Terahertz for Space Applications

SivaChandra Jangam, Goutham Ezhilarasu

AbstractTerahertz technology is extensively used in astronomy For THz astronomy, bolometers of very high sensitivities
and space applications. In this report, we present some of the and extremely low NEPs are required. In addition, the
real-life telescopes for astronomy and the terahertz technology bolometer has to be decoupled from the cosmic ray background
used in them. We discuss the detectors, local oscillators used in noise. Several research groups have come up new bolometer
these telescopes and present some key findings that were only structures and materials of which the spider web type [22] will
possible using terahertz technology. be the focus of this paper. A typical spider web (micromesh)
I. INTRODUCTION bolometer is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of a spider web like
structure of silicon nitride with a layer of platinum/gold on top
Imaging and detection technology in the far-IR and THz which will act as the absorber. At the center, a neutron
frequencies has significantly impacted our understanding of the transmutation doped (NTD) germanium thermistor along with
universe in recent years. Old astronomical problems like the its leads is attached by epoxy. By using a spider web like
structure and birth of stars and galaxies, composition of structure for the absorber, the cosmic ray cross section and
extraterrestrial planets and planetary atmospheres, origins of thermal capacitance of the device can be significantly reduced
our cosmos are given a new dimension through this rapidly [22]. By operating the bolometer at 0.3 K (cooled using 3He
advancing technology. The wealth of data provided by the far superfluid), extremely low NEPs of less than 2x10-17 W/
IR and THz spectrum is expected on account of the fact that and responsivities exceeding 7.2x107 V/W has been
nearly 97 % of all observable radiation from space lies in this demonstrated (data summarized in Figure 2) [22].
frequency band. Historically, astronomy in THz and far IR
bands has always been a challenging proposal due to severe
attenuation of these signals in the upper atmosphere by
moisture as well as background thermal noise. With the
development in satellite payload systems and advent of new
detection technologies like spider web bolometers, advanced
heterodyning techniques, and superconducting devices, high
sensitivity detection can be achieved by mounting instruments
on board satellites as well as novel terrestrial telescopes.
II. DETECTOR TECHNOLOGIES
Figure 2. Spider-web bolometer and device parameters [22]
A. Bolometers B. Transition Edge Sensors (TES)
One of the most popular THz and far-IR detectors is the
TES works on the principle of high resistance change of a
Bolometer. In its simplest form, a bolometer consists of three
superconductor at the superconducting transition temperature
components: an absorber, thermal resistance (thermometer),
and a heat sink. The absorber is usually a metal with high (Tc) [1-3]. A thin-film metal or combination of metals is
thermal conductivity and low thermal capacitance (like biased at Tc where the dR/dT is high like the bolometer Fig. 1.
platinum) that absorbs the incident radiation to be detected The transition temperature can be tuned by the choice of
causing a temperature change. This temperature change causes metals and their thickness. When two different thin metals
a variation in the electrical resistance of the semiconducting with two different Tc are in contact, the superconducting
thermometer due to its temperature dependent intrinsic carrier bandgap in one metal induces bandgap in the normal metal
concentration (R(T) = Rsexp{(TR/T)1/n}; where Rs is a due to proximity effect as shown in Fig. 3(a). Therefore, the
resistance parameter and Tg the bandgap temperature). By multi-layers of metal act as an effective material with an
operating the bolometer at cryogenic temperatures, it is effective Tc. The Tc is chosen to be match the THz photons
possible to achieve very large responsivities and low NEP as energies. The main challenge of TES is its high sensitivity to
indicated in Fig. 1. temperature bias and low count rate. This is solved by using
voltage bias and electrothermal feedback Fig. 3(c)-(d). The
voltage bias provides the power to set the temperature near the
Tc. When a THz photon is absorbed, the temperature and
resistance increase. This decreases the current in circuit,
providing signal. Reducing the bias power accelerates the
return to bias temperature (electrothermal feedback). To
amplify the signal, special low temperature current amplifiers
like Superconducting Quantum Interface Device (SQUID) are
Figure 1. Structure and resistance characteristic of Bolometer [22]. used. The SQUID works on the principle of Superconductor-
Insulator-Superconductor Junction (Josephson Junction)
shown in Fig. 3(b) [4]. The Junction is extremely sensitive to
electric and magnetic flux change. When a dc voltage is
applied to SQUID, it produces RF current oscillations and vice -(2) -(3)
versa. The TES signal is coupled to SQUID using inductors
Fig. 3(c). The current change by TES produces change in the
coupled flux which is amplified by the SQUID. This signal is
later readout to room temperature electronics. Time domain
multiplexing of SQUIDs can be used for large array TES to
improve the count Fig. 3(d). The NEP values can be as low as
10-20 W/ [3].
(a) (b)

