Le Corbusier

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Contents

1 BAB 1 1
1.1 Le Corbusier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Early life (18871904) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Travel and rst houses (19051914) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 The Dom-ino House and the Schwob House (19141918) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Paris: Painting, Cubism, Purism and L'Esprit Nouveau (19181922) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 Toward an Architecture (19201923) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.6 The Esprit Nouveau Pavilion (1925) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.7 Decorative Art Today (1925) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.8 The Five Points of Architecture to the Villa Savoye (19231931) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.9 The League of Nations Competition and the Pessac Housing Project (19261930) . . . . . 7
1.1.10 The Founding of the CIAM (1928) and the Athens Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.11 Moscow Projects (19281934) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.12 The Cit Universitaire, Immeuble Clart and Cit de Refuge (19281933) . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.13 The Ville Contemporaine, Plan Voisin and the Cit Radieuse (19221939) . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.14 World War II and Reconstruction; the Unit d'Habitation in Marseille (19391952) . . . . . 10
1.1.15 Postwar Projects- The United Nations Headquarters (19471952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.16 Religious architecture (19501963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.17 Chandigarh (19511956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.18 Later life and work (19551965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.19 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.20 Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.21 Furniture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.22 Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.23 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.24 Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.25 Fondation Le Corbusier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.1.26 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.27 World Heritage Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.28 Memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.29 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.30 Books by Le Corbusier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

i
ii CONTENTS

1.1.31 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.1.32 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.33 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.34 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2 BAB 2 26
2.1 Ville Contemporaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.1 Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.2 Critics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.1 The Idea and the organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 The Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.3 Pavilions of the French designers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.4 Foreign Pavilions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.5 Decorative Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.6 Attractions and amusements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.7 The legacy of the Exposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Dom-Ino House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.3 Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3 BAB 3 36
3.1 Bevis Hillier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.1 Life and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2 Betjeman letter hoax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Villa Savoye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.2 History of the commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.5 Later history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CONTENTS iii

3.2.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 41

4.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 1

BAB 1

1.1 Le Corbusier
Charles Jeanneret redirects here. For the Australian
politician, see Charles Jeanneret (politician).

Charles-douard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier

(French: [l kbyzje]; October 6, 1887 August 27,
1965), was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter,
urban planner, writer, and one of the pioneers of what
is now called modern architecture. He was born in
Switzerland and became a French citizen in 1930. His
career spanned ve decades; he constructed buildings in
Europe, Japan, India, and North and South America.
Dedicated to providing better living conditions for the
residents of crowded cities, Le Corbusier was inuential Le Corbusier (Charles-douard Jeanneret), 1920, Nature morte
in urban planning, and was a founding member of the (Still Life), oil on canvas, 80.9 cm 99.7 cm (31.9 in 39.3
Congrs International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). in), Museum of Modern Art, New York
Le Corbusier prepared the master plan for the city of
Chandigarh in India, and contributed specic designs for
several buildings there.
On July 17, 2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in
seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO
World Heritage sites as an Outstanding Contribution to
the Modern Movement.[2]

1.1.1 Early life (18871904)

Charles-douard Jeanneret was born on October 6, applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years
1887 in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small city in the French- later he attended the higher course of decoration, founded
speaking Neuchtel canton in north-western Switzerland, by the painter Charles L'Eplattenier, who had studied
in the Jura mountains, just 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) across in Budapest and Paris. Le Corbusier wrote later that
the border from France. It was an industrial town, de- L'Eplattenier had made him a man of the woods and
voted to the manufacture of watches. (He adopted the taught him painting from nature.[3] His father took him
pseudonym of Le Corbusier in 1920). His father was frequently into the mountains around the town. He wrote
an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, while his later, we were constantly on mountaintops; we grew ac-
mother gave piano lessons. His elder brother Albert was customed to a vast horizon.[7] His architecture teacher
an amateur violinist.[3] He attended a kindergarten that in the Art School was the architect Ren Chapallaz, who
used Frbelian methods.[4][5][6] had a large inuence on Le Corbusiers earliest house
Like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies designs. However, he reported later that it was the art
van der Rohe, Le Corbusier did not have formal aca- teacher L'Eplattenier who made him choose architecture.
demic training as an architect. He was attracted to the I had a horror of architecture and architects, he wrote.
visual arts and at the age of fteen he entered the munic- "...I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. I
ipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the moved into architecture. [8]

1
2 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

1.1.2 Travel and rst houses (19051914) built his rst house, the Villa Fallet, for the engraver Louis
Fallet, a friend of his teacher Charles L'Eplattenier. Lo-
cated on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds. It was
a large chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style
and carefully-crafted colored geometric patterns on the
faade. The success of this house led to his construction
of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer,
in the same area.[9]
In September 1907, he made his rst trip outside of
Switzerland, going to Italy; then that winter traveling
Le Corbusiers student through Budapest to Vienna, where he stayed for four
project, The Villa Fallet, a chalet in La Chaux-de- months and met Gustav Klimt and tried, without suc-
Fonds, Switzerland (1905) cess, to meet Josef Homan.[10] In Florence, he visited
the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made a
lifelong impression on him. I would have liked to live
in one of what they called their cells, he wrote later.
It was the solution for a unique kind of workers hous-
ing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise.[11] He traveled
to Paris, and during fourteen months between 1908 un-
til 1910 he worked as a draftsman in the oce of the
architect Auguste Perret, the pioneer of the use of re-
inforced concrete in residential construction and the ar-
chitect of the Art Deco landmark Thtre des Champs-
The lyses. Two years later, between October 1910 and
Maison Blanche, built for Le Corbusiers parents March 1911, he traveled to Germany and worked four
in La Chaux-de-Fonds (1912) months in the oce Peter Behrens, where Ludwig Mies
van der Rohe and Walter Gropius were also working and
learning.[12]
In 1911, he traveled again for ve months; this time he
journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria,
Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome. lling
nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw
including many sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms
he would later praise in his work Vers une architecture
(1923). He spoke of what he saw during this trip in many
of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le
Open Voyage d'Orient.[12]
Interior of the Maison Blanche (1912) In 1912, he began his most ambitious project; a new
house for his parents. also located on the forested hillside
near La-Chaux-de-Fonds. The Jeanneret-Perret house
was larger than the others, and in a more innovative style;
the horizontal planes contrasted dramatically with the
steep alpine slopes, and the white walls and lack of deco-
ration were in sharp contrast with the other buildings on
the hillside. The interior spaces were organized around
the four pillars of the salon in the center, foretelling the
open interiors he would create in his later buildings. The
project was more expensive to build than he imagined; his
The parents were forced to move from the house within ten
Villa Favre-Jacot in Le Locle, Switzerland (1912) years, and relocate in a more modest house. However,
it led to a commission to build an even more imposing
villa in the nearby village of Le Locle for a wealthy watch
Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the li- manufacturer. Georges Favre-Jacot. Le Corbusiers inte-
brary to read about architecture and philosophy, by visit- rior designed the new house in less than a month. The
ing museums, by sketching buildings, and by constructing building was carefully designed to t its hillside site, and
them. In 1905, he and two other students, under the su- interior plan was spacious and designed around a court-
pervision of their teacher, Ren Chapallaz, designed and yard for maximum light, signicant departure from the
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 3

traditional house.[13] it in his patent application as a juxtiposable system of

construction according to an innite number of combi-
nations of plans. This would permit, he wrote, the con-
1.1.3 The Dom-ino House and the Schwob struction of the dividing walls at any point on the faade
House (19141918) or the interior.
Under this system, the structure of the house did not have
to appear on the outside, but could be hidden behind a
glass wall, and the interior could be arranged in any way
the architect liked.[17] He rened the idea in his 1927
book on the Five Points of a New Architecture. This de-
sign, which called for the disassociation of the structure
from the walls, and the freedom of plans and faades, be-
came the foundation for most of his architecture over the
next ten years.[18]
In August 1916, Le Corbusier received his largest com-
mission ever, to construct a villa for the Swiss watch-
maker Anatole Schwob, for whom he had already com-
pleted several small remodeling projects. He was given a
large budget and the freedom to design not only the house,
but also the create the interior decoration and choose the
furniture. Following the precepts of Auguste Perret, he
Charles-douard Jeanneret, 191415, Maison Dom-Ino (Dom- built the structure out of reinforced concrete and lled the
ino House) gaps with brick. A large open hall with a chandelier occu-
pied the center of the building. You can see, he wrote
to Auguste Perret in July 1916, that Auguste Perret left
more in me than Peter Behrens.[19]
Unfortunately, Le Corbusiers grand ambitions collided
with the ideas and budget of his client, and led to bitter
conicts. Schwob went to court and denied Le Corbusier
access to site, or the right to claim to be the architect.
Le Corbusier responded, Whether you like it or not, my
presence is inscribed in every corner of your house. Le
Corbusier took great pride in the house, and reproduced
pictures in several of his books.[20]

1.1.4 Paris: Painting, Cubism, Purism

The Anatole Schwob House in La-Chaux-de-Fonds (19161918)
and L'Esprit Nouveau (19181922)
During World War I, Le Corbusier taught at his old school
Le Corbusier moved to Paris denitively in 1917 and be-
in La-Chaux-de-Fonds, He concentrated on theoretical
architectural studies using modern techniques.[14] In De- gan his own architectural practice with his cousin, Pierre
Jeanneret (18961967), a partnership that would last un-
cember 1914, along with the engineer Max Dubois, he
began a serious study of the use of reinforced concrete til the 1950s, with an interruption in the World War II
as a building material. He had rst discovered concrete years[21]
working with Auguste Perret in Paris, but now wanted to In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter Amde
use it in new ways. Ozenfant, in whom he recognised a kindred spirit. Ozen-
Reinforced concrete provided me with incredible re- fant encouraged him to paint, and the two began a pe-
sources, he wrote later, and variety, and a passionate riod of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and
plasticity in which by themselves my structures will be romantic, the pair jointly published their manifesto,
rhythm of a palace, and a Pompieen tranquility..[15] This Aprs le cubisme and established a new artistic movement,
led him to his plan for the Dom-Ino House (191415). Purism. Ozenfant and Le Corbusier began writing for a
This model proposed an open oor plan consisting of new journal, L'Esprit Nouveau, and promoted with energy
concrete slabs supported by a minimal number of thin and imagination his ideas of architecture.
reinforced concrete columns, with a stairway providing In the rst issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-
access to each level on one side of the oor plan. with Edouard Jeanneret adopted Le Corbusier (an altered
this design, the framework of the house[16] He described form of his maternal grandfathers name, Lecorbsier) as
4 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

Le Corbusier, 1920, Guitare verticale (2me version), oil on can-

vas, 100 cm 81 cm (39 in 32 in), Fondation Le Corbusier,
Paris

the interior aesthetically spare, with any movable furni-

ture made of tubular metal frames. Light xtures usually
comprised single, bare bulbs. Interior walls also were left
Le Corbusier, 1922, Nature morte verticale (Vertical Still Life), white.
oil on canvas, 146.3 cm 89.3 cm (57.6 by 35.2 inches),
Kunstmuseum Basel

1.1.5 Toward an Architecture (19201923)

a pseudonym, reecting his belief that anyone could rein-
In 1922 and 1923, Le Corbusier devoted himself to advo-
vent themselves.[22][23] Adopting a single name to identify cating his new concepts of architecture and urban plan-
oneself was in vogue by artists in many elds during that ning in a series of polemical articles published in L'Esprit
era, especially in Paris. Nouveau. At the Paris Salon d'Automne in 1922, he pre-
Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier did not build sented his plan for the Ville Contemporaine, a model city
anything, concentrating his eorts on Purist theory and for three million people, whose residents would live and
painting. In 1922, he and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret work in a group of identical sixty-story tall apartment
opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Svres.[14] His theo- buildings surrounded by lower zig-zag apartment blocks
retical studies soon advanced into several dierent single- and a large park. In 1923, he collected his essays from
family house models. Among these was the Maison Cit- L'Esprit Nouveau published his rst and most inuential
rohan, a pun on the name of the French Citron au- book, Towards an Architecture. He presented his ideas
tomaker, for the modern industrial methods and materi- for the future of architecture in a series of maxims, dec-
als Le Corbusier advocated using for the house. Here, Le larations, and exhortations. commencing with A grand
Corbusier proposed a three-oor structure, with a double- epoch has just begun. There exists a new spirit. There
height living room, bedrooms on the second oor, and a already exist a crowd of works in the new spirit, they are
kitchen on the third oor. The roof would be occupied found especially in industrial production. Architecture is
by a sun terrace. On the exterior Le Corbusier installed suocating in its current uses. Styles are a lie. Style
a stairway to provide second-oor access from ground is a unity of principles which animates all the work of
level. Here, as in other projects from this period, he also a period and which result in a characteristic spirit...Our
designed the faades to include large uninterrupted banks epoch determines each day its style..-Our eyes, unfortu-
of windows. The house used a rectangular plan, with ex- nately don't know how to see it yet, and his most famous
terior walls that were not lled by windows but left as maxim, A house is a machine to live in. Most of the
white, stuccoed spaces. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left many photographs and drawings in the book came from
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 5

outside the world of traditional architecture; the cover art is antistandarizational. Our pavilion will contain only
showed the promenade deck of an ocean liner, while oth- standard things created by industry in factories and mass
ers showed racing cars, airplanes, factories, and the huge produced, objects truly of the style of today...my pavilion
concrete and steel arches of zeppelin hangers.[24] will therefore be a cell extracted from a huge apartment
building..[25]

