The Role of Imaging in Inflammatory

Bowel Disease Evaluation

Rahul A. Sheth and Michael S. Gee
Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
USA

1. Introduction
The evaluation of the digestive tract through radiologic techniques represents a cornerstone
in the management of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Historically, a
central facet in the diagnostic evaluation for IBD was the double contrast barium enema,
which provided a non-invasive method for assessing the mucosal pattern of the large bowel.
In the modern era, this approach has been supplanted by endoscopic procedures such as
colonoscopy that offer direct mucosal inspection and biopsy capabilities. However, while
endoscopy offers unparalleled visualization of the large bowel lumen, the small bowel
remains essentially wholly inaccessible by conventional endoscopic techniques (D. D. T.
Maglinte, 2006). Thus, one important role that imaging plays in the care of patients with IBD
is the evaluation of the small bowel, both to help discriminate between ulcerative colitis
(UC) and Crohns disease (CD), as well as to identify active versus inactive disease.
Moreover, the role of imaging has greatly expanded with the advancement of cross-sectional
imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) that can assess the extramural manifestations of IBD. For example, UC almost always
affects the colon in a stereotyped way, extending from the rectum proximally in a
continuous manner, without skip areas. The superficial erosions in early or mild UC are
below the resolution of CT and MRI. However, one severe complication of UC, and a
leading cause of death, is toxic megacolon, in which inflammation leads to destruction of
ganglion cells and consequent colonic dilation (Elsayes et al., 2010). In these acutely ill
patients, non-invasive methods are preferred to endoscopy. Likewise, the urgent and
emergent sequelae of CD such as abscesses, fistulae, perforations, and strictures are best
identified by radiologic modalities. Additionally, the pre-surgical delineation of disease
extent and the post-surgical investigation for operative complications revolve around cross-
sectional imaging. Finally, techniques such as MRI that provide superior soft tissue contrast
allow for both the improved visualization of the perianal disease manifestations of CD such
as fistulae and abscesses, as well as the precise anatomic localization for treatment planning
(Schreyer et al., 2004).
Multiple radiologic modalities, including fluoroscopy, CT, MRI, ultrasound, and nuclear
medicine techniques, have been applied towards imaging IBD. In this chapter, we will
discuss technical considerations, appropriate indications, and key imaging findings for each
imaging modality. We will also discuss special considerations in pediatric patients, in
particular the risks of recurrent exposure to ionizing radiation.

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2. Fluoroscopic imaging
Fluoroscopic imaging traditionally has been considered as the gold standard approach to
imaging the small bowel. Despite the promotion of newer endoscopic technologies such as
video capsule endoscopy and double balloon endoscopy, as well as the development of
cross-sectional methods such as CT and MR enterography, fluoroscopy remains a staple tool
for the identification of small bowel pathology, particularly pathology involving the
terminal ileum.

2.1 Patient preparation and imaging technique

In fluoroscopic imaging, conventional two-dimensional radiographs are obtained with the
patient lying on an examination table. The patient is kept nil per os (NPO) for several hours
prior to the examination; a bowel cleansing regimen is rarely employed. Bowel visualization
is achieved following the administration of radio-opaque contrast agents, a large class of
solutions that generally contain varying concentrations of barium. The benefits of
fluoroscopic imaging include the ability to visualize peristaltic loops of small bowel in real
time, a feature that allows for the discrimination between true abnormalities and transient
changes in configuration related to motion. Additionally, with optimal contrast
opacification, inspection of the mucosal surface along the entire length of the small bowel in
relief is feasible. The patients position can be adjusted by the fluoroscopist to any desirable
obliquity with respect to the X-ray source so that the outline of every loop of small bowel is
visualized. The fluoroscopist also employs compressive maneuvers using paddles, balloons,
and gloves to spread out the loops of bowel so that they are individually visible.
Fluoroscopic imaging of the small bowel may be performed in two manners, either as a
small bowel follow through or as a small bowel enteroclysis. In the former, the patient is
asked to drink approximately 500cc of a barium-containing oral contrast solution. Serial spot
radiographs are obtained until the bolus has passed the terminal ileum into the cecum; this
takes approximately 45-60 minutes, though pro-peristaltic agents such as metoclopramide
may be administered to accelerate the process. Fluoroscopy with compression is then
performed to identify areas of pathology.
In enteroclysis, a naso-jejunal catheter is placed such that the tip of the catheter terminates in
the proximal jejunum, distal to the ligament of Treitz. A barium-containing solution is then
infused at a uniform rate through the catheter. One variation is to infuse methylcellulose
after a small amount of barium; this double contrast technique offers an improved
inspection of the mucosal surface pattern (D. D. Maglinte et al., 1987). Advantages of naso-
jejunal intubation include bypassing the regulatory mechanisms of the pylorus and a more
uniform distention and opacification of the entire small bowel, particularly in patients who
are unable to drink an adequate volume of contrast by their own volition. Enteroclysis is
particularly effective in provoking radiographic evidence of low-grade partial obstructions
in patients with intermittent symptoms, findings that may have been undetectable by small
bowel follow through. The process of naso-jejunal intubation and infusion of contrast,
however, can be very uncomfortable, and in some cases intolerable, for patients; some
institutions provide conscious sedation for that reason.