(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4. (a) KID detector working principle [6]. (b) Multiple KID coupled to
same feedthrough [6]. (c) Response of the KID, capacitor resonator with
varying temperature [6].

III. THZ SPECTROMETRY THROUGH HETERODYNING

Heterodyning is a technique that mixes the frequency of an
incident signal (from the telescope) with a local oscillator
frequency generated inside the instrument. This results in a
(c) (d) lower frequency signal (-wave instead of the original far-IR
Figure 3. (a) Proximity and inverse proximity effect in superconductor and
metal junction [3]. (b) Working principle of SQUID [4]. (c) Electrical circuit of
or Submillimeter) that is easier to filter and amplify by the
detector [2]. (d) Time domain multiplexing of SQUIDs [3]. electronics. Local oscillators for space missions need to be
compact and low power. Traditional local oscillators use
C. Kinetic Inductance Detectors (KID) semiconductor resonators to produce frequencies up to 20GHz
KID work on the inductive nature of a superconductor [5]. which are up converted to 100 GHz by using monolithic
Eq. (1) gives the conductance of a material where is the microwave integrated circuits (MMIC) with devices like
scattering lifetime. In a superconductor, is infinity, therefore, HEMTs and HBTs [7]. Recently, local oscillators with GUNN
only the imaginary term remains contributing to inductance diodes or IMPATT diodes as sources are also used that
Eq. (2). When a photon of energy greater than the produce signals at frequencies of few 100 GHz [8]. Frequency
superconductor bandgap is absorbed, it can break the cooper multipliers such as Schottky barrier varactor diodes are then
pairs leading to a change in impedance. This leads to increase used to up convert these signals to THz frequencies. The
in resistance and decrease in inductance of the KID Eq. (3). efficiency of local oscillators depends on the number of stages
of multiplier. Each stage adds a 10x loss in power transferred
Then lumped element KID (LEKID) [6] uses resonant circuit
leading to around 10-20% efficiencies for 3 stage multipliers
of LC oscillators formed by external capacitor and the
[8]. Recently, Quantum Cascade Lasers have been
superconductor as a variable inductor Fig. 4(a). Depending on demonstrated as a viable source for compact local oscillators
the intensity of photon absorbed, the inductance decreases and with frequencies reaching 4.7 THz [9].
resistance increase making the resonant frequency left shifted
and the transfer function to be shallower due to lower quality A. Heterodyne Instrument for Far-Infrared (HIFI)
factor Fig. 4(c). This change is coupled to feedline by mutual HIFI is a high resolution heterodyne spectrometer that
inductance which is the signal that can be readout. KID provides very detailed wideband atomic and molecular spectra
eliminates the use of special low temperature amplifiers. of distant stellar objects [20]. HIFI covers a range of
Large array of KIDs can be integrated by choosing different frequencies from 480-1250 GHz and 1410-1910 GHz divided
capacitors for different resonant frequency through the same into six bands. It is the first device of its kind to cover the
feedline Fig. 4(b). The NEP is limited by recombination entire far-IR and submillimeter spectrum making continuous
lifetime of cooper pairs and can be below 10-19 W/ [6]. high resolution spectral measurements [20]. Each of HIFIs six
bands is covered by a receiver consisting of a mixer and a local
oscillator. The mixer is created using SIS (Superconductor-
-(1) (=Scattering lifetime) Insulating-Superconductor) devices that cover a input signal
frequency range from 480 to 1250 GHz. The SIS junction uses THz signal onto the individual spider web bolometer [18].
quantum tunneling phenomenon to detect very weak signals Three different dimensions of the antenna are used
with very little noise and can reach very close to the theoretical corresponding to the three separate bands to be detected
quantum noise limits. Some of the spectral data from stellar simultaneously. The plot of relative transmission vs frequency
objects are shown in Fig. 5. The characteristic molecular lines is also shown in Fig. 7(d) for the three different dimensions of
in these spectrums can be used to estimate the relative the feed-horn antenna. By using such an array of spider-web
composition of the ISM (Interstellar medium) thus providing bolometers with individual horn antennas, high effective
valuable data to astronomers on star formation processes. detection areas and sensitivities can be achieved as compared
to using a single large bolometer [18].
Fig. 8(left) shows an image of Andromeda galaxy along
with a neighboring elliptical galaxy at different frequencies.
The elliptical galaxy is not visible when seen at far-IR and THz
bands which indicate a lack of cold interstellar gases and hence
a cessation of star formation. Fig. 8(right) shows spectral data
of the Ring Nebula showing the presence of water and organic
compounds.