1.1.6 The Esprit Nouveau Pavilion (1925) Le Corbusier and his collaborators were given a plot of
land located behind the Grand Palais in the center of the
Exposition. The plot was forested, and exhibitors could
not cut down trees, so Le Corbusier built his pavilion
with a tree in the center, emerging through a hole in the
roof. The building was a stark white box with an interior
terrace and square glass windows.The interior was deco-
rated with a few cubist paintings and with a few pieces of
mass-produced commercially available furniture, entirely
dierent from the expensive, one-of-a-kind pieces in the
other pavilions. The chief organizers of the Exposition
were furious, and built a fence to partially hide the pavil-
ion. Le Corbusier had to appeal to the Ministry of Fine
Arts, which ordered that fence be taken down.[25]
Besides the furniture, the pavilion exhibited a model of
his Plan Voisin his provocative plan for rebuilding a
large part of the center of Paris. He proposed to bull-
The Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau (1925)
doze a large area north of the Seine and replace the nar-
row streets, monuments and houses with giant sixty-story
cruciform towers placed within an orthogonal street grid
and park-like green space. His scheme was met with criti-
cism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists,
although they were favorable to the ideas of Taylorism
and Fordism underlying his designs. The plan was never
seriously considered, but it provoked discussion concern-
ing how to deal with the overcrowded poor working-class
neighborhoods of Paris, and it later saw partial realization
in the housing developments built in the Paris suburbs in
the 1950s and 1960s.
The Pavilion was ridiculed by many critics, but Le Cor-
busier, undaunted, wrote: Right now one thing is sure.
1925 marks the decisive turning point in the quarrel be-
tween the old and new. After 1925, the antique-lovers
The model of the Plan Voisin for the reconstruction of Paris dis-
will have virtually ended their lives...Progress is achieved
played at the Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau
through experimentation; the decision will be awarded on
[26]
An important early work of Le Corbusier was the Esprit the eld of battle of the new.
Nouveau Pavilion, built for the 1925 Paris International
Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, the
event which later gave Art Deco its name. Le Corbusier 1.1.7 Decorative Art Today (1925)
built the pavilion in collaboration with Amde Ozenfant
and with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Le Corbusier and In 1925, Le Corbusier combined a series of articles about
Ozenfant had broken with Cubism and formed the Purism decorative art from L'Esprit Nouveau into a book, L'art
movement in 1918 and in 1920 founded their journal dcoratif d'aujourd'hui (Decorative Art Today). The
L'Esprit Nouveau in 1920. In his new journal, Le Cor- book was a spirited attack on the very idea of decora-
busier vividly denounced the decorative arts: Decorative tive art. His basic premise, repeated throughout the book,
Art, as opposed to the machine phenomenon, is the nal was: Modern decorative art has no decoration. [27] He
twitch of the old manual modes, a dying thing. To illus- attacked with enthusiasm the styles presented at the 1925
trate his ideas, he and Ozenfant decided to create small Exposition of Decorative Arts: The desire to decorate
pavilion at the Exposition, representing his idea of the everything about one is a false spirit and an abominable
future urban housing unit. A house, he wrote, is a cell small perversion....The religion of beautiful materials is
within the body of a city. The cell is made up of the vital in its nal death agony...The almost hysterical onrush in
elements which are the mechanics of a house...Decorative recent years toward this quasi-orgy of decor is only the
6 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

last spasm of a death already predictable.[28] He cited the 1.1.8 The Five Points of Architecture to
1912 book of the Austrian architect Adolf Loos Orna- the Villa Savoye (19231931)
ment and crime, and quoted Looss dictum, The more a
people are cultivated, the more decor disappears. He at-
tacked the deco revival of classical styles, what he called
Louis Philippe and Louis XVI moderne"; he condemned
the symphony of color at the Exposition, and called it
the triumph of assemblers of colors and materials. They
were swaggering in colors... They were making stews
out of ne cuisine. He condemned the exotic styles pre-
sented at the Exposition based on the art of China, Japan,
India and Persia. It takes energy today to arm our
western styles. He criticized the precious and useless
objects that accumulated on the shelves in the new style.
He attacked the rustling silks, the marbles which twist
and turn, the vermilion whiplashes, the silver blades of
Byzantium and the OrientLets be done with it!"[29]
Why call bottles, chairs, baskets and objects dec- The
orative?" Le Corbusier asked. They are useful Villa La Roche-Jeanerette (now Fondation Le Cor-
tools.Decor is not necessary. Art is necessary. He de- busier) in Paris (1923)
clared that in the future the decorative arts industry would
produce only objects which are perfectly useful, conve-
nient, and have a true luxury which pleases our spirit by
their elegance and the purity of their execution, and the
eciency of their services. This rational perfection and
precise determinate creates the link sucient to recog-
nize a style. He described the future of decoration in
these terms: The ideal is to go work in the superb of-
ce of a modern factory, rectangular and well-lit, painted
in white Ripolin (a major French paint manufacturer);
where healthy activity and laborious optimism reign.
He concluded by repeating Modern decoration has no
decoration.[29]
The book became a manifesto for those who opposed
the more traditional styles of the decorative arts; In the
1930s, as Le Corbusier predicted, the modernized ver-
sions of Louis Philippe and Louis XVI furniture and Corbusier
the brightly colored wallpapers of stylized roses were re- Haus in Weissenhof, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)
placed by a more sober, more streamlined style. Grad-
ually the modernism and functionality proposed by Le
Corbusier overtook the more ornamental style. The
shorthand titles that Le Corbusier used in the book,
1925.EXPO.ARTS.DECO was adapted in 1966 by the
art historian Bevis Hillier for a catalog of an exhibition
on the style, and in 1968 in the title of a book, Art Deco
of the 20s and 30s. and thereafter the term Art Deco
was commonly used as the name of the style.[30]

Citrohan
Haus in Weissenhof, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 7

tect wished, and an open oor plan, meaning that the oor
space was free to be congured into rooms without con-
cern for supporting walls. The second oor of the Villa
Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that al-
low unencumbered views of the large surrounding gar-
den, and which constitute the fourth point of his system.
The fth point was the roof garden to compensate for the
green area consumed by the building and replacing it on
the roof. A ramp rising from ground level to the third-
oor roof terrace allows for an architectural promenade
through the structure. The white tubular railing recalls
the industrial ocean-liner aesthetic that Le Corbusier
Themuch admired.
Villa Savoye in Poissy (19281931)
Le Corbuser was quite rhapsodic when describing the
house in Prcisions in 1930: the plan is pure, exactly
made for the needs of the house. It has its correct place
Main articles: Villa Savoye and Le Corbusiers Five in the rustic landscape of Poissy. It is Poetry and lyricism,
Points of Architecture supported by technique.[32] The house had its problems;
the roof persistently leaked, due to construction faults;
The notoriety that Le Corbusier achieved from his writ- but it became a landmark of modern architecture
[32]
and one
ings and the Pavilion at the 1925 Exposition led to com- of he best-known works of Le Corbusier.
missions to build a dozen residences in Paris and in the
Paris region in his purist style. These included the
Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret (19231925), which 1.1.9 The League of Nations Competi-
now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier; the Maison Gui- tion and the Pessac Housing Project
ette in Antwerp, Belgium (1926); a residence for Jacques (19261930)
Lipchitz; the Maison Cook, and the Maison Planeix.
In 1927, he was invited by the German Werkbund to
build three houses in the model city of Weissenhof near
Stuttgart, based on the Citrohan House and other theoret-
ical models he had published. He described this project
in detail one of his best-known essays, the Five Points of
Architecture.[31]
The following year he began the Villa Savoye (1928
1931), which became one of the most famous of Le Cor-
busiers works, and an icon of modernist architecture.
Located in Poissy, in a landscape surrounded by trees and
large lawn, the house is an elegant white box poised on
rows of slender pylons, surrounded by a horizontal band
of windows which ll the structure with light. The service
areas (parking, rooms for servants and laundry room) are
located under the house. Visitors enter a vestibule from Low-cost housing units built by Le Corbusier in the Quartiers
which a gentle ramp leads to the house itself. The bed- Modernes Frugs in Pessac (1927)
rooms and salons of the house are distributed around a
suspended garden; the rooms look both out at the land- Thanks to his passionate articles in L'Esprit Nouveau, his
scape and into the garden, which provides additional light participation in the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition and
and air. Another ramp leads up to the roof, and a stairway the conferences he gave on the new spirit of architecture,
leads down to the cellar under the pillars. Le Corbusier had become well known in the architectural
Villa Savoye succinctly summed up the ve points of ar- world, though he had only built residences for wealthy
chitecture that he had elucidated in L'Esprit Nouveau and clients. In 1926, he entered the competition for the con-
the book Vers une architecture, which he had been devel- struction of a headquarters for the League of Nations in
oping throughout the 1920s. First, Le Corbusier lifted Geneva with a plan for an innovative lakeside complex
the bulk of the structure o the ground, supporting it by of modernist white concrete oce buildings and meeting
pilotis, reinforced concrete stilts. These pilotis, in pro- halls. There were three-hundred thirty seven projects in
viding the structural support for the house, allowed him competition. It appeared that the Corbusiers project was
to elucidate his next two points: a free faade, meaning the rst choice of the architectural jury, but after much
non-supporting walls that could be designed as the archi- behind-the scenes maneuvering the jury declared it was
8 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

unable to pick a single winner, and the project was given methods for groups of habitations. A third meeting, on
instead to the top ve architects, who were all neoclassi- The functional city, was scheduled for Moscow in 1932,
cists. Le Corbusier was not discouraged; he presented his but was cancelled at the last minute. Instead the dele-
own plans to the public in articles and lectures to show the gates held their meeting on a cruise ship traveling between
opportunity that the League of Nations had missed.[33] Marseille and Athens. On board, they together drafted a
In 1927, Le Corbusier received the opportunity he had text on how modern cities should be organized. The text,
been looking for; he was commissioned by a Bordeaux called The Athens Charter, after considerable editing by
industrialist, Henry Frugs a fervent admirer of his ideas Le Corbusier and others, was nally published in 1957
and became an inuential text for city planners in the
on urban planning, to build a complex of worker hous-
ing, the Quartiers Modernes Frugs, at Pessac, near Bor- 1950s and 1960s. The group met once more in Paris in
1937 to discuss public housing and was scheduled to meet
deaux. Le Corbusier described Pessac as A little like a
Balzac novel, a chance to create a whole community for in the United States in 1939, but the meeting was can-
celled because of the war. The legacy of the CIAM was
living and working. The Fruges quarter became his rst
laboratory for a residential housing; a series of rectangu- a roughly common style and doctrine which helped de-
ne modern architecture in Europe and the United States
lar blocks composed of modular housing units located in
a garden setting. Like the unit displayed at the 1925 Ex- after World War II.[35]
position, each housing unit had its own small terrace. The
earlier villas he constructed all had white exterior walls,
but for Pessac, at the request of his clients, he added color;
1.1.11 Moscow Projects (19281934)
panels of brown, yellow and jade green, coordinated by
Le Corbusier. Originally planned to have some two hun-
dred units, it nally contained about fty to seventy hous-
ing units, in eight buildings. Pessac became the model on
a small scale for his later and much larger Cit Radieuse
projects.[34]

1.1.10 The Founding of the CIAM (1928)

and the Athens Charter

In 1928, Le Corbusier took a major step toward estab-

lishing modernist architecture as the dominant European
style. Le Corbusier had met with many of the leading
German and Austrian modernists during the competition
for the League of Nations in 1927. In the same year, Building of the Tsentrosoyuz, headquarters of Soviet trade
the German Werkbund organized an architectural expo- unions, Moscow (192834)
sition at the Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart. Seventeen lead-
ing modernist architects in Europe were invited to de- Main article: Le Corbusier in the USSR
sign twenty-one houses; Le Corbusier and Mies Van der
Rohe played a major part. In 1927 Le Corbusier, Pierre
Chareau and others proposed the foundation of an inter- Le Corbusier saw the new society founded in the Soviet
national conference to establish the basis for a common Union after the Russian Revolution as a promising labo-
style. The rst meeting of the Congrs Internationaux ratory for his architectural ideas. He met the Russian ar-
d'Architecture Moderne or International Congresses of chitect Konstantin Melnikov during the 1925 Decorative
Modern Architects (CIAM), was held in a chteau on Arts Exposition in Paris, and admired the construction of
Lake Leman in Switzerland June 2628, 1928. Those Melnikovs constructvist USSR pavilion, the only other
attending included Le Corbusier, Robert Mallet-Stevens, truly modernist building in the Exposition other than his
Auguste Perret, Pierre Chareau and Tony Garnier from own Esprit Nouveau pavilion. At Melnikovs invitation
France; Victor Bourgeois from Belgium; Walter Gropius, he traveled to Moscow, where found that his writings had
Erich Mendelsohn, Ernst May and Mies Van der Rohe been published in Russian; he gave lectures and inter-
from Germany; Josef Frank from Austria; Mart Stam views, and between 1928 and 1932 he constructed an of-
and Gerrit Rietveld from the Netherlands,and Adolf Loos ce building for the Tsentrosoyuz, the headquarters of
from Czechoslovakia. A delegation of Soviet architects Soviet trade unions.
was invited to attend, but they were unable to obtain In 1932, he was invited to take part in an international
visas. Later members included Josep Llus Sert of Spain competition for the new Palace of Soviets in Moscow,
and Alvar Aalto of Finland. No one attended from the which was to be built on the site of the Russian Ortho-
United States. A second meeting was organized in 1930 dox cathedral of Moscow, demolished by Stalins orders.
in Brussels by Victor Bourgeois on the topic Rational Le Corbusier contributed a highly original plan, a low-
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 9

level complex of circular and rectangular buildings and a

he constructed a oating homeless shelter for the Sal-
rainbow-like arch from which the roof of the main meet-
vation Army on the left bank of the Seine at the Pont
ing hall was suspended. To Le Corbusiers distress, his
d'Austerlitz. Between 1929 and 1933, he built a larger
and more ambitious project for the Salvation Army, the
plan was rejected by Stalin in favor of a plan for a massive
neoclassical tower, the highest in Europe, crowned with
Cit de Refuge, on rue Cantagrel in the 13th arrondisse-
a statue of worker and peasant with a hammer and sickle.
ment of Paris. He also constructed the Swiss Pavilion in
The Palace was never built; construction was stopped by
the Cit Universitaire in Paris with 46 units of student
World War II, a swimming pool took its place; and after
housing, (192933). He designed furniture to go with
the collapse of the USSR the cathedral was rebuilt on its
the building; the main salon was decorated with a mon-
original site.[36] tage of black and white photographs of nature. In 1948,
he replaced this with a colorful mural he painted him-
self. In Geneva he built a glass-walled apartment build-
1.1.12 The Cit Universitaire, Immeuble ing with forty-ve units, the Immeuble Clart. Between
Clart and Cit de Refuge (1928 1931 and 1945 he built an apartment building with f-
1933) teen units, including an apartment and studio for himself
on the 6th and 7th oors, at 4 rue Nungesser-et-Coli in
the 16th arrondissement in Paris. overlooking the Bois de
Boulogne.[37] His apartment and studio are owned today
by the Fondation Le Corbusier, and can be visited.

1.1.13 The Ville Contemporaine, Plan

Voisin and the Cit Radieuse
(19221939)
See also: Unit d'habitation and Ville Radieuse

TheAs the global Great Depression enveloped Europe, Le

Immeuble Clart in Geneva (19301932) Corbusier devoted more and more time to his ideas for
urban design and planned cities. He believed that his
new, modern architectural forms would provide an or-
ganizational solution that would raise the quality of life
for the working classes. In 1922 he had presented his
model of the Ville Contemporaine, a city of three million
inhabitants, at the Salon d'Automne in Paris. His plan
featured tall oce towers with surrounded by lower resi-
dential blocks in a park setting. He reported that analy-
sis leads to such dimensions, to such a new scale, and to
such the creation of an urban organism so dierent from
those that exist, that it that the mind can hardly imag-
ine it.[38] The Ville Contemporaine, presenting an imag-
inary city in an imaginary location, did not attract the at-
tention that Le Corbusier wanted. For his next proposal,
Thethe Plan Voisin (1925), he took a much more provocative
Swiss Foundation in the Cit internationale univer- approach; he proposed to demolish a large part of central
sitaire de Paris (19291933) Paris and to replace it with a group of sixty-story cru-
ciform oce towers surrounded by parkland. This idea
shocked most viewers, as it was certainly intended to do.
Between 1928 and 1934, as Le Corbusiers reputation The plan included a multi-level transportation hub that in-
grew, he received commissions to construct a wide variety cluded depots for buses and trains, as well as highway in-
of buildings. In 1928 he received a commission from the tersections, and an airport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful
Soviet government to construct the headquarters of the notion that commercial airliners would land between the
Tsentrosoyuz, or central oce of trade unions, a large of- huge skyscrapers. He segregated pedestrian circulation
ce building whose glass walls alternated with plaques of paths from the roadways and created an elaborate road
stone. He built the Villa de Madrot in Le Pradet (1929 network. Groups of lower-rise zigzag apartment blocks,
1931); and an apartment in Paris for Charles de Bes- set back from the street, were interspersed among the of-
tigui at the top of an existing building on the Champs- ce towers. Le Corbusier wrote: The center of Paris,
lyses 19291932, (later demolished). In 19291930 currently threatened with death, threatened by exodus,
10 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