2.2 Imaging findings in IBD by fluoroscopy

Much of the fluoroscopic imaging of UC, which predominantly involves the large bowel,
has been replaced by colonoscopy. However, approximately 20% of patients with severe UC

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have associated backwash ileitis. Fluoroscopy demonstrates a patulous, incompetent

ileocecal valve with a granulated mucosal relief pattern of the terminal ileum. This finding is
in contrast to CD, which is characterized by a stenotic ileocecal valve with luminal
narrowing and ulceration of the terminal ileum. Backwash ileitis usually resolves following
total colectomy (Carucci & Levine, 2002).
Crohns disease can affect the digestive tract anywhere from the mouth to the anus;
approximately 80% of these patients have small bowel involvement (Figure 1). Unlike UC,
skip areas of uninvolved bowel may be interspersed between segments of affected bowel.
However, CD has a predilection for affecting the terminal ileum. The earliest radiographic
sign of CD is aphthous ulcers, which appear as shallow collections of contrast with
surrounding radiolucent haloes due to adjacent mucosal edema. Aphthous ulcers are not
specific to CD and may be seen in a number of diseases. However, as CD progresses, the
ulcers coalesce to form linear, curvilinear, or spiculated areas of ulceration along the
mesenteric border of the small bowel. There is resultant retraction of the bowel wall, leading
to pseudodiverticula and pseudosacculation of the anti-mesenteric bowel wall. These active
inflammatory changes can lead to intermittent small bowel obstruction, which is best
diagnosed by enteroclysis technique. Severe disease produces a classic cobblestone
appearance, with deep transverse and longitudinal ulcerations bordered by areas of edema
creating a checkered mucosal relief pattern. Chronic CD leads to circumferential bowel wall
thickening and irreversible stricture formation.

A B C
Fig. 1. Fluoroscopic imaging findings in Crohns disease. A, Aphthous ulcers, looks halo
sign as a sign of aptose ulcers B, a small-bowel follow-through examination with focus on
the terminal ileum shows some narrowing and stricture, which gives a "string sign"C, a
small-bowel follow-through examination with a focus on the terminal ileum shows linear,
longitudinal and transverse ulcerations that make up the "cobblestone appearance".
Though fluoroscopic examination of the small bowel is still widely used, trans- and
extramural disease are poorly detected with this technique. Moreover, the exposure of
patients to ionizing radiation with this modality should be taken into consideration,
particularly in patients who are likely to undergo frequent imaging examinations.

3. Computed tomographic imaging

Computed tomography remains the work-horse imaging modality for IBD and its
complications in the United States. As a high-resolution cross-sectional technique, CT can

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visualize not only the bowel lumen, but also the bowel wall, visceral fat, intra-abdominal
lymph nodes, and mesenteric vasculature supplying the bowel. Extraintestinal disease
manifestations such as nephrolithiasis, sacroiliitis, and primary sclerosing cholangitis can
readily be evaluated. Computed tomography can additionally be performed rapidly, and CT
scanners are present in most emergency rooms, rendering it an ideal choice in the urgent or
emergent setting.
The past two decades have witnessed a revolution in the technology of CT scanners. The
introduction of the helical CT scanner has permitted the acquisition of volumetric data sets
in a continuous, uninterrupted manner. The source data is obtained isotropically, meaning
that the image voxel size is equivalent in all three dimensions. Because of this, the data can
be reconstructed from the source axial plane into standard coronal or sagittal planes, or any
other plane desired by the radiologist. Also, the advent of multidetector row scanners,
initially with 4-slice devices in 1998, followed by 8-, 16-, 64-, and most recently 320-slice
devices, has had a dramatic effect on reducing scanning time. This, in turn, has shortened
the requisite breath hold for the patient, making the examination more comfortable and less
often degraded by respiratory motion artifact (Kalra et al., 2004).