Figure 5. Spectral data from HIFI [20].

IV. THZ IMAGING TELESCOPES

A. Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver (SPIRE)
One of the most well-known applications of the spider-web
bolometers described earlier was on the SPIRE instrument on
board the Herschel space observatory [19]. SPIRE is a three-
band imaging photometer that can carry out broad band
photometry in three spectral bands (250, 350 and 500 m)
simultaneously. A schematic of the instrument is shown in Fig.
6(left). The FPU (Focal Plane Unit) houses the optical bench
along with the bolometer detector arrays that is cooled to less
than 1.7 K (bolometer at 0.3K using 3He superfluid) [19]. The
FPU is thermally isolated from the electronics regions that
contains low temperature (<170K) JFET based amplifier Figure 7. a) Array of spider web bolometers, b) Complete bolometer detector
module on top of cryogenic cooler, c) Cross sectional view of feed-horn array
circuits and other operational electronics. Fig. 6(right) shows along with bolometer, d) Relative transmission vs frequency for the feed horn
the schematic of the FPU. The Incident beam from telescope is arrays for different horn dimensions (for wavelength of 250, 350 & 500um)
steered using several mirrors (M3, M4 up to M8) into the 1.7K [18].
cryogenically cooled box that houses the beam splitters and
bolometer detector arrays. The beam focused from mirror M8
is split into three separate beams and provided to the three
detector arrays that are fine tuned to detect at central
frequencies of 250, 300 and 500 m simultaneously [19].

Figure 8. Image of Andromeda and adjacent elliptical galaxy at different

frequencies (left), SPIRE spectral data showing water and CO lines in Ring
nebula (right) [19].