is in reality a diamond mine...To abandon the center of fully planned and designed. However, before any units
Paris to its fate is to desert in face of the enemy. [39] could be built, World War II intervened.
As no doubt Le Corbusier expected, no one hurried to
implement the Plan Voisin, but he continued working on
variations of the idea and recruiting followers. In 1929, 1.1.14 World War II and Reconstruction;
he traveled to Brazil where he gave conferences on his ar-
the Unit d'Habitation in Marseille
chitectural ideas. He returned with drawings of his own
vision for Rio de Janeiro; he sketched serpentine multi- (19391952)
story apartment buildings on pylons, like inhabited high-
ways, winding through Rio Janeiro.
In 1931, he developed a visionary plan for another city
Algiers, then part of France. This plan, like his Rio
Janeiro plan, called for the construction of an elevated
viaduct of concrete, carrying residential units, which
would run from one end of the city to the other. This
plan, unlike his early Plan Voisin, was more conservative,
because it did not call for the destruction of the old city
of Algiers; the residential housing would be over the top
of the old city. This plan, like his Paris plans, provoked
discussion, but never came close to realization.
In 1935, Le Corbusier made his rst visit to the United Exterior of the Unit
States. He was asked by American journalists what d'Habitation, or Cit Radieuse in Marseille (1947
he thought about New York City skyscrapers; he re- 1952)
sponded, characteristically, that he found them much too
small.[40] He wrote a book describing his experiences in
the States, Quand les Cathdrales etait blanc- voyages au
pays des timides (When Cathedrals were White; voyage
to the land of the timid) whose title expressed his view of
the lack of boldness in American architecture.[41]
He wrote a great deal but built very little in the late 1930s.
The titles of his books expressed the combined urgency
and optimism of his messages: Cannons? Munitions? No
thank you, Lodging please! (1938) and The lyricism of
modern times and urbanism (1939).
In 1928, the French Minister of Labor, Louis Loucheur,
won the passage of a French law on public housing, call-
ing for the construction of 260,000 new housing units The modular design of the apart-
within ve years. Le Corbusier immediately began to de- ments inserted into the building
sign a new type of modular housing unit, which he called
the Maison Loucheur, which would be suitable for the
project. These units were forty-ve square metres (480
square feet) in size, made with metal frames, and were
designed to be mass-produced and then transported to the
site, where they would be inserted into frameworks of
steel and stone; The government insisted on stone walls
to win the support of local building contractors. The
standardisation of apartment buildings was the essence of
what Le Corbusier termed the Ville Radieuse or radiant
city, in a new book which published in 1935. The Radi-
ant City was similar to his earlier Contemporary City and
Plan Voisin, with the dierence that residences would be
assigned by family size, rather than by income and social
position. In his 1935 book, he developed his ideas for a
Internal
new kind of city, where the principle functions; heavy in-
street within the Unit d'Habitation, Marseille
dustry, manufacturing, habitation and commerce, would
(19471952)
be clearly separated into their own neighbourhoods, care-
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 11

two apartments, combined so each had two levels (see

diagram above). The modules ran from one side of the
building to the other, and each apartment had a small ter-
race at each end. They were ingeniously tted together
like pieces of a Chinese puzzle, with a corridor slotted
through the space between the two apartments in each
module. Residents had a choice of twenty-three dier-
ent congurations for the units. Le Corbusier designed
furniture, carpets and lamps to go with the building, all
purely functional; the only decoration was a choice of in-
terior colors that Le Corbusier gave to residents. The only
mildly decorative features of the building were the venti-
Salon
lator shafts on the roof, which Le Corbusier made to look
and Terrace of an original unit of the Unit like the smokestacks of an ocean liner, a functional form
d'Habitation, now at the Cit de l'Architecture et du that he admired.
Patrimoine in Paris (1952)
The building was designed not just to be a residence, but
to oer all the services needed for living. Every third
During the War and the German occupation of France, oor, between the modules, there was a wide corridor,
Le Corbusier did his best to promote his architectural like an interior street, which ran the length of the building
projects. He moved to Vichy for a time, where the col- from one end of the building to the other. This served as
laborationist government of Marshal Philippe Petain was a sort of commercial street, with shops, eating places, a
located, oering his services for architectural projects, nursery school and recreational facilities. A running track
including his plan for the reconstruction of Algiers, but and small stage for theater performances was located in
they were rejected. He continued writing, completing Sur the roof. The building itself was surrounded by trees and
les Quatres routes (On the Four Routes) in 1941. After a small park.
1942, Le Corbusier left Vichy for Paris.[42] He became Le Corbusier wrote later that the Unit d'Habitation con-
for a time a technical adviser at Alexis Carrel's eugenic cept was inspired by the visit he had made to the Florence
foundation, he resigned from this position on April 20, Charterhouse at Galluzzo in Italy, in 1907 and 1910 dur-
1944.[43] In 1943, he founded a new association of mod- ing his early travels. He wanted to recreate, he wrote, an
ern architects and builders, the Ascoral, the Assembly of ideal place for meditation and contemplation. He also
Constructors for a renewal of architecture, but there were learned from the monastery, he wrote, that standardiza-
no projects to build.[44] tion led to perfection, and that all of his life a man labors
When the war ended, Le Corbusier was nearly sixty years under this [46]
impulse: to make the home the temple of the
old, and he had not had a single project realized in ten family.
years. He tried, without success, to obtain commissions The Unit d'Habitation marked a turning point in the ca-
for several of the rst large reconstruction projects, but reer of Le Corbusier; in 1952, he was made a Comman-
his proposals for the reconstruction of the town of Saint- der of the Lgion d'Honneur in a ceremony held on the
Di and for La Rochelle were rejected. Still, he per- roof of his new building. He had progressed from be-
sisted; Le Corbusier nally found a willing partner in ing an outsider and critic of the architectural establish-
Raoul Dautry, the new Minister of Reconstruction and ment to its very center, as the most prominent French
Urbanism. Dautry agreed to fund one of his projects, architect.[47]
a "Unit d'habitation de grandeur conforme", or hous-
ing units of standard size, with the rst one to be built
in Marseille, which had been heavily damaged during the 1.1.15 Postwar Projects- The United Na-
war.[45] tions Headquarters (19471952)
This was his rst public commission, and was a major
breakthrough for Le Corbusier. He gave the building the Le Corbusier made another almost identical Unit
name of his pre-war theoretical project, the Cit Radieuse, d'Habitation in Rez-les-Nantes in the Loire-Atlantique
and followed the principles that he had studied before the Department between 1948 and 1952, and three more
war, he proposed a giant reinforced concrete framework, over the following years, in Berlin, Briey-en-Fort and
into which modular apartments would be t like bottles Firminy; and he designed a factory for the company of
into a bottle rack. Like the Villa Savoye, the structure was Claude and Duval, in Saint-Di in the Vosges.
poised on concrete pylons though, because of the short- In early 1947 Le Corbusier submitted a design for the
age of steel to reinforce the concrete, the pylons were Headquarters of the United Nations, which was to be built
more massive than usual. The building contained 337 beside the East River in New York. Instead of compe-
duplex apartment modules to house a total of 1,600 per- tition, the design was to be selected by a Board of De-
sons. Each module was three stories high, and contained sign Consultants composed of leading international archi-
12 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

1.1.16 Religious architecture (19501963)

The
Chapelle of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp
(19501955)

The Headquarters of the United Nations designed by Le Corbus-

ier, Oscar Niemeyer and Wallace K. Harrison (194752)

tects nominated by member governments, including Le

Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer of Brazil, Howard Robertson
from Britain, Nikolai Bassov of the Soviet Union, and ve
others from around the world. The committee was under The
the direction of the American architect Wallace K. Har- Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette (1953
rison, who was also architect for the Rockefeller family, 1960)
which had donated the site for the building.
Le Corbusier had submitted his plan for the Secretariat,
called Plan 23 of the 58 submitted. In Le Corbusiers
plan, where oces, council chambers and General As-
sembly hall were in teethe a single block in the center
of the site. He lobbied hard for his project, and asked
the younger Brazilian architect, Niemeyer, to support and
assist him on his plan. Niemeyer, to help Le Corbusier,
refused to submit his own design and did not attend the
meetings until the Director, Harrison, insisted. Niemeyer
then submitted his plan, Plan 32, with the oce building
and councils and General Assembly in separate buildings.
After much discussion, the Committee chose Niemeyers
plan, but suggested that he collaborate with Le Corbus-
ier on the nal project. Le Corbusier urged Niemeyer to
put the General Assembly Hall in the center of the site,
though this would eliminate Niemeyers plan to have a Meeting
large plaza in the center. Niemeyer agreed with Le Cor- room inside the Convent of Sainte Marie de la
busiers suggestion, and the headquarters was built, with Tourette
minor modications, according to their joint plan.[48]
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 13

ories of his youthful visit to the Erna Charterhouse in Flo-

rence. This project involved not only a chapel, but a li-
brary, refectory, rooms for meetings and reection, and
dormitories for the nuns. For the living space he used
the same Modulor concept for measuring the ideal living
space that he had used in the Unit d'Habitation in Mar-
seille; height under the ceiling of 2.26 metres (7 feet 5
inches); and width 1.83 metres (6 feet 0 inches).[50]
Le Corbusier used raw concrete to construct the convent,
which is placed on the side of a hill. The three blocks
of dormitories U, closed by the chapel, with a courtyard
in theChurch
center. The Convent has a at roof, and is placed
of Saint-Pierre, Firminy (19602006) on sculpted concrete pillars. Each of the residential cells
has small loggia with a concrete sunscreen looking out
at the countryside. The centerpiece of the convent is
the chapel, a plain box of concrete, which he called his
Box of miracles. Unlike the highly nished faade of
the Unit d'Habitation, the faade of the chapel is raw, un-
nished concrete. He described the building in a letter to
Albert Camus in 1957: I'm taken with the idea of a box
of miracles....as the name indicates, it is a rectangual box
made of concrete. It doesn't have any of the traditional
theatrical tricks, but the possibility, as its name suggests,
to make miracles.[51] The interior of the chapel is ex-
tremely simple, only benches in a plain, unnished con-
crete box, with light coming through a single square in the
roof and six small band on the sides. The Crypt beneath
Interior of the Church has intense blue, red and yellow walls, and illumination
of Saint-Pierre in Firminy. The sunlight through by sunlight channeled from above. The monastery has
the roof projects the Constellation Orion on the other unusual features, including oor to ceiling panels
walls. (19602006) of glass in the meeting rooms, window panels that frag-
mented the view into pieces, and a system of concrete and
metal tubes like gun barrels which aimed sunlight through
Le Corbusier was an avowed atheist. but he also had a colored prisms and projected it onto the walls of sacristy
strong belief in the ability of architecture in to create a and to the secondary altars of the crypt on the level below.
sacred and spiritual environment. In the postwar years he These were whimsically termed the ""machine guns of
designed two important religious buildings; the Chapelle the sacristy and the light cannons of the crypt.[52]
of Notre-Dame-du-Haut at Ronchamp (19501955); and In 1960, Le Corbusier began a third religious building,
the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette (1953 the Church of Saint Pierre in the new town of Firminy-
1960). Le Corbusier wrote later that he was greatly aided Vert, where he had built a Unit d'Habitation and a cul-
in his religious architecture by a Dominican father, Pre tural and sports center. While he made the original de-
Couturier, who had founded a movement and review of sign, construction did not begin until ve years after his
modern religious art. death, and work continued under dierent architects until
Le Corbusier rst visited the remote mountain site of it was completed in 2006. The most spectacular feature
Ronchamp in May 1950, saw the ruins of the old chapel, of the church is the sloping concrete tower that covers the
and drew sketches of possible forms. He wrote after- entire interior. similar to that in the Assembly Building
wards: In building this chapel, I wanted to create a place in his complex at Chandigarh. Windows high in the tower
of silence, of peace, of prayer, of interior joy. The feel- illuminate the interior. Le Corbusier originally proposed
ing of the sacred animated our eort. Some things are that tiny windows also project the form of a constella-
sacred, others aren't, whether they're religious or not.[49] tion on the walls. Later architects designed the church to
project the constellation Orion.[53]
The second major religious project undertaken by Le
Corbusier was the Convent of Sainte Marie de La
Tourette in L'Arbresle in the Rhone Department (1953
1960). Once again it was Father Couturier who engaged
Le Corbusier in the project. He invited Le Corbusier to
visit the starkly simple and imposing 12th13th century
Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence, and also used his mem-
14 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

1.1.17 Chandigarh (19511956) with two British specialists in urban design and tropical
climate architecture, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, and
with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, who moved to India and
supervised the construction until his death.
Le Corbusier, as always, was rhapsodic about his project;
It will be a city of trees, he wrote, of owers and water,
of houses as simple as those at the time of Homer, and
of a few splendid edices of the highest level of mod-
ernism, where the rules of mathematics will reign..[54]
His plan called for residential, commercial and indus-
trial areas, along with parks and a transportation infras-
tructure. In the middle was the capitol, a complex of
four major government buildings; the Palace of the Na-
Thetional Assembly, the High Court of Justice; the Palace
High Court of Justice, Chandigarh (19511956) of Secretariat of Ministers, and the Palace of the Gover-
nor. For nancial and political reasons, the Palace of the
Governor was dropped well into the construction of the
city, throwing the nal project somewhat o-balance.[55]
From the beginning, Le Corbusier worked, as he re-
ported, Like a forced laborer. He dismissed the ear-
lier American plan as Faux-Moderne and overly lled
with parking spaces roads. His intent was to present what
he had learned in forty years of urban study, and also to
show the French government the opportunities they had
missed in not choosing him to rebuild French cities after
the War.[55] His design made use of many of his favorite
ideas; an architectural promenade, incorporating the lo-
cal landscape and the sunlight and shadows into the de-
sign; the use of the Modulor to give a correct human scale
Secretariat
to each element; and his favorite symbol, the open hand;
Building, Chandigarh (19521958) (the hand is open to give and to receive'.) He placed a
monumental open hand statue in a prominent place in the
design.[55]
Le Corbusiers design called for the use of raw con-
crete, whose surface not smoothed or polished and which
showed the marks of the forms in which it dried. Pierre
Jeanneret wrote to his cousin that he was in a continual
battle with the construction workers, who could not resist
the urge to smooth and nish the raw concrete, particu-
larly when important visitors were coming to the site. At
one point one thousand workers were employed on the
site of the High Court of Justice. Le Corbusier wrote
to his mother, It is an architectural symphony which
surpasses all my hopes, which ashes and develops un-
Palace
der the light in a way which is unimaginable and unfor-
of Assembly (Chandigarh) (19521961)
gettable. From far, from up close, it provokes astonish-
ment; all made with raw concrete and a cement cannon.
Adorable, and grandiose. In all the centuries no one has
Le Corbusiers largest and most ambitious project was the seen that.[56]
design of Chandigarh, the capital city of the Haryana &
Punjab State of India, created after India received inde- The High Court of Justice, begun in 1951, was nished
pendence in 1947. Le Corbusier was contacted in 1950 in 1956. The building was radical in its design; a parallel-
by Prime Minister Nehru of India, and invited to pro- ogram topped with an inverted parasol. Along the walls
pose a project. An American architect, Albert Mayer, were high concrete grills 1.5 metres (4 feet 11 inches)
had made a plan in 1947 for a city of 150,000 inhabi- thick which served as sunshades. The entry featured a
tants, but the Indian government wanted a grander and monumental ramp and columns that allowed the air to
more monumental city. (The city today has a population circulate. The pillars were originally white limestone, but
of more than a million.) Corbusier worked on the plan in the 1960s they were repainted in bright colors, which
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 15

better resisted the weather.[55]