3.1 Patient preparation and imaging technique

There exist a variety of CT protocols for abdominal indications. With regards to IBD,
a common reason to pursue imaging is for the assessment of small bowel pathology. As
such, CT enterography is usually the imaging protocol of choice. For this imaging
examination, patients are kept NPO for several hours prior; similar to fluoroscopy, a bowel
cleansing regimen is not routinely required. Intravenous contrast is always used when
possible. Enteral contrast is an indispensible component of the technique. Initial CT
enterography relied on positive enteral contrast agents, usually barium containing
solutions whose higher attenuation characteristics opacify the bowel lumen. However,
differentiating the thin line of mucosal enhancement due to intravenous contrast from the
opaque enteral contrast in the bowel lumen can be challenging. Therefore, a more popular
approach is to use neutral enteral contrast agents that distend but do not opacify the
bowel lumen. In this manner, mucosal enhancement patterns are well seen, as are areas of
non-distensibility such as strictures. Water is a commonly used neutral enteral agent, but
since this has the disadvantage of being absorbed by the body, commercially available
preparations that are isodense to water on CT imaging but are non-absorbable are also
prevalent (Horsthuis et al., 2008).
The volume of enteral contrast administered to the patient and the duration over which they
are asked to ingest contrast vary by institution. However, the overall goal is to maximize
uniform distention of the small bowel. Patients are first instructed to drink the enteral
contrast, generally over approximately 45 to 60 minutes. They then lie down on the CT
scanner; intravenous contrast is administered; and the CT scan is performed 50-60 seconds
later, when mucosal enhancement is at its peak.
The CT analog to fluoroscopic enteroclysis, known at CT enteroclysis, is also used as a
method to achieve optimal luminal filling. Contrast is usually administered under
fluoroscopic guidance followed by the CT scan. Unlike fluoroscopy, though, a real-time
assessment of bowel distensibility cannot be made by CT, as the patients are usually only
imaged after the contrast has been fully administered. The disadvantage of patient
discomfort caused by naso-jejunal intubation is no different.

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An important concern with CT is the use of ionizing radiation. Recent studies suggest that
CT exams account for the vast majority of ionizing radiation exposure to IBD patients from
imaging, especially among patients diagnosed at an early age. An informed analysis of the
associated risks, especially for the pediatric patient, should be performed prior to each
examination. This topic is further addressed in section 6.

