contains more
    materials and it has a lower demand. It also requires grounding, which
    can lead to more expensive installation.
    Connector - STP and UTP use RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) modular
    connectors and data jacks.
    Noise immunity - Because of its shielding, STP is more noise resistant
    than UTP.

    3. Fiber-Optic Cable

    Contains one or several glass or plastic fibers at its center, or core. Data is
    transmitted via pulsing light sent from a laser (in the case of 1- and 10-
    Gigabit technologies) or an LED (light-emitting diode) through the
    central fibers. Surrounding the fibers is a layer of glass or plastic called

    4|Page
    cladding. The cladding has a different density from the glass or plastic in
    the strands. It reflects light back to the core in patterns that vary
    depending on the transmission mode. This reflection allows the fiber to
    bend around corners without diminishing the integrity of the light-based
    signal. Outside the cladding, a plastic buffer protects the cladding and
    core. Because the buffer is opaque, it also absorbs any light that might
    escape.

    Fiber’s characteristics
    Throughput - Fiber has proved reliable in transmitting data at rates that
    can reach 100 gigabits (or 100,000 megabits) per second per channel.
    Reason: due to the physics of light traveling through glass. Unlike
    electrical pulses traveling over copper, the light experiences virtually no
    resistance. Therefore, light-based signals can be transmitted at faster rates
    and with fewer errors than electrical pulses.
    Its high throughput capability makes it suitable for network backbones
    and for serving applications that generate a great deal of traffic, such as
    video or audio conferencing.

    Cost - Fiber-optic cable is the most expensive transmission medium.


    Because of its cost, most organizations find it impractical to run fiber to
    every desktop.

    Noise immunity - Because fiber does not conduct electrical current to


    transmit signals, it is unaffected by EMI.

    5|Page

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