The Secretariat, the largest building that housed the
government oces, was constructed between 1952 and
1958. It is an enormous block 250 metres (820 feet)
long and eight levels high, served by a ramp which ex-
tends from the ground to the top level The ramp partly
sculptural and partly practical; since there were no mod-
ern building cranes, the ramp was the only way to get
materials to the top of the construction site. The Sec-
retariat had two features which were borrowed from his
design for the Unit d'Habitation in Marseille; Concrete
grill sunscreens over the windows, and a roof terrace.[55] Carpenter
The most important building of the capitol complex was Center for the Visual Arts (19601963)
the Palace of Assembly (195261), which faced the High
Court at the other end of a ve hundred meter esplanade,
and faces a large reecting pool. This building features a
central courtyard, over which is the main meeting hall for
the Assembly. On the roof on the rear of the building is a
signature feature of Le Corbusier, a large tower, similar in
form to the smokestack of a ship or the ventilation tower
of a heating plant. Le Corbusier added touches of color
and texture with an immense tapestry in the meeting hall
and large gateway decorated with enamel. He wrote of
this building, A Palace magnicent in its eect, from the
new art of raw concrete. It is magnicent and terrible;
terrible meaning that there is nothing cold about it to the
eyes.[57] The
Centre Le Corbusier in Zrich (19621967)

The 1950s and 1960s, were a dicult period for Le Cor-

busiers personal life; his wife Yvonne died in 1957, and
his mother, to whom he was closely attached, died in
1960. He remained active in a wide variety of elds; in
1955 he published Pome de l'angle droits, a portfolio of
1.1.18 Later life and work (19551965) lithographs, published in the same collection as the book
Jazz by Henri Matisse. In 1958 he collaborated with the
composer Edgar Varse on a work called Le Pome lec-
tronique, a show of sound and light, for the Philips Pavil-
ion at the International Exposition in Brussels. In 1960 he
published a new book, L'Atelier de la recherch patiente
The workshop of patient research), simultaneously pub-
lished in four languages. He received growing recogni-
tion for his pioneering work in modernist architecture; in
1959, a successful international campaign was launched
to have his Villa Savoye, threatened with demolition, de-
clared an historic monument; it was the rst time that a
work by a living architect received this distinction. In
1962, in the same year as the dedication of the Palace of
the Assembly in Chandigarh, the rst retrospective ex-
hibit on his work was held at the National Museum of
Modern Art in Paris. In 1964, in a ceremony held in his
atelier on rue de Svres, he was awarded the Grand Cross
TheLgion d'honneur by Culture Minister Andr Mal-
of the
National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo (1954 raux.[58]
1959) His later architectural work was extremely varied, and of-
ten based on designs of earlier projects. In 19521958, he
16 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

designed a series of tiny vacation cabins, 2.26 by 2.26 by Minister of Culture. He was buried alongside his wife
2.6 metres (7.4 by 7.4 by 8.5 feet) in size, for a site next to in the grave he had designated at Roquebrune.
the Mediterranean at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin. He built Le Corbusiers death had a strong impact on the cultural
a similar cabin for himself, but the rest of the project was and political world. Tributes poured in from around the
not realized until after his death. In 19531957, He de- world, even from some of Le Corbusiers strongest artis-
signed a residential building for Brazilian students for the tic critics. Painter Salvador Dal recognised his impor-
Cit de la Universit in Paris. Between 1954 and 1959, tance and sent a oral tribute. United States President
he built the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo. Lyndon B. Johnson said, His inuence was universal and
His other projects included a cultural center and stadium
his works are invested with a permanent quality possessed
for the town of Firminy, where had had built his rst by those of very few artists in our history. The Soviet
housing project (19551958); and a stadium in Baghdad,
Union added, Modern architecture has lost its greatest
Iraq (much altered since its construction). He also con- master. While his funeral occurred in Paris, Japanese
structed three new Units d'Habitation, apartment blocks
TV channels broadcast his Museum in Tokyo in what was
on the model of the original in Marseille, the rst in at the time a unique media homage.
Berlin (19561958), the second in Briey-en-Fort in the
Meurthe-et-Moselle Department; and the third (1959 His grave is in the cemetery above Roquebrune-Cap-
1967) in Firminy. In 19601963, he built his only build- Martin, between Menton and Monaco in southern
ing in the United States; the Carpenter Center for the Vi- France.
sual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts.[58] The Fondation Le Corbusier (FLC) functions as his of-
At the time of his death in 1965, several projects were cial estate.[60] The US copyright representative for the
on the drawing boards; the church of Saint-Pierre in Fondation Le Corbusier is the Artists Rights Society.[61]
Firminy, nally completed in modied form in 2006; a
Palace of Congresses for Strasbourg (196265), and a
hospital in Venice, (19611965) which were never built. 1.1.20 Ideas
Le Corbusier designed an art gallery beside the lake in
Zrich for gallery owner Heidi Weber in 19621967. The Five Points of a Modern Architecture
Now called the Centre Le Corbusier, it is one of his last
Main article: Le Corbusiers Five Points of Architecture
nished works.[59]

Le Corbusier dened the principles of his new architec-

1.1.19 Death ture in Les cinq points de l'architecture moderne, published
in 1927, and co-authored by his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret.
They summarized the lessons he had learned in the previ-
ous years, which he put literally into concrete form in his
villas constructed of the late 1920s, most dramatically in
the Villa Savoye (19281931)
The ve points are:

the Pilotis, or pylon. The building is raised up on re-

inforced concrete pylons, which allows for free cir-
culation on the ground level, and eliminates dark and
damp parts of the house.
The Roof Terrace. The sloping roof is replaced
by a at roof; the roof can be used as a garden, for
promenades. sports or a swimming pool.

The holiday cabin where he spent his last days in Roquebrune- The Free Plan. Load-bearing walls are replaced by
Cap-Martin. a steel or reinforced concrete columns, so the inte-
rior can be freely designed, and interior walls can
Against his doctors orders, on August 27, 1965, Le put anywhere, or left out entirely. . The structure of
Corbusier went for a swim in the Mediterranean Sea at the building is not visible from the outside.
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. His body was found The Ribbon Window. Since the walls do not sup-
by bathers and he was pronounced dead at 11 a.m. It was port the house, the windows can run the entire length
assumed that he may have suered a heart attack. His of the house, so all rooms can get equal light.
funeral took place in the courtyard of the Louvre Palace
on September 1, 1965, under the direction of writer and The Free Facade. Since the building is supported
thinker Andr Malraux, who was at the time Frances by columns in the interior, the faade can be much
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 17

lighter and more open, or made entirely of glass. Fourier. There is a noteworthy resemblance between the
There is no need for lintels or other structure around concept of the unit and Fouriers phalanstery.[68] From
the windows. Fourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion
of administrative, rather than political, government.

The Architectural Promenade

Modulor
The Architectural Promenade was another idea dear to
Le Corbusier, which he particularly put into play in his Main article: Modulor
design of the Villa Savoye. In 1928, in Une Maison, un
Palais, he described it this way: Arab architecture gives The Modulor was a standard model of the human form
us a precious lesson: it is best appreciated in walking, on which Le Corbusier devised to determine the correct
foot. It is in walking, in going from one place to another, amount of living space needed for residents in his build-
that you see develop the features of the architecture. In ings. It was also his rather original way of dealing with
this house (Villa Savoye) you nd a veritable architectural dierences between the metric system and British or
promenade, oering constantly varying aspects, unex- American system, since the Modulor was not attached to
pected, sometimes astonishing. The promenade at Villa either one.
Savoye, Le Corbusier wrote, both in the interior of the
house and on the roof terrace, often erased the traditional Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his
dierence between the inside and outside.[62] Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion.
He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradi-
tion of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man",
The Ville Radieuse and Urbanism the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used
the proportions of the human body to improve the ap-
In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated pearance and function of architecture. In addition to the
his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human
La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit.
the most signicant dierence between the Contempo- Many scholars see the Modulor as a humanistic expres-
rary City and the Radiant City is that the latter aban- sion but it is also argued that: Its exactly the opposite
doned the class-based stratication of the former; hous- (...) Its the mathematicization of the body, the standard-
ing was now assigned according to family size, not eco- ization of the body, the rationalization of the body.[69]
nomic position.[63] Some have read dark overtones into He took Leonardos suggestion of the golden ratio in hu-
The Radiant City: from the astonishingly beautiful as- man proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model
semblage of buildings that was Stockholm, for example, human bodys height at the navel with the two sections
Le Corbusier saw only frightening chaos and sadden- in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden
ing monotony. He dreamed of cleaning and purging ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio
the city, bringing a calm and powerful architecture proportions in the Modulor system.
referring to steel, plate glass, and reinforced concrete. Al-
Le Corbusiers 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplied
though Le Corbusiers designs for Stockholm did not suc-
the Modulor systems application. The villas rectangu-
ceed, later architects took his ideas and partly destroyed
lar ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely ap-
the city with them.[64]
proximate golden rectangles.[70]
Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded industrialists
Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion
in France would lead the way with their ecient Taylorist
at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in
and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial
the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound
models to reorganize society. As Norma Evenson has put
to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which he
it, the proposed city appeared to some an audacious and
described as rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in
compelling vision of a brave new world, and to others a
their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at
frigid megalomaniacally scaled negation of the familiar
the very root of human activities. They resound in Man by
urban ambient.[65]
an organic inevitability, the same ne inevitability which
Le Corbusier His ideashis urban planning and his causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children,
architectureare viewed separately, Perelman noted, old men, savages, and the learned.[71]
whereas they are one and the same thing.[66]
In La Ville radieuse, he conceived an essentially apolitical
Open Hand
society, in which the bureaucracy of economic adminis-
tration eectively replaces the state.[67] The Open Hand (La Main Ouverte) is a recurring motif in
Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the Le Corbusiers architecture, a sign for him of peace and
19th-century French utopians Saint-Simon and Charles reconciliation. It is open to give and open to receive.
18 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

Frame of an LC4 chair by Le Corbusier and Perriand (192728)

at Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris

Perriand, to join his studio as a furniture designer. His

cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the
designs. For the manufacture of his furniture, he turned
to the German rm Gebrder Thonet had begun making
chairs with tubular steel, a material originally used for bi-
cycles, in the early 1920s. Le Corbusier admired the de-
Open Hand Monument in Chandigarh, India sign of Marcel Breuer and the Bauhaus, who in 1925, had
begun making sleek modern tubular club chairs. Mies van
der Rohe had begun making his own version in a sculp-
The largest of the many Open Hand sculptures that Le tural curved form with a cane seat in 1927.[72]
Corbusier created is a 26 meter high version in Chandi-
garh, India known as Open Hand Monument. The rst results of the collaboration between Le Corbus-
ier and Perriand were three types of chairs made with
chrome-plated tubular steel frames; The LC4, Chaise
1.1.21 Furniture Longue, (192728), with a covering of cowhide, which
gave it a touch of exoticism; the Fauteuil Grand Confort
Main article: Le Corbusiers Furniture (LC3) (192829), a club chair with a tubular frame which
resembled the comfortable Art Deco club chairs that be-
came popular in the 1920s; and the fauteuil a Dossier Bas-
Le Corbusier was an eloquent critic of the nely crafted, culant (LC4) (192829), a low seat suspended in a tubu-
hand-made furniture, made with rare and exotic woods, lar steel frame, also with a cowhide upholstery. These
inlays and coverings, presented at the 1925 Exposition of chairs were designed specically for two of his projects,
Decorative Arts. Following his usual method, Le Corbus- The Maison la Roche in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara
ier rst wrote a book with his theories of furniture, com- and Henry Church. All three clearly showed the inuence
plete with memorable slogans. In his 1925 book L'Art of Mies van der Rohe and Marcel Breuer. The line of fur-
Dcoratif d'aujourd'hui, he called for furniture that used niture was expanded with additional designs for Le Cor-
inexpensive materials and could be mass-produced. Le busiers 1929 Salon d'Automne installation, 'Equipment
Corbusier described three dierent furniture types: type- for the Home'. Despite the intention of Le Corbusier that
needs, type-furniture, and human-limb objects. He de- his furniture should be inexpensive and mass-produced
ned human-limb objects as: Extensions of our limbs his pieces were originally costly to make and were not
and adapted to human functions that are type-needs and mass-produced until many years later, when he was fa-
type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture. mous. [73]
The human-limb object is a docile servant. A good ser-
vant is discreet and self-eacing in order to leave his mas-
ter free. Certainly, works of art are tools, beautiful tools. 1.1.22 Politics
And long live the good taste manifested by choice, sub-
tlety, proportion, and harmony. He further declared, The political views of Le Corbusier were rather vague,
Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois", and varied considerably over time. In the 1920s he briey
Le Corbusier rst relied on ready-made furniture from wrote articles about urbanism for the syndicalist jour-
Thonet to furnish his projects, such as his pavilion at nals Plans, Prlude and L'homme reel.[74] Between 1925
the 1925 Exposition. In 1928, following the publica- and 1928 Le Corbusier had connections to a short-lived
tion of his theories, he began experimenting with furni- French fascist party, Le Faisceau, led by Georges Valois.
ture design. In 1928, he inviting the architect Charlotte Valois later became an anti-fascist,[75] Le Corbusier also
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 19

had apparent connections with another former member his legacy. [79]
of Faisceau, Hubert Lagardelle, a former labor leader and Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis
syndicalist, who had become disaected with the politi- Mumford wrote in Yesterdays City of Tomorrow that the
cal left. In 1934, after Lagardelle had obtained a position extravagant heights of Le Corbusiers skyscrapers had no
at the French Embassy in Rome, he arranged for Le Cor- reason for existence apart from the fact that they had be-
busier to lecture on architecture in Italy. Lagardelle later come technological possibilities. The open spaces in his
served as minister of labor in the pro-Axis Vichy regime. central areas had no reason for existence either, Mum-
While Le Corbusier sought commissions from the Vichy ford wrote, since on the scale he imagined there was no
regime he was unsuccessful and the only appointment he
motive during the business day for pedestrian circulation
received from it was membership of a committee study- in the oce quarter. By mating utilitarian and nancial
ing urbanism.
image of the skyscraper city to the romantic image of the
Le Corbusier has also been accused of anti-semitism. He organic environment, Le Corbusier had, in fact, produced
wrote to his mother in October 1940, prior to a referen- a sterile hybrid.
dum held by the Vichy government: The Jews are having The public housing projects inuenced by his ideas have
a bad time. I occasionally feel sorry. But it appears their also been criticized for isolating poor communities in
blind lust for money has rotted the country. He also was monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral
accused of belittling the Muslim population of Algeria, to a communitys development. One of his most inu-
then part of France. When Le Corbusier put forward a ential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a
plan for the rebuilding of Algiers, he condemned the ex- scathing critique of Le Corbusiers urban design theories
isting housing for European Algerians, complaining that in her seminal work The Death and Life of Great Ameri-
it was inferior to that inhabited by indigenous Algerians: can Cities.
the civilized live like rats in holes, while the barbarians
live in solitude, in well-being.[76] His plan was rebuilding For some critics, the urbanism of Le Corbusiers was the
[80]
Algiers was rejected, and thereafter Le Corbusier largely model for a fascist state. These critics cited Le Cor-
avoided politics for the rest of his career. [77] busier himself when he wrote that not all citizens could
become leaders. The technocratic elite, the industrialists,
nanciers, engineers, and artists would be located in the
1.1.23 Criticism city centre, while the workers would be removed to the
fringes of the city.[81]
Few other 20th century architects were praised, or criti-
cized, as much as Le Corbusier. In his eulogy to Le Cor-
busier at the memorial ceremony for the architect in the 1.1.24 Inuence
courtyard of the Louvre on September 1, 1965, French
Culture Minister Andr Malraux declared, Le Corbusier Le Corbusier was at his most inuential in the sphere
had some great rivals, but none of them had the same sig- of urban planning, and was a founding member of the
nicance in the revolution of architecture, because none Congrs International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM).
bore insults so patiently and for so long. [78] One of the rst to realize how the automobile would
Most of the later criticism of Le Corbusier was directed at change human agglomerations, Le Corbusier described
his ideas of urban planning. In 1998 the architectural his- the city of the future as consisting of large apartment
torian Witold Rybzyynski wrote in Time magazine: He buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis. Le
called it the Ville Radieuse, the Radiant City. Despite the Corbusiers theories were adopted by the builders of pub-
poetic title, his urban vision was authoritarian, inexible lic housing in Europe and the United States. In Great
and simplistic. Wherever it was tried- in Chandirgarh by Britain urban planners turned to Le Corbusiers Cities in
Le Corbusier himself or in Brasilia by his followers- it the Sky as a cheaper method [82]
of providing public hous-
failed. Standardization proved inhuman and disorienting. ing from the late 1950s. For the design of the build-
The open spaces were inhospitable; the bureaucratically ings themselves, Le Corbusier criticized any eort at or-
imposed plan , socially destructive. In the US, the Ra- namentation. The large spartan structures in cities, but
diant City took the form of vast urban-renewal schemes not 'of' cities, have been widely criticized for being bor-
and regimented public housing projects that damaged the ing and unfriendly to pedestrians.
urban fabric beyond repair. Today, these megaprojects Throughout the years, many architects worked for Le
are being dismantled, as superblocks give way to rows of Corbusier in his studio, and a number of them became no-
houses fronting streets and sidewalks. Downtowns have table in their own right, including painter-architect Nadir
discovered that combining, not separating, dierent ac- Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusiers ideas into his own
tivities is the key to success. So is the presence of lively aesthetics theory. Lcio Costa's city plan of Braslia and
residential neighborhoods, old as well as new. Cities have the industrial city of Zln planned by Frantiek Lydie
learned that preserving history makes more sense than Gahura in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on
starting from zero. It has been an expensive lesson, and his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan
not one that Le Corbusier intended, but it too is part of for Chandigarh in India. Le Corbusiers thinking also
20 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