3.2 Imaging findings in Crohns disease by CT

A principal clinical question for which CT is utilized in IBD is the determination of active
versus inactive disease in the small bowel. This distinction is of high clinical significance:
patients with active inflammation are treated medically with immuno-modulatory therapy,
while symptomatic patients with inactive, fibrosed strictures often require surgical
intervention. Areas of actively inflamed bowel on CT most commonly demonstrate
pathologic bowel thickening, which is defined as bowel wall greater than 3mm in thickness.
A 3mm cutoff was selected by consensus as the best compromise between sensitivity and
specificity and is for the most part used universally for all cross-sectional modalities
including MRI and ultrasound. Another differentiating characteristic of active disease is
mucosal hyperenhancement, which appears as a pencil-thin line outlining the luminal
surface of the bowel wall and reflects the hyperemia of inflammation (Figure 2A). This
finding is considered the most sensitive for active disease, and the degree of
hyperenhancement may correlate with the degree of underlying inflammation. Active
inflammation also results in submucosal edema, which manifests on CT examination as a
lower attenuation submucosal layer interposed between mucosal and serosal layers. This
mural stratification is also referred to as the target sign due to its characteristic appearance
(Figure 2C). The most specific feature for active CD is engorgement of the vasa recta
adjacent to an inflamed loop of bowel, a finding known as the comb sign (Figure 2B).
Secondary signs for active inflammation include mesenteric fat stranding and
lymphadenopathy. Of note, while mucosal hyperenhancement and abnormal bowel
thickening are frequent features of active CD, they are not specific and may be seen in
infectious enteritis or mesenteric ischemia. Similarly, mural stratification can be seen in UC
as well as bowel ischemia. On the other hand, the comb sign is considered fairly specific
for CD (Elsayes, et al., 2010; Horsthuis, et al., 2008).
The presence of mucosal hyperenhancement, abnormal bowel wall thickening, mural
stratification, and prominent adjacent vasa recta in an area of poorly distensible bowel
suggests that the stricture is due to active inflammation and is thus potentially reversible
by medical interventions. The strictures of chronic CD, conversely, are fibrotic,
irreversible, and do not demonstrate the features of active disease described above. The
presence of luminal narrowing with proximal bowel dilation is suggestive of fibrosis.
Long-standing inflammation leads to fat deposition within the submucosa of the bowel
wall; this apparent mural stratification should not be confused with the target sign of
active disease and can be differentiated based on the Hounsfield attenuation
characteristics of fat, which is less that 0 Hounsfield units (Figure 3A). Secondly, the
fibrotic retraction preferentially affects the mesenteric bowel wall, leading to the
pseudosacculation appearance on the anti-mesenteric side that can also be seen by
fluoroscopy. Finally, chronic transmural CD, possibly due to chronic inflammatory
stimulation, produces a fibrofatty proliferation of the mesenteric fat, also known on CT
examinations as the creeping fat sign (Figure 3B).

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Fig. 2. CT findings in acute Crohns disease. A, Active inflammation causes mucosal

hyperenhancement and bowel wall thickening greater than 3mm. B, Engorgement of the
vasa recta adjacent to an inflamed loop of bowel is a specific finding in active CD and has
been coined the comb sign. C, Submucosal edema yields a characteristic target sign.

Fig. 3. CT findings in chronic Crohns disease. A, Fatty depositions in the submucosal layer
may mimic the target sign of active disease (red arrow). B, Fibrofatty proliferation of the
mesenteric fat, or creeping fat, (red arrow) is seen in chronic, transmural disease.
The extra-mural complications of CD are excellently depicted by CT. Penetrating disease is
present in approximately 20% with CD, with fistulas representing the most common
pathology in this category (Schreyer, et al., 2004). Fistulous tracts may form between any
two epithelially lined viscera in the abdomen, such as other loops of bowel (entero-enteric),
the bladder (entero-vesicular), and the skin (entero-cutaneous). A communicating tract that
fills with enteral contrast is diagnostic (Figure 4A). Evaluation with CT is highly sensitive

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for the detection of fistulae, though certain anatomic locations such as the perianal region
are better imaged by MRI, as discussed below.
Intra-abdominal abscesses are extra-luminal fluid collections that do not communicate with
the bowel (Figure 4B). The discontinuity of the abscess collection with the bowel lumen is
important to verify but can occasionally be challenging, as neural enteral contrast within the
bowel mimics the attenuation characteristics of the infected fluid within the abscess cavity.
For this reason, positive enteral contrast is often preferred to neutral contrast in patients
with suspected abscess.

Fig. 4. Complications of Crohns disease on CT. A, A fistula between two loops of small
bowel is well depicted by CT as a thin tract of oral contrast connecting the lumens of the two
loops. B, An intra-abdominal abscess posterior to the distal large bowel, likely due to a
microperforation, was identified in this patient.

3.3 Imaging findings in ulcerative colitis by CT

As discussed previously, colonoscopy remains the primary approach for diagnosing and
determining extent of disease in UC. However, severe complications of UC such as toxic
megacolon are an important indication for imaging, with CT representing the mainstay
modality in these unstable patients. CT findings include thinning of the colonic wall,
luminal distension, and pneumatosis; severe cases can lead to perforation and free
intraperitoneal gas.

4. Magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging enjoys many inherent advantages over other cross-sectional
imaging modalities. These include the ability to acquire images in any imaging plane, the
lack of ionizing radiation, and excellent soft tissue resolution. Because of the lack of ionizing
radiation, imaging may be performed at multiple time points during an examination, for
example at different phases of contrast enhancement, providing a multiparametric
assessment of any particular pathology. Additionally, cine images can be obtained
sequentially over time, in an MRI analog to fluoroscopy.
The intrinsic spatial resolution of MRI, however, is inferior to that of CT. An MRI
examination also takes longer to complete than a CT exam. However, the widespread

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adoption of new, faster MRI pulse sequences, described in the subsequent section, has
significantly reduced scanning time and opened the door for small bowel imaging. For
specific clinical scenarios, such as perianal disease, MRI is the recognized gold standard
non-invasive technique.

4.1 Patient preparation and imaging technique

As with CT, multiple different MRI protocols exist for examining the abdomen. In the
realm of IBD, one very useful MR examination is magnetic resonance enterography
(MRE). Although an in-depth discussion of the various pulse sequences used in
abdominal MRI imaging is beyond the scope of this text, a familiarity with the commonly
used sequences is valuable in understanding the applicability of MRE. Sequences with T2
weighting are the best for evaluating the bowel wall. Intravenous contrast enhancement
appears bright on T1 weighted sequences; however, as feces can occasionally be bright on
T1 imaging too, pre-contrast T1 image sets are obtained to help identify true
enhancement. Conventional spin echo pulse sequences do not afford the requisite
temporal resolution to image the abdomen during a single breath hold; as such, the
resulting images are often degraded by respiratory motion artifact. Beyond that, high
temporal resolution is made all the more critical when investigating a moving target as
the bowel. For these reasons, MRE capitalizes on customized MR pulse sequences that
offer improved temporal resolution and are able to image the entire abdomen during a
single breath hold. For example, single-shot turbo spin echo (e.g. SSFSE or HASTE)
sequences produce high quality, motion-free T2 weighted images of the entire bowel
(Fidler, 2007). Balanced steady state free precession sequences (e.g. FIESTA or TrueFISP)
are T1 and T2 intermediate-weighted sequences that that are rapid and demonstrate
increased conspicuity of the mesentery for detection of inflammatory changes or fistula
formation (Chalian et al., 2011). These sequences, due to their rapidity, can be performed
as thick slab cinematic acquisitions to evaluate bowel peristalsis, known as MR
fluoroscopy. Fat suppression is routinely employed during both T2-weighted and T1-
weighted post-contrast sequences, to highlight areas of bowel wall edema and
enhancement. The post-contrast T1 fat-suppressed sequences are performed using 3-D
techniques to accelerate image acquisition and enable dynamic evaluation of bowel
enhancement at multiple timepoints post-contrast. An average imaging time for MRE,
exclusive of the time required for enteral contrast administration, is approximately 30-45
minutes.
There is no specific bowel preparation prior to MRE, but patients generally are kept NPO for
several hours prior to the exam. Anti-peristaltic agents such as glucagon may help improve
image quality and are often administered just prior to imaging. Intravenous contrast with a
gadolinium-chelate containing agent is standardly administered. There are several options
in enteral contrast, which can be categorized by their MRI signal characteristics. Negative
agents are intrinsically T1 and T2 dark compounds that usually contain superparamagnetic
iron oxide particles. Their principle advantage is that they emphasize mucosal enhancement
and bowel wall edema. Positive agents are intrinsically T1 and T2 bright compounds;
these, similar to positive CT contrast agents, may obscure mucosal enhancement findings
and thus are infrequently used. The most commonly used class of MR enteral contrast
agents is the biphasic type, which are T1 dark and T2 bright. With these agents, one can
readily assess the pattern of bowel wall folds on T2 weighted images without losing
mucosal enhancement data on T1 weighted images (Tolan et al., 2010). Contrast agents are

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often hyperosmolar to maximize luminal distention; an important side effect for patients to
be aware of is diarrhea.
Enteral contrast is primarily administered orally, though MR enteroclysis is also an option.
The attendant patient discomfort and added radiation from the fluoroscopy-guided
placement of the naso-jejunal tube are identical to the CT analog. However, one benefit of
MR enteroclysis is the ability to perform MR fluoroscopy during the instillation of enteral
contrast, a technique that provides dynamic information regarding bowel distensibility.