B. Submm Common-User Bolometer Array (SCUBA-2)-

SCUBA-2 telescope has 2 focal planes for 850m and
Figure 6. Schematic of SPIRE (Left) and the FPU (Right) [19].
450m wavelength detection. Each focal plane uses 5,120
Each bolometer detector module consists of an array of TES sensors discussed earlier. The sensor consists of a
spider-web bolometers coupled to the incident split beams detector wafer with isolated silicon bricks that act as the
though an array of feed-horn antennas as shown in Fig. 7(a)- quarter wave absorber suspended on a silicon nitride film Fig.
(b). The cross-sectional view is shown in Fig. 7(c) where we 9 [10]. The silicon brick coupled the radiation to the TES
can see how the feed horn antenna would guide the incident below by changing its temperature. The TES signal is readout
by superconducting leads and transferred to readout wafer Figure 10. (a) Schematic of the detector [12]. (b) Cryogenic readout circuit
[12]. (c) Images of the cold (left) and warm (right) dust distribution in M101
through indium bumps. The readout wafer has the SQUID
by FIS observations by using different bands [11].
multiplexed circuit with 1312 channels. The T c ranges from
130mK to 212mK with NEP values 1.1x10 -16 to 3.2x10-20 D. BLAST and ALMA Telescopes
W/ [10]. SCUBA-2 also has a polarimeter POL-2 for Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope
polarization sensitive measurements and a Fourier transform (BLAST) is a hot air balloon borne telescope with focal plane
spectrometer FTS-2. Research is being done to incorporate arrays of 250 m, 350 m and 500 m and uses silicon-nitride
polarization sensitive TES with NEP below 10 -20 W/ and micromesh Spider-web bolometer detectors [14]. The
use of KID detectors [10]. gondola is equipped with fiber optic rate gyroscopes for
stability and it also has CCD star cameras.
Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) is a terrestrial
telescope. It uses Superconductor-Insulator-Superconductor
mixers as detectors with the Schottky diode multipliers as the
local oscillators [15].

Figure 9. Schematic of a sensor and multiplexer channel (left). Full-wafer

SQUID multiplexer (right) [10].

C. AKARI sattelite
AKARI has an infrared camera (IRC) and a Far-Infrared
Surveyor (FIS) [11]. The FIS uses THz detectors of Ge:Ga Figure 11. (Left) Comparison of optical and terahertz image captured by
and stressed Ge:Ga monolithic arrays in four bands at 65, 90, BLAST showing cold dust [13]. (Right) Image captured by ALMA showing
140 and 160 m wavelengths Fig. 10(a) [12]. The Ge:Ga array Boomerang Nebula, the coldest place in universe [15].
is a semiconductor based detector which requires cryogenic
E. Antennas
cooling for high responsivity. Hence, cryogenic readout
electronics are used to amplify the signal Fig. 10(b) [12]. The Traditional THz systems use horn antennas for capturing
detector consists of transparent electrodes on the top with terahertz radiation. Previously, horn antennas were bulky
metal grids that provide bias voltage to entire array. The made from metals with wide apertures to ensure high coupling
bottom of the array has 50 m ditches that act as isolation to to radiation [16]. Micromachining lead to improvements in
metal electrodes at the bottom. Indium bumps are used to horn antenna design shown earlier in Fig. 7(c). Recently,
connect the detectors to readout electronics. The FIR signal highly integrated nano-photonic phased arrays have been
bounces in the array due to non-anti-reflection coated top Ge demonstrated with 1.55um optical wavelength [17]. These
and metalized back surface. The measured responsivity arrays were fabricated using standard semiconductor
corresponds to external quantum efficiency of ~0.4, while the manufacturing techniques that can achieve fine precise
quantum efficiency in the bulk region for the transverse-type dimensions with high density nano antennas. By controlling
device with the same Ge:Ga material is ~0.2, which is the emitted phase of the pixels, arbitrary radiation patterns can
consistent with the theoretical value [11]. be produced in far field. Optical beam steering is also possible
by using these phased arrays. The use of such high density
compact antennas for space applications is being investigated.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. The Nano-photonic array (NPA) system [17].

(c)
 V. CONCLUSION [20] The Heterodyne Instrument for Far Infrared handbook, HERSCHEL-
HSC-DOC-2097, version 0.9, February 15, 2016.
Terahertz imaging has illustrated a whole new view [21] Christopher K. Walker, " Terahertz Astronomy", CRC press.
of the universe and has become an invaluable tool for our [22] P. D. Mauskopf et al., Composite infrared bolometers with Si3N4
understanding of space. Cold matter spread across the micromesh absorbers, Oct 1;40(28):4921-32.
universe that is not visible through optical telescopes can only
be imaged using THz detectors. THz imaging and
spectroscopy is proving to be an indispensable tool in the
search of organic molecules, water content and presence of
life on other planetary objects. With further advancements in
THz detectors, more detailed images of the cosmos can be
obtained which can help in better understanding of our
universe.
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