lower-middle and working classes and other destination

points in Le Corbusiers plan: suburban and rural ar-
eas, and urban commercial centers. This was because,
as designed, the freeways traveled over, at, or beneath
grade levels of the living spaces of the urban poor (one
modern example: the CabriniGreen housing project in
Chicago). Such projects and their areas, having no free-
way exit ramps, cut o by freeway rights-of-way, be-
came isolated from jobs and services concentrated at Le
Corbusiers nodal transportation end points. As jobs in-
creasingly moved to the suburban end points of the free-
ways, urban village dwellers found themselves without
convenient freeway access points in their communities
and without public mass transit connectivity that could
economically reach suburban job centers. Very late in
the Post-War period, suburban job centers found this to
be such a critical problem (labor shortages) that they,
on their own, began sponsoring urban-to-suburban shut-
tle bus services between urban villages and suburban job
centers, to ll working class and lower-middle class jobs
which had gone wanting, and which did not normally pay
the wages that car ownership required.
Le Corbusier had a great inuence on architects and ur-
banists all the world. In the United States, Shadrach
Gustavo Capanema Palace, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Woods; in Spain, Francisco Javier Senz de Oiza; in
Brazil, Oscar Niemeyer; In Mexico, Mario Pani Darqui;
in Chile, Roberto Matta; in Argentina, Antoni Bonet i
had profound eects on the philosophy of city planning Castellana (a Catalan exile), Juan Kurchan, Jorge Ferrari
and architecture in the Soviet Union, particularly in the Hardoy, Amancio Williams, and Clorindo Testa in his
Constructivist era. rst era; in Uruguay, the professors Justino Serralta and
Le Corbusier was heavily inuenced by problems he saw Carlos Gmez Gavazzo; in Colombia, Germn Samper
in industrial cities at the turn of the 20th century. He Gnecco, Rogelio Salmona, and Dicken Castro; in Peru,
thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowd- Abel Hurtado and Jos Carlos Ortecho.
ing, dirtiness, and a lack of a moral landscape. He was a
leader of the modernist movement to create better living
conditions and a better society through housing concepts.
1.1.25 Fondation Le Corbusier
Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow heavily
inuenced Le Corbusier and his contemporaries.
Le Corbusier also harmonized and lent credence to the
idea of space as a set of destinations which mankind
moved between, more or less continuously. He was there-
fore able to give credence and credibility to the automo-
bile (as a transporter); and most importantly to freeways
in urban spaces. His philosophies were useful to urban
real estate development interests in the American Post
World War II period because they justied and lent archi-
tectural and intellectual support to the desire to destroy
traditional urban space for high density high prot ur-
ban concentration, both commercial and residential. Le
Corbusiers ideas also sanctioned further destruction of
traditional urban spaces to build freeways that connected
this new urbanism to low density, low cost (and highly
protable), suburban and rural locales which were free to
be developed as middle class single-family (dormitory)
housing. Le Corbusier, work reproduced in ivot 2 (1922)
Notably missing from this scheme of movement were
connectivity between isolated urban villages created for The Fondation Le Corbusier is a private foundation and
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 21

archive honoring the work of Le Corbusier. It oper- Le Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada
ates Maison La Roche, a museum located in the 16th
arrondissement at 810, square du Dr Blanche, Paris, Place Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-
France, which is open daily except Sunday. de-Fonds, Switzerland

The foundation was established in 1968. It now owns Le Corbusier Street in the partido of Malvinas Ar-
Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (which form the gentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
foundations headquarters), as well as the apartment occu-
Le Corbusier Street in Le Village Parisien of
pied by Le Corbusier from 1933 to 1965 at rue Nungesser
Brossard, Quebec, Canada
et Coli in Paris 16e, and the Small House he built for his
parents in Corseaux on the shores of Lac Leman (1924). Le Corbusier Promenade, a promenade along the
Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (192324), also water at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin
known as the La Roche-Jeanneret house, is a pair of semi- Le Corbusier Museum, Sector- 19 Chandigarh, In-
detached houses that was Le Corbusiers third commis- dia
sion in Paris. They are laid out at right angles to each
other, with iron, concrete, and blank, white faades set- Le Corbusier Museum in Stuttgart am Weissenhof
ting o a curved two-story gallery space. Maison La
Roche is now a museum containing about 8,000 original
drawings, studies and plans by Le Corbusier (in collabo- 1.1.29 Works
ration with Pierre Jeanneret from 1922 to 1940), as well
as about 450 of his paintings, about 30 enamels, about Main article: List of Le Corbusier buildings
200 other works on paper, and a sizable collection of writ-
ten and photographic archives. It describes itself as the
worlds largest collection of Le Corbusier drawings, stud- 1923: Villa La Roche, Paris
[60][83]
ies, and plans. 1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris
1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France
1.1.26 Awards
1929: Cit du Refuge, Arme du Salut, Paris,
In 1937, Le Corbusier was named Chevalier of the France
Lgion d'honneur. In 1945, he was promoted to Of-
1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR
ciers of the Lgion d'honneur. In 1952, he was
(project)
promoted to Commandeur of the Lgion d'honneur.
Finally, on July 2, 1964, Le Corbusier was named 1931: Immeuble Clart, Geneva, Switzerland
Grand Ociers of the Lgion d'honneur.[1]
1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR
He received the Frank P. Brown Medal and AIA
19471952: Unit d'Habitation, Marseille, France
Gold Medal in 1961.
19491952: United Nations headquarters, New
The University of Cambridge awarded Le Corbusier
York City (Consultant)
an honorary degree in June 1959.[84]
19491953: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina
(project manager: Amancio Williams)
1.1.27 World Heritage Site
19501954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ron-
In 2016, seventeen of Le Corbusiers buildings, spanning champ, France
over seven countries, were inscribed to the UNESCO
1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France
World Heritage Sites list, reecting outstanding contri-
bution to the Modern Movement.[85] 1951: Buildings in Ahmedabad, India
1951: Sanskar Kendra Museum, Ahmedabad
1.1.28 Memorials 1951: ATMA House
1951: Villa Sarabhai, Ahmedabad
Le Corbusiers portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss
francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses. 1951: Villa Shodhan, Ahmedabad
The following place-names carry his name: 1951: Villa of Chinubhai Chimanlal, Ahmed-
abad
Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his atelier 1952: Unit d'Habitation of Nantes-Rez, Nantes,
on the Rue de Svres France
22 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

19521959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India 1948: Le Modulor (The Modulor)

1952: Palace of Justice 1953: Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit (The Poem of the
1952: Museum and Gallery of Art Right Angle)

1953: Secretariat Building 1955: Le Modulor 2 (The Modulor 2)

1953: Governors Palace 1959: Deuxime clavier de couleurs (Second Colour
1955: Palace of Assembly Keyboard)
1959: Government College of Art (GCA) and 1966: Le Voyage d'Orient (The Voyage to the East)
the Chandigarh College of Architecture(CCA)

1957: Maison du Brsil, Cit Universitaire, Paris 1.1.31 See also

19571960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near
Crystal Cubism
Lyon, France (with Iannis Xenakis)
Buttery roof
1957: Unit d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg,
Flatowallee 16, Berlin Mathematics and art

1962: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at

Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1.1.32 Notes
19641969: Firminy-Vert [1] Ministre de la Culture et de la Communication, Archives
nationales; site de Fontainebleau, Lgion d'honneur recip-
1964: Unit d'Habitation of Firminy, France ient, birth certicate
1965: Maison de la culture de Firminy-Vert
[2] The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding
1967: Heidi Weber Museum (Centre Le Corbusier), Contribution to the Modern Movement. Retrieved 2016-
Zrich, Switzerland 10-14.

[3] Journel 2015, p. 32.

1.1.30 Books by Le Corbusier [4] Marc Solitaire, Le Corbusier et l'urbain la rectication

du damier froebelien, pp. 93117.
1918: Aprs le cubisme (After Cubism), with
[5] Actes du colloque La ville et l'urbanisme aprs Le Cor-
Amde Ozenfant
busier, ditions d'en Haut 1993 ISBN 2-88251-033-0.
1923: Vers une architecture (Towards an Architec- [6] Marc Solitaire, Le Corbusier entre Raphael et Frbel, pp.
ture) (frequently mistranslated as Towards a New 927, Journal d'histoire de l'architecture N1, Presses uni-
Architecture) versitaires de Grenoble 1988 ISBN 2-7061-0325-6.

1925: Urbanisme (Urbanism) [7] Le Corbusier, L'Art dcoratif d'aujourdhui (1925), p. 198.

1925: La Peinture moderne (Modern Painting), with [8] Cited by Jean Petit, Le Corbusier lui-meme, Rousseau,
Amde Ozenfant Geneva 1970, p. 28.

1925: L'Art dcoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative [9] Journel 2015, p. 49.
Arts of Today) [10] Journel 2015, p. 48.
1931: Premier clavier de couleurs (First Color Key- [11] Letter to Eplattenier in Dumont, Le Corbusier, Lettres a
board) ses maitres, vol. 2, pp. 8283.

1935: Aircraft [12] Journel 2015, pp. 3233.

1935: La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) [13] Journel 2015, pp. 489.

[14] Choay, Franoise (1960). Le Corbusier. George Braziller,

1942: Charte d'Athnes (Athens Charter)
Inc. pp. 1011. ISBN 0-8076-0104-7. (Subscription
1943: Entretien avec les tudiants des coles required (help)).
d'architecture (A Conversation with Architecture Stu- [15] Letter to Auguste Perret (1915), cited in Lettres a ces
dents) Maitres, vol. 1, p. 33.
1945: Les Trois tablissements Humains (The Three [16] Tim Benton, Les Villas de Le Corbusier 19201929,
Human Establishments) Philippe Sers d. Paris, 1987.
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 23

[17] cited by Turner, Paul, La Formation de Le Corbusier, [47] Journel 2015, pp. 152158.
Paris, Macula, 1987, p. 218.
[48] Oscar Niemeyer and the United Nations Headquarters
[18] Journel 2015, p. 5051. (19471949)". United Nations. December 2014. Re-
trieved November 4, 2014.
[19] cited in Lettres a css maitres, vol. 1, p. 181.
[49] Le Corbusier, Ronchamp, Hatje, Stuttgart, (1925), p. 25.
[20] Journel 2015, p. 50.
[50] Jounret 2015, pp. 15455.
[21] Larousse, ditions. Encyclopdie Larousse en ligne
Charles douard Jeanneret dit Le Corbusier. larousse.fr. [51] Letter to Albert Camus, February 13, 1957, FLC (Fonda-
tion Le Corbusier), E1-12-154)
[22] Corbusier, Le; Jenger, Jean (January 1, 2002). Le Cor-
busier: choix de lettres. Springer Science & Business [52] Journet 2015, pp. 184185.
Media via Google Books.
[53] Jounret 2015, p. 165.
[23] Repres biographiques, Fondation Le Corbusier
[54] Letter to his wife Yvonne, February 27, 1951, FLC-R1-
[24] Le Corbusier 1923, pp. 1150. 12-87. Cited by Journel, p. 182.

[25] Arwas 1992, p. 46. [55] Journel 2015, p. 182.

[26] Arwas 1992, p. 49. [56] letter to his mother, November 19, 1954, FLC-R2-103.
Cited by Journlet, p. 184.
[27] Le Corbusier, L'art dcoratif d'aujourd'hui, (originally
1925, Flammarion edition of 1996, ISBN+978-2-0812- [57] Letter to his brother Albert, March 26, 1961, FLC-R1-
2062-1. 10-586, cited by Journel, p. 185.

[28] Le Corbusier, p. 98. [58] Journel 2015, p. 216.

[29] Le Corbusier 1925, p. 7081. [59] Journel 2015, p. 212.

[30] Benton, Charlotte, Benton, Tim, Wood, Ghislaine, Art [60] Foundation: History. Fondation Le Corbusier. Re-
Dco dans le monde- 191039, 2010, Renaissance du trieved 2014-03-18.
Livre, ISBN 9782507003906, pp. 1617.
[61] Our Most Frequently Requested Prominent Artists.
[31] Journel 2015, p. 37. Artists Rights Society. 2003. Retrieved 2014-03-18.

[32] Bony, p. 83. [62] Le Corbusier, Une maison - un palais, G. Crs & Cie
(1928), pp. 7078
[33] Journel 2015, p. 116.
[63] Fishman, Robert (1982). Urban Utopias in the Twenti-
[34] Architecture View; LE CORBUSIER'S HOUSING eth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and
PROJECT- FLEXIBLE ENOUGH TO ENDURE; by Le Corbusier. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p.
Ada Louise Huxtable. The New York Times. March 15, 231. ASIN 0262560232.
1981.
[64] Dalrymple, Theodore (Autumn 2009). The Architect as
[35] Bony 2012, pp. 8485. Totalitarian: Le Corbusiers baleful inuence. City Jour-
nal. 19 (4). Retrieved 2014-03-18.
[36] Journel 2015, p. 128.
[65] Evenson, Norma (1969). Le Corbusier: The Machine and
[37] Journel 2015, p. 210. the Grand Design. New York: George Braziller. p. 7.

[38] Journel 2015, p. 98. [66] Munro, Cait (April 17, 2005). New Books Claim Le
Corbusier Was a Fascist. Artnet news.
[39] Journel 2015, p. 100.
[67] Fishman 1982, p. 228.
[40] Time Magazine, article on Man of the Year, May 5, 1961
[68] Serenyi, Peter (December 1967). Le Corbusier, Fourier,
[41] Journel 2015, p. 218. and the Monastery of Ema. The Art Bulletin. 49 (4): 282.
doi:10.2307/3048487.
[42] Fishman 1982, pp. 244246.
[69] Donadio, Rachel (July 12, 2015). New York Times. ny-
[43] Le Corbusier plus facho que fada. Liberation. March
times.com.
18, 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
[70] Padovan, Richard (November 2, 1999). Proportion: Sci-
[44] Journet 2015, p. 215.
ence, Philosophy, Architecture. Taylor & Francis. p. 320.
[45] Bony 2012, p. 143. ISBN 0-419-22780-6. from Le Corbusier, The Modulor
p.35: Both the paintings and the architectural designs
[46] Journel 2015, p. 139. make use of the golden section.
24 CHAPTER 1. BAB 1

[71] padovan 1999, p. 316. Brooks, H. Allen (1999) Le Corbusiers Formative

Years: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret at La Chaux-de-
[72] Riley 2007, p. 382).
Fonds, Paperback Edition, University of Chicago
[73] Riley 2007, p. 383. Press, ISBN 0-226-07582-6.