4.2 Imaging findings in Crohns disease by MR enterography

The strengths of MRI when applied towards IBD are best suited for investigating the small
bowel and the perianal region, anatomic locations towards which CD demonstrates a
tropism. Magnetic resonance imaging of the large bowel, an examination that would have
increased relevance in UC, is not routinely performed. Therefore, in this section, emphasis
will be placed on the findings of CD in the small bowel by MRI.
Many of the imaging characteristics of active CD on MRI, as one may expect, are
morphologically identical to those appreciated on CT. For example, bowel wall thickening
greater than 3mm is considered abnormal and evidence of active inflammation. Active
disease with intramural edema manifests as T2 hyperintensity between the mucosa and
muscularis propria (Figure 5A) (Sinha et al., 2009). Mucosal hyperenhancement is also an
important marker of active disease. Diffuse, avid, homogeneous mucosal enhancement is
suggestive of active disease (Figure 5B). Alternatively, low-level, heterogeneous mural
enhancement without a mucosal component favors the diagnosis of chronic fibrosis (Figure
5C). Ulceration may be difficult to identify without proper bowel distention; ulcers appear
as thin lines of high signal intensity within thickening loops of bowel. Both MRI and CT are
insensitive for early aphthous ulcers, for which fluoroscopy or endoscopy should be
considered as more sensitive.
Additional evidence of active disease such as the comb sign, in which there is
engorgement of the mesenteric vessels adjacent to an inflamed loop of bowel, are well
identified by MRI. Strictures appear as a focal narrowing in the bowel lumen and are
considered significant if there is a pre-stenotic dilation of the proximal bowel. The so-called
creeping fat sign occurs in chronic, transmural inflammation, in which hypertrophy of the
mesenteric fat produces mass effect and surrounds viscera; this sign is specific for CD.
Another sign of chronic inflammatory fibrosis is T2 hypointensity within the bowel wall.
Extramural disease is as conspicuous, if not more so, on MRI as it is on CT. Fistulae appear
as T2 hyperintense tracts that avidly enhance and extend from bowel to a second epithelial
lined organ such as another segment of bowel, the skin, or the bladder. Sinuses are blind-
ending tracts that extend from bowel and typically terminate within the mesentery. Both
fistulae and sinuses cause translocation of gut flora out of the bowel and can be associated
with abscess formation.

4.3 Imaging findings in perianal disease

In addition to evaluating the small bowel with enterography, MRI is a powerful tool in the
investigation of perianal fistulae. The lifetime risk of developing fistulous disease in CD is
approximately 20-40%. Anorectal fistulae are common and are classified based on their
location relative to the anal sphincter complex and pelvic floor musculature, as anatomic
location impacts upon treatment options. The most common type of anorectal fistula is the
intersphincteric fistula (Figure 6A), followed by the transphincteric fistula (Figure 6B). The

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accuracy of MRI for diagnosing and classifying anorectal fistulae is comparable to exam
under anesthesia (Schreyer et al., 2004).

Fig. 5. Findings of Crohns disease by MR enterography. A) Submucosal edema appears as

T2 hyperintensity interposed between the mucosa and muscularis propria (red arrow). B)
Homogeneous, avid mucosal enhancement on T1-weighted imaging is suggestive of active
disease (red arrow). C) Conversely, fixed lumimal narrowing on a T2 weighted image (red
arrow, C-1) that demonstrates delayed mural enhancement on a post contrast T1 weighted
image (red arrow, C-2) without a mucosal component is seen in chronic fibrosis.

5. Ultrasound
Ultrasound is a cross-sectional imaging technique that has been used extensively in the
imaging of IBD. As with other technologies, ultrasound has its own unique set of
advantages, such as low relative cost, lack of ionizing radiation, and real-time imaging
capability. Disadvantages include the inability to visualize portions of small bowel, rectum,
and sigmoid, as well as operator dependence, with the quality of the examination contingent
on the technical skill of the ultrasonographer. Ultrasound has been shown to possibly be as
accurate in the diagnosis of IBD as CT and MRI based on detection of wall thickening and
hypervascularity by Doppler. However, a high sensitivity is likely achievable only in the
hands of an expert ultrasonographer, a resource that is not widely available or easy to
standardize. Ultrasound is particularly relevant in pediatric imaging: the smaller body
habitus in this patient population allows for a more complete examination, and the lack of
ionizing radiation is likely safer compared to CT.