[74] Brott, Simone (2013). In the Shadow of the Enlight- Eliel, Carol S. (2002). L'Esprit Nouveau: Purism in
enment Le Corbusier, Le Faisceau and Georges Valois. Paris, 1918 1925. New York: Harry N. Abrams,
Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians, Aus- Inc. ISBN 0-8109-6727-8.
tralia and New Zealand. 2 (30): 777789.

[75] After becoming a wartime resistance ghter, Georges Val- Curtis, William J.R. (1994) Le Corbusier: Ideas and
ois was arrested and died in a Nazi concentration camp. Forms, Phaidon, ISBN 978-0-7148-2790-2.

[76] Celik, Zeynep (July 28, 1997). Urban Forms and Colonial Frampton, Kenneth. (2001). Le Corbusier, London,
Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule. University of Thames and Hudson.
California Press. p. 4. ASIN 0520204573. ISBN 978-
0520204577.
Jencks, Charles (2000) Le Corbusier and the Contin-
[77] Antli, Mark (2007). Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobi- ual Revolution in Architecture, The Monacelli Press,
lization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 19091939. ISBN 978-1-58093-077-2.
Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-9047-7.
Jornod, Nama and Jornod, Jean-Pierre (2005) Le
[78] Andr Malraux, funeral oration for Le Corbusier, Septem- Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), catalogue
ber 1, 1965, cited in Journal (2015), p. 3.1
raisonn de l'oeuvre peint, Skira, ISBN 88-7624-
[79] Rybcznski, Witold, Time magazine, June 8, 1998. 203-1.

[80] Antli, Mark (1997). La Cit francaise: George Val- Journel, Guillemette Morel (2015). Le Corbusier-
ois, Le Corbusier, and Fascist Theories of Urbanism. In Construire la Vie Moderne (in French). Editions
Antli, Mark; Aron, Matthew. Fascist Visions: Art and du Patrimoine: Centre des Monument Nationaux.
Ideology in France and Italy. Princeton University Press.
ISBN 978-2-7577-0419-6.
pp. 134170. ISBN 978-0-691027388.

[81] Le Corbusier. Urbanism 1. p. 39. Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. (2015) 'Trans-

gression and Ekphrasis in Le Corbusiers Journey to
[82] Le Corbusier enfant terrible of Modernist Architec- the East' in Transgression: Towards the Expanded
ture? / Pash Living Blog. pash-living.co.uk. Field in Architecture, edited by Louis Rice and David
[83] Muse: Fondation Le Corbusier Maison La Roche. Littleeld, London: Routledge, 5775, ISBN 978-
Paris Convention and Visitors Bureau. Retrieved 2014- 1-13-881892-7.
03-18.
Le Corbusier (1925). L'Art dcoratif d'aujourdhui
[84] About the Faculty. University of Cambridge. Retrieved (in French). G. Crs et Cie.
2014-03-18.

[85] The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Le Corbusier (1923). Vers une architecture (in
Contribution to the Modern Movement. UNESCO World French). Flammarion (1995). ISBN 978-2-0812-
Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientic 1744-7.
and Cultural Organization. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
Dumont, Marie-Jeanne, ed. (2002). Le Corbusier-
Lettres a ses maitres (in French). Editions du Lin-
1.1.33 Bibliography teau.

Arwas, Victor (1992). Art Deco. Harry N. Abrams Solitaire, Marc (2016) Au retour de La Chaux-de-
Inc. ISBN 0-8109-1926-5. Fonds: Le Corbusier & Froebel, editions Wiking,
ISBN 978-2-9545239-1-0.
Sarbjit Bahga, Surinder Bahga (2014) Le Corbusier
and Pierre Jeanneret: The Indian Architecture, Cre-
Riley, Nol (2004). Grammaire des Arts Dcoratifs
ateSpace, ISBN 978-1495906251.
(in French). Flammarion.
Bony, Anne (2012). L'Architecture moderne.
Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-587641-6. Von Moos, Stanislaus (2009) Le Corbusier: Ele-
ments of A Synthesis, Rotterdam, 010 Publishers.
Behrens, Roy R. (2005). Cook Book: Gertrude
Stein, William Cook and Le Corbusier. Dysart, Iowa: Weber, Nicholas Fox (2008) Le Corbusier: A Life,
Bobolink Books. ISBN 0-9713244-1-7. Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-375-41043-0.
1.1. LE CORBUSIER 25

1.1.34 External links

Le Corbusier architectural drawings, 1935
1961.Held by the Department of Drawings &
Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library,
Columbia University.

Fondation Le Corbusier Ocial site

Le Corbusier on Artsy.net
Rajagopal, Avinash. 'The Little Prince' and Le Cor-
busier in Point of View, Metropolis
Le Corbusiers Working Lifestyle: 'Working with Le
Corbusier'
Plummer, Henry. Cosmos of Light: The Sacred Ar-
chitecture of Le Corbusier. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2013.

Le Corbusier and the Sun. solarhousehistory.com.

Chapter 2

BAB 2

2.1 Ville Contemporaine 2.1.3 See also

Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow
The Ville contemporaine (French pronunciation: [vil
(concept)
k t pn], Contemporary City) was an unrealized
project intended to house three million inhabitants de- Ville Radieuse
signed by the French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier in
1922.
2.1.4 References
Le Corbusier. From here to modernity. Open2.net
2.1.1 Plan - BBC/Open University. Retrieved 2006-08-02.

The centerpiece of this plan was a group of sixty-story

cruciform skyscrapers built on steel frames and encased 2.1.5 External links
in curtain walls of glass. The skyscrapers housed both of-
ces and the ats of the most wealthy inhabitants. These Drawings at the Le Corbusier Foundation
skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular park-like
green spaces.
At the center of the planned city was a transportation hub 2.2 International Exhibition of
which housed depots for buses and trains as well as high- Modern Decorative and Indus-
way intersections and at the top, an airport.
Le Corbusier segregated the pedestrian circulation paths
trial Arts
from the roadways, and gloried the use of the automobile
as a means of transportation. As one moved out from the
central skyscrapers, smaller multi-story zigzag blocks set
in green space and set far back from the street housed the
proletarian workers.

2.1.2 Critics

Robert Hughes spoke of Le Corbusiers city planning in

his series The Shock of the New:

Postcard of the Exposition Internationale des Arts decoratifs et

"...the car would abolish the human street, industriels modernes (1925)
and possibly the human foot. Some people
would have aeroplanes too. The one thing no The International Exhibition of Modern Decorative
one would have is a place to bump into each and Industrial Arts (French: Exposition internationale
other, walk the dog, strut, one of the hundred des arts dcoratifs et industriels modernes) was a Worlds
random things that people do ... being random fair held in Paris, France, from April to October 1925.
was loathed by Le Corbusier ... its inhabitants It was designed by the French government to highlight
surrender their freedom of movement to the the new style moderne of architecture, interior decora-
omnipresent architect. tion, furniture, glass, jewelry and other decorative arts in

26
2.2. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF MODERN DECORATIVE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 27

Europe and throughout the world. Many ideas of the in- Jourdain announced the idea of holding a separate ex-
ternational avant-garde in the elds of architecture and hibit of decorative arts as soon as possible. he explained
applied arts were presented for the rst time at the Ex- his reason in an essay written later, in 1928: We conse-
position. The event took place between the esplanade of quently resolved to return Decoratice Art, inconsiderately
Les Invalides and the entrances of the Grand Palais and treated as a Cinderella or poor relation allowed to eat with
Petit Palais, and on both banks of the Seine. There were the servants, to the important, almost preponderant place
15,000 exhibitors from twenty dierent countries; and it occupied in the past, of all times and in all of the coun-
it was visited by sixteen million people during its seven- tries of the globe. [4]
month run.[1] The Style Moderne presented at the Expo-
The Society of Decorative Artists lobbied the French
sition later became known as "Art Deco", after the name Chamber of Deputies, which in 1912 agreed to host an
of the Exposition.[2][3]
international exposition of decorative arts in 1915. The
plans were put aside in 1915 because of the First World
War, then revived after the war ended in 1918. It was rst
2.2.1 The Idea and the organization scheduled for 1922, then postponed because of a shortage
of construction materials to 1924 and then 1925, twenty-
ve years after the great Paris Exposition of 1900. .[5]
The program for the Exhibition made it clear that it was
intended to be a celebration of modernism, not of histori-
cal styles. It was declared to be open to all manufacturers
whose products is artistic in character and shows clearly
modern tendencies. The program also stated specically
that Whatever the reputation of the artist, whatever the
commercial strength of the manufacturer, neither will be
allowed into the Exhibition if they do not t the condi-
tions outlined in the Exhibition program. A second pur-
pose was attached to the Exhibition; to honor the Allied
countries in the First World War. For this reason the new
Soviet Union was invited, though its government was not
yet recognized by France; while Germany was not. The
United States declined to participate; the U.S. Secretary
of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, explained that there was
no modern art in the United States. The U.S. Commerce
Department did appoint a commission to attend the ex-
hibit and issue a report. The report, which came out in
1926, stated that the U.S had clearly misunderstood the
purpose of the Exposition, and that at least some partic-
ipation should have been arranged to honor the French-
American wartime alliance. While the U.S. did not have
a pavilion, hundreds of American designers, artists, jour-
nalists and department store buyers came to Paris to see
Exposition poster by Robert Bonls, 1925 the Exposition. .[5]

The idea for an exhibition entirely devoted the decora-

tive arts originally came from the Societ des Artistes 2.2.2 The Site
Dcorateurs (The Society of Decorative Artists), a group
founded in 1901 which included both established artists,
including Eugene Grasset and Hector Guimard, as well
as younger artists including Francis Jourdain, Maurice
Dufrne, Paul Fallot and Pierre Chareau. Decorative
artists had been allowed to participate in the previous
two Paris Salons, but they were placed subordinate to
the painters, and they wanted an exhibit which gave rst
place to decorative arts. The rst Salons of the new
group were held in the newly opened Museum of Deco-
rative Arts in the Pavillon de Marson of the Louvre. The
Salon d'Automne. a new Salon founded in 1903, hon-
ored painters, sculptors, graphics artists and architects,
but again decorative arts were largely ignored. Frantz The
28 CHAPTER 2. BAB 2

main entrance to the Exhibition on the Place de la the Gate of Honor across the Pont Alexandre III to Les
Concorde, designed by Pierre Patout, with a statue Invalides, with pavilions on both banks. gardens and
in the center by Louis Dejean fountains were placed between the pavilions. The Pont
Alexander III, which connected the two parts of the Ex-
position, was turned into a modernist shopping mall by
the architect Maurice Dufrne. The banks of the Seine
were lined with oating restaurants built for the Exposi-
tion, which became a popular attraction.
There were thirteen dierent gateways into the Exposi-
tion, which were each designed by dierent architects.
The main entrance was at the Place de la Concorde,
designed by architect Pierre Patout, with a statue of a
woman in the center called Welcome by Louis Dejean.
The pavilions of the major French stores and decora-
tors were located on the main axis within the entrance.
Another section was devoted to pavilions from design-
The Tourism Pavilion ers of the French provinces, particularly from Nancy and
by Robert Mallet-Stevens Lyon. Another section was devoted to foreign pavilions
and manufacturers, and another to the products of French
colonies which could be used in decoration, particularly
rare woods and products such as ivory and mother of
pearl.[6]
The tallest structure in the Exposition, and one of the
most modernist, was the tower of the Tourism Pavilion
by Robert Mallet-Stevens. The towers sleek lines and
lack of ornament were an announcement of the interna-
tional style that would replace Art Deco. In 1929 Mallet-
Stevens led the creation of The French Union of Modern
Artists which rebelled against the luxurious decorative
styles shown at the Exposition, and, along with Corbusier,
demanded architecture without ornament, built with in-
The and mass-produced materials.[6]
expensive
main axis of the Exposition, from the Gateway of
Honor across the Pont Alexandre III to Les Invalides

2.2.3 Pavilions of the French designers

The
view of the Exposition from Les Invalides

The site chosen for the Exposition was the center of Paris,
around the Grand Palais, the enormous glass and iron
pavilion which had been built for the 1900 Paris Expo-
sition. The principal architect was Charles Plumet. The Pavilion
main entrance, called the Gate of Honor, was located of Galeries Lafayette department store
next to the Grand Palais. The main axis stretched from
2.2. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF MODERN DECORATIVE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 29

Pavilion The
of the Bon March department store salon of the Hotel du Collectioneur, with furniture
by mile-Jacques Ruhlmann. and painting by Jean
Dupas

The
Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau

Just Pavilion
inside the main entrance of the Exposition on the
of the Printemps department store Place de la Concorde was the main promenade of the Ex-
position, with the pavilions of the major French depart-
ment stores and manufacturers of luxury furniture, porce-
lain, glassware and textiles. Each pavilion was designed
by a dierent architect, and they tried to outdo each other
with colorful entrances, sculptural friezes, and murals of
ceramics and metal. The modernist tower of the Pavilion
of Tourism designed by Robert Mallet-Stevens stood out
above the other pavilions. Inside each pavilion presented
rooms with ensembles of furniture, carpets, paintings and
other decorative objects.
Many of the exhibits were shown inside the Grand Palais,
the enormous hall which had been built for the 1900 Inter-
national Exposition. For the rst time at an international
exposition, pieces of furniture were displayed not as in-
dividual items but in rooms similar to those in a home,
where all the decor was coordinated. The Hotel du Col-
lectioneur, for example, displayed the works of the furni-
ture maker mile-Jacques Ruhlmann, in rooms complete
with paintings and replaces in the same same moderne
style.
The
Hotel du Collectioneur was a showcase for the fur- The most unusual, most modest, and, in the end, probably
niture of mile-Jacques Ruhlmann. the most inuential French pavilion was that of the mag-
azine L'Esprit Nouveau, directed by Amde Ozenfant
30 CHAPTER 2. BAB 2

and Le Corbusier. They had founded the Purist move-

ment 1918, with the goal of eliminating all decoration
in architecture, and replacing hand-made furniture with
machine-made furniture. They founded L'Esprit Nouveau
in 1920, and used it vigorously to attack traditional dec-
orative arts. Decorative art, Corbusier wrote, as op-
posed to the machine phenomenon, is the nal twitch of
the old manual mode, and is a dying thing. Our pavilion
will contain only standard things created by industry in
factories and mass-produced, truly the objects of today.
The Esprit Nouveau pavilion was almost hidden between
two wings of the Grand Palais. It was made of concrete,
steel and glass, with no ornament at all. The interiors had The
plain white walls with a few cubist paintings. Since trees Swedish pavilion by Carl Bergsten
on the site could not be cut down, Corbusier integrated
a tree in the interior of the building, coming up through
a hole in the roof. The furniture was simple, machine-
made and mass-produced. The organizers of the Exposi-
tion were horried by the appearance of the building, and
tried to hide it by building a fence. However, Corbusier
appealed to the Ministry of Fine Arts, which sponsored
the Exhibition, and the fence was removed. [7]
Within the pavilion building Corbusier exhibited his Plan
Voisin for Paris. The Plan Voisin, named for aviation pio-
neer Gabriel Voisin, proposed the construction of a series
of identical 200 meter tall skyscrapers and lower rectan-
gular apartments, that would replace the historic build-
The
ings on the right bank of the Seine in Paris. He had no
Danish pavilion for presenting porcelain and faience
expectation that central Paris would be demolished and
his plan carried out; it was simply a way to attract at-
tention to his ideas.[8] The pavilion represented a single
modular apartment, representing the identical machine-
made houses which Corbusier believed were the future
of modern architecture.[9]