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Fig. 6. MRI findings of anorectal fistulae. A, T2 hyperintensity that extends between the
external and internal sphincter complexes is diagnostic of a intersphincteric fistula (red
arrow). B, Two sequential T2 weighted images demonstrate a linear hyperintense focus
traversing through the internal and external sphincter complexes consist with a
transsphincteric fistula (red arrow, B-1). The subsequent image demonstrates an associated
fluid collection extending into the left ischioanal fossa (white arrow, B-2).

5.1 Patient preparation and imaging technique

Similar to the previously described modalities, minimal patient preparation is required
in ultrasound. Since luminal gas can cause artifacts that obscure underlying structures,
non-effervescent liquid may be administered to displace bowel gas distally and provide
some luminal distension. The choice of ultrasound transducer is predicated by the
patients body size. Higher frequency transducers produce higher resolution images but
have poorer tissue penetration compared to lower frequency transducers. Practically, an
ultrasonographer will begin the examination with the highest frequency transducer
available, which is usually a 15 megahertz transducer; if there are structures that are not
well seen, the ultrasonographer can change to a lower frequency one.
The approach to handling the ultrasound transducer and physically tracing it across the
abdomen is of paramount importance. A key technique in imaging the bowel is known as
graded compression. Increasing pressure is applied with the transducer head as it is
swept across the surface of the abdomen. This has the effect of displacing bowel gas and
overlying bowel loops so that the area of interest can be inspected with the greatest possible
clarity (Darge et al., 2010).

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5.2 Imaging findings in IBD by ultrasound

A normal segment of bowel on ultrasound exhibits five discrete layers. The inner-most layer
is a thin hyperechoic line that demarcates the interface between the lumen and the mucosa.
The next layer is a hypoechoic line at the interface between the mucosa and submucosa. The
third layer is a hyperechoic line between submucosa and the muscularis propria; this is the
most commonly involved layer in IBD. The fourth layer is the muscularis propria itself and
is hypoechoic. The fifth and final layer is hyperechoic and represents the serosa (Migaleddu
et al., 2008).
Inflammatory bowel disease is manifested on ultrasound as abnormal bowel wall
thickening, defined as greater than 3mm, and loss of definition of the discrete bowel wall
layers. Both UC and CD result in bowel wall thickening. However, in UC the bowel wall
layers are preserved, as opposed to CD; this distinction though may not be sufficiently
accurate to differentiate the two diseases by US alone. Intra-mural edema appears as
generalized hypoechogenicity within the bowel wall. Conversely, fibrostenoic disease
exhibits hyperechogenicity of the submucosal layer. Superficial ulcers may be detected as
hypoechoic interruptions within the innermost bowel wall layer.
Doppler ultrasound can provide useful adjunct data to the structural information from
conventional ultrasound. Normal bowel wall, as well as fibrostenotic bowel wall, does not
usually demonstrate detectable Doppler blood flow. Therefore, the presence of intramural
blood flow is suggestive of the hyperemia of active disease.

6. Special considerations in the pediatric population

Performing diagnostic imaging examinations on pediatric patients requires consideration of
several important factors. For example, pediatric patients may not be able to tolerate
prolonged examinations such as MR enterography, necessitating the use of sedation to
obtain satisfactory images. Moreover, not only are pediatric patients with IBD committed to
a lifetime of imaging studies, but also their increased percentage of actively dividing tissue
and relatively smaller body habitus render them inherently more sensitive to radiation
injury and mutagenesis compared an adult. When these risks are coupled with their baseline
increased risk of malignancy due to IBD, the importance of radiation dose reduction
becomes apparent.
The association between diagnostic radiation and cancer risk is controversial. Directly
studying the effects of ionizing radiation on malignancy risk is extremely challenging.
Frequently cited epidemiologic data are based on atomic bomb survivors and nuclear power
plant workers who were exposed to radiation levels that exceed those in diagnostic imaging.
Moreover, the deleterious effects of radiation likely have a prolonged incubation time,
perhaps on the order of decades, before they are clinically apparent. On the other hand,
there is little doubt that every effort should be made to reduce the radiation exposure in
pediatric patients to minimize any potential risk.
Estimating the magnitude of absorbed radiation during a CT examination can be made
through the use of phantoms. Though no patient, and especially no pediatric patient, is
identical to the standard, adult-sized body phantom, this approach remains the most
quantitative means of estimating radiation levels within the body during a CT exam.
However, extrapolating malignancy risk from these data is difficult, as different organs
exhibit unique susceptibilities to radiation exposure. For example, the gonads are far more
radio-sensitive than muscle tissue. For this reason, the concept of effective dose was

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introduced. This term, measured in millisieverts (mSv), reflects an attempt to create a

standard metric that quantifies the impact of the absorbed radiation (Peloquin et al., 2008).
Effective dose is calculated by multiplying the absorbed radiation dose by a conversion
factor for the body segment that was imaged; this conversion factor varies based upon the
radiosensitivity of the exposed organs.
The choice of imaging modality for IBD over the past two decades has trended towards an
increase in the use of CT. Pediatric patients may undergo multiple CT examinations over their
lifetime, and the cumulative effective dose they receive may exceed 75 mSv, a level beyond
which radiation-induced malignancy is felt to become an increasing concern. Patients with
Crohns disease are imaged far more frequently than those with UC. Also, patients who
require immunosuppressive therapy or surgery are also at a higher risk of frequent imaging.
Additional risk factors include stricturing or penetrating disease (Desmond et al., 2008).
The most important avenue for reducing radiation dose is the eradication of unnecessary
examinations. Minimizing exposure time during fluoroscopy should be standard practice.
Multiple techniques for reducing radiation dose in CT examinations have been developed
and should be implemented when imaging pediatric patients. Finally, substituting non-
ionizing radiation imaging modalities such as MRI and ultrasound should be considered
when appropriate.

7. Imaging recommendations in IBD

The modalities described in this chapter each demonstrate their own unique set of
advantageous and disadvantageous features. While fluoroscopy may show superficial
mucosal disease better than any cross-sectional technique, extra-luminal disease is poorly
visualized. The high spatial and temporal resolution of CT has driven its rise in popularity
over the past two decades; however, this examination requires the use of ionizing radiation,
and an appreciation of the possible associated risks is paramount prior to selecting this
modality. While MRI is more costly and time consuming, it may be the best choice in a
clinical situation where minimizing radiation dose is important or when soft tissue
characterization is required.
For the evaluation of a suspected complication or acute exacerbation of previously
diagnosed Crohns disease in an adult patient, we recommend the use of CT enterography,
with MR enterography as the next best option. Urgent and emergent complications such as
abscess formation and acute bowel obstruction are best imaged with CT. On the other hand,
perianal disease should be investigated with MRI. Early manifestations of IBD may be
below the sensitivity of cross-sectional imaging but can be well identified by fluoroscopy.
Enteroclysis techniques should generally be reserved for those patients with remitting-
relapsing mild symptoms such as partial intermittent small bowel obstructions as a
provocative examination to detect short strictures. In pediatric patients, MR enterography is
becoming the preferred primary imaging modality due to lack of ionizing radiation. There is
likely to be an increasing role for ultrasound in surveillance imaging in the future given its
low cost and lack of requirement of sedation or oral contrast preparation.

8. References
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Gastroenterol Clin North Am, 31(1), 93-117, ix.

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150 Inflammatory Bowel Disease Advances in Pathogenesis and Management

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 Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Advances in Pathogenesis and
Management
Edited by Dr. Sami Karoui

ISBN 978-953-307-891-5
Hard cover, 332 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 27, January, 2012
Published in print edition January, 2012

This book is dedicated to inflammatory bowel disease, and the authors discuss the advances in the
pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, as well as several new parameters involved in the etiopathogeny
of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, such as intestinal barrier dysfunction and the roles of TH 17 cells and
IL 17 in the immune response in inflammatory bowel disease. The book also focuses on several relevant
clinical points, such as pregnancy during inflammatory bowel disease and the health-related quality of life as
an end point of the different treatments of the diseases. Finally, advances in management of patients with
inflammatory bowel disease are discussed, especially in a complete review of the recent literature.

How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:

Rahul A. Sheth and Michael S. Gee (2012). The Role of Imaging in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Evaluation,
Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Advances in Pathogenesis and Management, Dr. Sami Karoui (Ed.), ISBN: 978-
953-307-891-5, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/inflammatory-bowel-disease-
advances-in-pathogenesis-and-management/the-role-of-imaging-in-ibd-evaluation

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