2.2.4 Foreign Pavilions

The Dutch pavilion

The
Belgian pavilion, by Victor Horta The Italian pavilion by
Armando Brasini
2.2. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF MODERN DECORATIVE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 31

Pavilion of the Soviet

Union, by Konstantin Melnikov

Some twenty countries participated in the Exhibit. Ger-

manyThewas not invited because of its role in World War
British Pavilion by Easton and Robertson I, but Austria and Hungary were invited, as was the new
Soviet Union, though it was not yet ocially recognized
by France. Many countries had exhibits of furniture and
decoration within the Grand Palais, and also built pavil-
ions to illustrate new ideas in architecture. Britain, Italy,
Spain, Belgium and the Netherlands all had substantial
pavilions, as did the Scandinavian countries, Poland, and
Czechoslovakia. Japan had an important pavilion, while
China had only a modest representation. The United
States, not entirely understanding the purpose of the ex-
hibit, chose not to participate.[10]
Austria was a major participant, thanks to the work of
Josef Homann, who designed the Austrian pavilion next
to the Seine. The complex included a terrace by the
Seine, a tower, a cubic glass and iron exhibit hall by Peter
Behrens, and a brightly decorated cafe. The pavilion con-
tained works of sculpture by the modernists Anton Hanak
Pavilion of Poland by and Eugen Steinhof.
Joseph Czajkowski Belgium was also a major participant; the country had a
large exposition of furniture and design on the main oor
of the Grand Palais, and a separate pavilion, designed by
Victor Horta, the pioneer of Art Nouveau architecture.
Belgium had been left in ruins by the War, and the Bel-
gian exhibit had a low budget; the pavilion was made of
wood, plaster and other low-cost materials. Hortas pavil-
ion had a rectangual tower, with crowned with six statues
by Wolfers, representing decorative arts through the ages.
The interior displayed tapestries, glass and decoration in
the new style. Belgian artists taking part included the ar-
chitects Paul Hamesse, Henry van de Velde, and Victor
Bourgeois, the decorator Leon Sneyers. [11]
The pavilion of Denmark, by Kay Fisker, was a striking
block of red and white bricks, making a Danish cross.
Inside were murals by Mogens Lorentzen inspired by an-
cient maps of Denmark, with colorful and fantastic im-
ages.The
A separate building, symmetrical with the rst, was
pavilion of Japan by Shichigoro Yamada and Iwa- lled with light and displayed the works of the Danish
kichi Miyamoto manufactory of porcelain and faience.
The pavilion of Sweden was designed by Carl Bergsten,
32 CHAPTER 2. BAB 2

while the Swedish display in the Grand Palais featured 2.2.5 Decorative Arts
a model of the new art deco city hall of Stockholm, by
Ragnar Ostberg. The small pavilion was a deco version
of classicism, pure and simple; it was reected in a pool,
and discreetly ornamented with deco statues. [12]
The pavilion of the Netherlands, designed by M. J. Staal,
was designed to capture in a modern style the mystery and
luxury of the East Indies, where the country had colonies.
An enormous roof like that of a pagoda covered the struc-
ture; the facade was decorated with colorful murals, and
the structure was reected in brick-lined pools.
The pavilion of Italy by Armando Brasini was a large
classical block built of concrete and covered with decora-
tion in marble, ceramics and gilded bricks. In the center
was an enormous head of a man in bronze by the sculptor
Adolfo Wildt. The illuminated crystal
fountain at the Exposition, by Ren Lalique
The pavilion of Great Britain, by the architects Easton
and Robertson, resembled an art deco cathedral. It was
decorated on the outside with colorful ags, and in the
inside with stained glass, murals and polychrome facade,
with arabesques and oriental themes. The interior opened
out to a restaurant on a platform next to the Seine.
The pavilion of Poland was designed by Joseph Cza-
jkowski. It had a amboyant glass and iron tower with ge-
ometric facets, a deco versio of the picturesque churches
of Poland in the 17th and 18th centuries The octago-
nal hall, supported on wooden pillars, had a skylight of
deco stained glass, and was lled with deco statuary and
tapestries. Polish graphic arts were also successfully rep-
resented. Tadeusz Gronowski won the Grand Prix in that
category.
The pavilion of Japan by Shichigoro Yamada and Iwa-
kichi Miyamoto was in the classical Japanese tradition, A grill with two wings
but with the use of both traditional materials, such as called The Pheasants, made by Paul Kiss and
straw and varnished wood, combined with highly rened displayed at the 1925 Exposition.
lacquered decoration. It was built in Japan, transported
to France and assembled by Japanese workers.
The pavilion of the Soviet Union was one of the most
unusual in the Exposition. It was created by a young
Russian architect, Konstantin Melnikov, who in 1922 had
designed the new central market in Moscow, and who
also designed the sarcophagus in Lenins mausoleum in
Moscow. He had a very low budget, and built his struc-
ture entirely of wood and glass. A stairway crossed the
structure diagonally on the exterior, allowing visitors to
see the interior of the exhibit from above. The roof over
the stairway was not continuous, but was made up of
planes of wood suspended at an angle, which were sup-
posed to let in fresh air and keep rain out, but visitors were
sometimes drenched. The exhibits inside included mod-
els of projects for various Soviet monuments. The intent
of the building was to attract attention, and it certainly Iron
succeeded; it was one of the most talked-about buildings and copper grill called Oasis by Edgar Brandt.
in the Exposition. [13] Brandt also designed the ornamental gates at the
main entrance of the Exposition.
2.2. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF MODERN DECORATIVE AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 33

played prototypes of mass-produced pieces of inexpen-

sive furniture, made with inexpensive materials, which
he saw as the future of interior design.

2.2.6 Attractions and amusements

A cabinet by Emile-
Jacques Ruhlmann displayed in the Maison du
Collectioneur

A clock made of
white jade, onyx, diamonds, coral, mother of pearl
and gold, by Louis Cartier and Maurice Cout
(192327)

The Eiel tower was turned into an illuminated advertisement for

Following the program of the French organizers of the Citron during the Exhibition
Exposition, the objects on display, from furniture to
glassware and metalwork, all expressed a new style; a
Large areas were devoted to amusements, from shoot-
combination of modernist forms made with traditional
French craftsmanship. The furniture, glassware, metal- ing galleries to merry-go-rounds, cafes and theaters. A
miniature village was created for children, and there were
work, fabrics and objects displayed were made with rare
and expensive materials; ebony, ivory, mother of pearl, stages which presented plays, ballets, singers and cultural
programs from the participating countries. The Exposi-
sharkskin, and exotic woods from around the world; but
the forms they used were very distinct from Art Nouveau tion also was the venue for fashion shows, parades, and
beauty contests, as well as frequent reworks displays.
or the preceding historic styles. They used geometric
forms, straight lines, zigzag patterns, stylized garlands of The Eiel Tower was not within the site, but it was clearly
owers and baskets of fruit, to create something new and visible from the Exhibition.The Citron Company dec-
dierent. The rm of Lalique, best known for its deli- orated the tower from top to bottom with two hundred
cate Art Nouveau glasswork, produced an art deco crys- thousand light bulbs in six colors. The lights could be
tal fountain, illuminated from within, which became one controlled from a keyboard, and presented nine dierent
of the landmarks of the Exposition. The Maison du Col- patterns, including geometric shapes and circles, a shower
lectioneur, the pavilion of the furniture maker Jacques- of stars, the signs of the zodiac, and, most prominently,
Emile Ruhlmann, showed what an art deco house could the name CITRON.
look like, with an art Deco painting, sculpture by Antoine
A gigantic banquet and gala was held on 16 June 1925,
Bourdelle, a painting by Jean Dupas, and ne craftsman- within the Grand Palais. It featured the American dancer
ship. Loie Fuller, with her dance students appearing to swim
An alternative view of future of Decoration was also on through gauze veils; the dancer Eva Le Galienne as Joan
display at the Exposition, within the white cube of the of Arc and the dancer Ida Rubenstein as the Golden An-
pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau. Here Le Corbusier dis- gel, in a costume by Leon Bakst; the singer Mistinguett in
34 CHAPTER 2. BAB 2

the costume of a diamond, surrounded by the troupe of the 1930s also favored modernism; modernist buildings,
the Casino de Paris dressed as gemstones; and short per- without ornament, used less expensive materials and were
formances by the full companies of the Comedie Fran- cheaper to build, and thus were considered more suitable
caise and the Paris Opera, the Follies Bergere and the for the times. The outbreak of World War II in 1939
Moulin Rouge. The nale was the Ballet of Ballets brought a sharp end to the Art Deco period.
danced by three hundred dancers from all of the Paris
ballet companies in white tutus. [14]
2.2.8 References
2.2.7 The legacy of the Exposition Notes and citations

The Exposition accomplished its goal, to show that Paris [1] Goss, Jared. French Art Deco. Metropolitan Museum
still reigned supreme in the arts of design. The term art of Art. Retrieved 2016-08-29.
deco was not yet used, but In the years immediately fol-
lowing the Exposition, the art and design shown there was [2] Benton, Charlotte; Benton, Tim; Wood, Ghislaine (2003).
Art Deco: 19101939. Bulnch. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-
copied around the world, in the skyscrapers of New York,
8212-2834-0.
the ocean liners that crossed that Atlantic, movie theaters
around the world. It had a major inuence in the de- [3] Bevis Hillier, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s (Studio
sign of fashion, jewelry, furniture, glass, metalwork, tex- Vista/Dutton Picturebacks), 1968
tiles and other decorative arts. At At the same time, it
displayed the growing dierence between the traditional [4] Cited in Arwas,Art Deco (1992), page 13
style moderne, with its expensive materials, ne crafts- [5] Arwas 1992, p. 13.
manship and lavish decoration, and the modernist move-
ment that wanted to simplify art and architecture. The [6] Charles 2013, pp. 20-30.
Esprit Nouveau pavilion and the Soviet pavilion were dis-
tinctly not decorative,[15] they contained furnishings and [7] Arwas 1992, pp. 46-49.
paintings but these works, including the pavilions, were [8] Anthony Sutclie, Paris: An Architectural History, Yale
spare and modern. The modern architecture of Le Cor- University Press, 1993, Page 143, ISBN 0-300-06886-7
busier and Konstantin Melnikov attracted both criticism
and admiration for its lack of ornamentation. Criticism [9] Christopher Green, Art in France, 1900-1940, Yale Uni-
focused on the 'nakedness of these structures,[16] com- versity Press, 2000, ISBN 0-300-09908-8
pared to other pavilions at the exhibition, such as the
[10] Charles 2013, p. 69.
Pavilion of the Collector by the bniste-decorator mile-
Jacques Ruhlmann. [11] Charles 2013, pp. 74-75.
In 1926, shortly after the end of the Paris Decorative [12] Charles 2013, pp. 96.
Arts exposition, The French Union of Modern Artists, a
group which included Francis Jourdain, Pierre Chareau, [13] Charles 2013, pp. 104.
Le Corbusier, and Robert Mallet-Stevens among others,
ercely attacked the style, which they said was created [14] Anwas 1992, p. 30.
only for the wealthy and its form was determined by their [15] Dr Harry Francis Mallgrave, Modern Architectural The-
tastes. The modernists, as they became known, insisted ory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968, Cambridge Univer-
that well-constructed buildings should be available to ev- sity Press, 2005, page 258, ISBN 0-521-79306-8
eryone, and that form should follow function. The beauty
of an object or building resided in whether it was perfectly [16] Catherine Cooke, Russian Avant-Garde: Theories of Art,
t to fulll its function. Modern industrial methods meant Architecture, and the City, Academy Editions, 1995, Page
143.
that furniture and buildings could be mass-produced, not
made by hand. [17] Duncan 1988, p. 8.
The Art Deco interior designer Paul Follot defended Art
Deco in this way: We know that man is never content
Bibliography
with the indispensable and that the superuous is always
needed...If not, we would have to get rid of music, ow-
Arwas, Victor (1992). Art Deco. Harry N. Abrams.
ers, and perfumes..!" [17] However, Le Corbusier was a
ISBN 0-8109-1926-5.
brilliant publicist for modernist architecture; he stated
that a house was simply a machine to live in, and tire- Duncan, Alastair (1988). Art dco. Thames & Hud-
lessly promoted the idea that Art Deco was the past and son. ISBN 2-87811-003-X.
modernism was the future. Le Corbusiers ideas were
gradually adopted by architecture schools, and the aes- Charles, Victoria (2013). Art Dco. Parkstone In-
thetics of Art Deco were abandoned. The economy of ternational. ISBN 978-1-84484-864-5.
2.3. DOM-INO HOUSE 35

2.2.9 External links

Exposition Art Dco 1925 photographs
https://www.flickr.com/photos/93051314@N00/
2904130823/

Coordinates: 485149N 21849E / 48.8636N

2.3136E

2.3 Dom-Ino House

Dom-Ino House is an open oor plan structure designed
by noted architect Le Corbusier in 19141915.[1][2] It is
a design idea to manufacture in series, that combines the
order he discovered in classical architecture.

2.3.1 History
It was a prototype as the physical platform for the mass
production of housing. The name is a pun that combines
an allusion to domus (Latin for house)[3] and the pieces of
the game of dominoes, because the oor plan resembled
the game and because the units could be aligned in a series
like dominoes, to make row houses of dierent patterns.

2.3.2 Design
This model proposed an open oor plan consisting of
concrete slabs supported by a minimal number of thin,
reinforced concrete columns around the edges, with a
stairway providing access to each level on one side of the
oor plan. The frame was to be completely independent
of the oor plans of the houses thus giving freedom to
design the interior conguration. The model eliminated
load-bearing walls and the supporting beams for the ceil-
ing.

2.3.3 Inuence
This design became the foundation for most of his archi-
tecture for the next ten years.

2.3.4 References
[1] http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-07-28/
prefab-houses-on-show-at-momabusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice

[2] http://www.smh.com.au/news/arts/
shoebox-or-gingerbread-house/2005/12/29/
1135732684392.html

[3] Sennott, Stephen, ed. (Jan 1, 2004). Encyclopedia of

Twentieth Century Architecture. Taylor & Francis. p. 366.
Chapter 3

BAB 3

3.1 Bevis Hillier 3.1.2 Betjeman letter hoax

In August 2006 a rival biography of Betjeman was pub-

Bevis Hillier (born 28 March 1940) is an English art his- lished by A. N. Wilson. It was later discovered to con-
torian, author and journalist. He has written on Art Deco, tain a hoax letter, purportedly by Betjeman, but actually
and also a biography of Sir John Betjeman. containing an acrostic insulting Wilson. The letter had
been sent to Wilson by Eve de Harben, an anagram of
Ever been had?", and the rst letters of each sentence,
beginning with the second sentence, spelled out the mes-
sage A.N. Wilson is a shit. Hillier was an immediate
suspect for the literary forgery: the Sunday Times arti-
cle revealing the hoax was accompanied by a prominent
3.1.1 Life and work picture of Hillier and noted that an envelope containing
a letter supposedly from de Harben to the newspaper had
[1]
Hillier was born in Redhill, Surrey. His father was Jack been bought in Winchester, his home town. Hillier ini-
Hillier, an authority and author on Japanese art. His tially denied responsibility, but soon admitted that he had
mother was Mary Louise Hillier, an authority on wax written the letter. He explained that he had been angered
dolls and automata. Hillier was educated at Reigate by Wilsons negative review of the second volume of his
Grammar School and Magdalen College, Oxford, where biography of Betjeman, and by pre-publication publicity
[2]
he won the Gladstone Memorial Prize for History. He for Wilsons own biography.
was employed as a journalist on The Times from 1963.
He has since been a reviewer for The Spectator.
3.1.3 See also
In 1968 Hilliers book Art Deco of the 20s and 30s was
published by Studio Vista. This was the rst major work John Betjeman
on a hitherto neglected genre of art that had previously
been referred to as Art Moderne (The term Art Moderne
has since come to be used to refer to the later streamlined 3.1.4 Bibliography
style of Art Deco in the 1930s.). Hilliers use of the term
Art Deco became denitive. In 1971 Hillier curated a ma- Books
jor Art Deco show at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts,
which helped to increase popular awareness of this style. Art Deco of the 20s and 30s (Studio Vista/Dutton
In 1969 Studio Vista published Hilliers Cartoons and Picturebacks, 1968) ISBN 978-0-289-27788-1
Caricatures, a study of caricature from the 13th century
to the late 20th. Hillier has also written books on ce- The Decorative Arts of the Forties and Fifties: Aus-
ramics and posters, as well as The Style of the Century terity/Binge (Clarkson N. Potter, 1975) ISBN 0-517-
(1983), a review of the various styles of art in the 20th 518503
century, from Art Nouveau through psychedelia and pop
art to punk. Articles
Hilliers major work, however, is the authorised biogra-
phy of Sir John Betjeman. It took Hillier 25 years to Hillier, Bevis (4 October 2008). A laughing cava-
research and write, and was published by John Murray lier. The Spectator. 308 (9397): 3234. Retrieved
in three volumes (1988, 2002 and 2004). A one-volume 22 December 2008. Review of James Knox, Car-
abridgement was published in 2006 for Betjemans cen- toons and Coronets: The Genius of Osbert Lancaster
tenary. (Frances Lincoln, 2008) ISBN 978-0-7112-2933-4.

36
3.2. VILLA SAVOYE 37

3.1.5 References later part of the decade, including his urban designs for
Algiers, began to be more free-form.[9] .
[1] Brooks, Richard (2006-08-27). Betjeman love letter is
horrid hoax. London: The Sunday Times. Retrieved
2006-08-28.
3.2.2 History of the commission
[2] Brooks, Richard (2006-09-03). Betjeman biographer
confesses to literary hoax. London: The Sunday Times. Pierre and Eugnie Savoye approached Corbusier about
Retrieved 2006-09-05. building a country home in Poissy in the spring of
1928.[10] The site was on a green eld on an otherwise
wooded plot of land with a magnicent landscape view
3.1.6 External links to the north west that corresponded with the approach to
the site along the road. Other than an initial brief pre-
Review of the third volume of Hilliers biography of pared by Emile[11] for a summer house, space for cars,
Betjeman an extra bedroom and a caretakers lodge, Corbusier had
such freedom with the job that he was only limited by his
own architectural palette. He began work on the project
3.2 Villa Savoye in September 1928. His initial ideas were those that even-
tually manifested themselves in the nal building but be-
Villa Savoye (French pronunciation: [sa.vwa]) is a tween Autumn 1928 and Spring 1929 he undertook a se-
modernist villa in Poissy, on the outskirts of Paris, ries of alternatives that were inuenced primarily by the
France. It was designed by Swiss architects Le Corbusier Savoyes concern about cost.[12] The eventual solution to
and his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, and built between 1928 this problem was to reduce the volume of the building by
and 1931 using reinforced concrete.[3][4] moving the master bedroom down to the rst oor and
reducing the grid spacing down from 5 metres to 4.75
A manifesto of Le Corbusiers "ve points" of new archi-
metres.[13]
tecture, the villa is representative of the bases of modern
architecture, and is one of the most easily recognizable
and renowned examples of the International style.
3.2.3 Construction
The house was originally built as a country retreat on be-
hest of the Savoye family. After being purchased by the Estimates of the cost in February 1929 were approx-
neighbouring school it passed on to be property of the imately half a million Francs, although this excluded
French state in 1958, and after surviving several plans of the cost of the lodge and the landscaping elements (al-
demolition, it was designated as an ocial French his- most twice the original budget). The project was ten-
torical monument in 1965 (a rare occurrence, as Le Cor- dered in February with contracts awarded in March 1929.
busier was still living at the time). It was thoroughly reno-
Changes made to the design whilst the project was be-
vated from 1985 to 1997, and under the care of the Centre ing built including an amendment to the storey height and
des monuments nationaux, the refurbished house is now the exclusion and then re-introduction of the chaueurs
open to visitors year-round.[5][6] accommodation led to the costs rising to approximately
In July 2016, the house and several other works by Le 800,000 Francs. At the time the project started on site
Corbusier were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage no design work had been done on the lodge and the nal
Sites.[7] design was only presented to the client in June 1929. The
design was for a double lodge but this was reduced to a
single lodge as the costs were too high.[14] Although con-
3.2.1 Background struction of the whole house was complete within a year,
it was not habitable until 1931.[15]
By the end of the 1920s LeCorbusier was already the
internationally known architect. His book Vers une Ar-
chitecture had been translated into several languages, his 3.2.4 Design
work with the Centrosoyuz in Moscow involved him with
the Russian avant-garde and his problems with the League The Villa Savoye is probably Corbusiers best known
of Nations competition had been widely publicised. Also building from the 1930s, and it had enormous inuence
he was one of the rst members of Congrs Interna- on international modernism.[16] It was designed address-
tional d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) and was becom- ing his emblematic Five Points, the basic tenets in his
ing known as a champion of modern architecture.[8] new architectural aesthetic:[5]
The villas designed by Corbusier in the early part of the
1920s demonstrated what he termed the precision of 1. Support of ground-level pilotis, elevating the build-
architecture, where each feature of the design needed to ing from the earth and allowed an extended continu-
be justied in design and urban terms. His work in the ity of the garden beneath.
38 CHAPTER 3. BAB 3

2. Functional roof, serving as a garden and terrace, re- entrance hall[22] and the celebration of the health-giving
claiming for nature the land occupied by the build- properties of the sun in the solarium on the roof which is
ing. given signicance by being the culmination of ascending
the ramp.[23]
3. Free oor plan, relieved of load-bearing walls, al-
lowing walls to be placed freely and only where aes- Corbusiers piloti perform a number of functions around
thetically needed. the house, both inside and out. On the two longer eleva-
tions they are ush with the face of the faade and imply
4. Long horizontal windows, providing illumination heaviness and support, but on the shorter sides they are set
and ventilation. back giving a oating eect that emphasises the horizon-
tal feeling of the house. The wide strip window to the rst
5. Freely-designed facades, serving only as a skin of oor terrace has two baby piloti to support and stien the
the wall and windows and unconstrained by load- wall above. Although these piloti are in a similar plane to
bearing considerations. the larger columns below a false perspective when viewed
from outside the house gives the impression that they are
Unlike his earlier town villas Corbusier was able to care- further into the house than they actually are.[24]
fully design all four sides of the Villa Savoye in re-
The Villa Savoye uses the horizontal ribbon windows
sponse to the view and the orientation of the sun. On
found in his earlier villas. Unlike his contemporaries,
the ground oor he placed the main entrance hall, ramp
Corbusier often chose to use timber windows rather than
and stairs, garage, chaueur and maids rooms. At rst
metal ones. It has been suggested that this is because he
oor the master bedroom, the sons bedroom, guest bed-
was interested in glass for its planar properties and that the
room, kitchen, salon and external terraces. The salon was
set-back position of the glass in the timber frame allowed
oriented to the south east whilst the terrace faced the east.
the faade to be seen as a series of parallel planes.[25]
The sons bedroom faced the north west and the kitchen
and service terrace were on the south west. At second
oor level were a series of sculpted spaces that formed a 3.2.5 Later history
solarium.[17]
The plan was set out using the principal ratios of the Problems with the Savoyes caused by all the requests
Golden section: in this case a square divided into six- for additional payment from the contractors for all the
teen equal parts, extended on two sides to incorporate the changes were compounded by the requirement for early
projecting faades and then further divided to give the repairs to the new house. Each autumn the Savoyes suf-
position of the ramp and the entrance.[18] fered problems with rainwater leaks through the roof.[17]
By refusing downpipes and sills which would interrupt
In his book Vers une Architecture Corbusier exclaimed their aesthetic, the white surfaces were more susceptible
the motor car is an object with a simple function
to staining and erosion due to the water pour-down.[26]
(to travel) and complicated aims (comfort, resistance, Additionally, these building was also scarred with cracks
appearance)....[19] The house, designed as a second resi-
because the material was not designed for structural
dence and sited as it was outside Paris was designed with durability.[26] The Savoyes continued to live in the house
the car in mind. The sense of mobility that the car gave until 1940, leaving during World War II. It was occupied
translated into a feeling of movement that is integral to twice during the war: rst by the Germans - when it was
the understanding of the building.[16] The approach to the used as a hay store[27] - and then by the Americans, with
house was by car, past the caretakers lodge and eventu- both occupations damaging the building severely. The
ally under the building itself. Even the curved arc of the Savoyes returned to their estate after the war, but, no
industrial glazing to the ground oor entrance was deter- longer in position to live as they had done before the war,
mined by the turning circle of a car. Dropped o by the they abandoned the house again shortly after. The villa
chaueur, the car proceeded around the curve to park in was expropriated by the town of Poissy in 1958, which
the garage. Meanwhile, the occupants entered the house rst used it as a public youth center and later consid-
on axis into the main hall through a portico of anking ered demolishing it to make way for a schoolhouse com-
columns.[20] plex. Protest from architects who felt the house should be
The four columns in the entrance hall seemingly direct saved, and the intervention of Corbusier himself, spared
the visitor up the ramp. This ramp, that can be seen from the house from demolition. A rst attempt of renova-
almost everywhere in the house continues up to the rst tion was begun in 1963 by architect Jean Debuisson, de-
oor living area and salon before continuing externally spite opposition from Corbusier. The villa was added to
from the rst oor roof terrace up to the second oor the French register of historical monuments in 1965, be-
solarium.[16] Throughout his career Corbusier was inter- coming the rst modernist building designated as histor-
ested in bringing a feeling of sacredness into the act of ical monument in France, and also the rst to be the ob-
dwelling and acts such as washing and eating were given ject of renovation while its architect was still living. In
signicance by their positioning.[21] At the Villa Savoye 1985, a thorough state-funded restoration process, led by
the act of cleansing is represented both by the sink in the architect Jean-Louis Vret, was undertaken, being com-
3.2. VILLA SAVOYE 39

pleted in 1997. The restoration included structural and drot near Toulon had a regionalist agenda and relied on
surface repairs to the facades and terraces because of de- local stone for its nish.[31]
terioration of the concrete,[4] the installation of lighting The west wing of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal
and security cameras, and the reinstatement of some of and Torres Strait Islander Studies in Canberra designed
the original xtures and ttings.[5][15] by Ashton Raggatt McDougall, is a near exact replica
of the Villa Savoye, except its black colour.[32] This an-
tipodean architectural quotation is according to Howard
3.2.6 Legacy
Raggat a kind of inversion, a reection, but also a kind
of shadow.[33]

3.2.7 Footnotes
[1] Ville Savoye Poissy. Centre des monuments nationaux.
Retrieved January 19, 2011.

[2] Monuments historiques ; Label XXe. Ministry of Culture.

Retrieved January 20, 2011. (French)

[3] Villa Savoye Poissy: Tourism Industry. Centre des

monuments nationaux. Retrieved on January 19, 2011.
(French)

[4] Courland, Robert. Concrete Planet. Prometheus Books,

Amherst, NY. (2012) page 326.
The southern hemisphere shadow of the Villa Savoye, in [5] Villa Savoye - A machine for living Archived August 20,
Canberra, Australia 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. Ultimate House. Octo-
ber 16, 2007. Retrieved on January 19, 2011.
The Villa Savoye was a very inuential building of the
1930s and imitations of it can be found all over the [6] Travel review of a visit to Villa Savoye Archived July 12,
world.[28] The building featured in two hugely inuential 2011, at the Wayback Machine..
books of the time: Hitchcock and Johnsons The Interna- [7] The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier. UNESCO
tional Style published in 1932 and F. R. S. Yorkes The World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Sci-
Modern House published in 1934, as well as the second entic and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
volume of Corbusiers own series The Complete Works. In
his 1947 essay The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, Colin [8] Curtis (2006), p. 93
Rowe compared the Villa Savoye to Palladios Villa Ro- [9] Benton (1987), p. 192
tunda.[29]
[10] Bianchini, Riccardo. Le Corbusier Villa Savoye part
The freedom given to Corbusier by the Savoyes resulted
1, history. Inexhibit. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
in a house that was governed more by his ve principles
than any requirements of the occupants. Despite this, it [11] Samuel (2004), p. 33
was the last time this happened in such a complete way
and the house marked the end of a phase in his design [12] Curtis (2006), pp. 96 & 97
thinking as well as being the last of a series of buildings [13] Benton (1987), pp. 200 & 201
dominated by the colour white.[16]
[14] Benton (1987), pp. 201-203
Criticism has been levelled at Corbusiers ve points of
architecture from a general point of view and these apply [15] Tournikiotis, Panayotis. Le Corbusier, Giedion, and the
specically to the Villa Savoye in terms of:[30] Villa Savoye: From Consecration to Preservation of Ar-
chitecture (PDF). Columbia University Graduate School
of Architecture. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
1. Support of ground-level pilotis - the piloti tended
to be symbolic rather than representative of actual [16] Gast (2000), p. 66
structure.
[17] Benton (1987), pp. 194 & 195
2. Functional roof - poor detailing in this case led to
[18] Gast (2000), pp. 74-77
the roof leaking.
[19] Le Corbusier (1997), p. 137
After the Villa Savoye Corbusiers experimentation with [20] Curtis (2006), pp. 95 & 96
Surrealism informed his design for the Beistegui apart-
ments, but his next villa design, for Mademoiselle Man- [21] Samuel (2007), p. 169
40 CHAPTER 3. BAB 3

[22] Samuel (2007), p. 185 3.2.10 External links

[23] Samuel (2007), p. 186 Ocial site
[24] Curtis (2006), pp. 97 & 98
Pictures of the interior and exterior of the villa by
[25] Samuel (2007), pp. 76-78 the Boston College

[26] Gill, Alison; Lopes, Mellick (2011). On Wearing: A

Critical Framework for Valuing Designs Already Made.
Design and Culture. 3 (3).

[27] Curtis (2006), p. 94

[28] Curtis (2006), p. 98

[29] Rowe (1987), p. 13

[30] Gast (2000), p. 71

[31] Curtis (2006), pp. 108-112

[32] Macarthur, John: Australian Baroque, in Architecture

Australia, March/April 2001

[33] Berman, Maria: Stealing Beauty Archived September 18,

2010, at the Wayback Machine. in Frieze Magazine, Issue
99, May 2006

3.2.8 References
Benton, Tim (1987). The Villas of Le Corbusier.
New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-03780-5.

Curtis, William J R (2006). Le Corbusier -Ideas and

Forms. London & New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN
0-7148-2790-8.

Gast, Klaus-Peter (2000). Le Corbusier - Paris

Chandigarh. Basel, Berlin, Boston: Birkhuser.
ISBN 3-7643-6291-X.

Etchells, Frederick (1997). Towards a New Archi-

tecture by Le Corbusier. Oxford, England: Architec-
tural Press. ISBN 978-0-7506-6354-0.

Rowe, Colin (1987). The Mathematics of the Ideal

Villa and Other Essays. United States of America:
MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-18077-1.

Samuel, Flora (2004). Le Corbusier - architect and

feminist. Chichester, England: Wiley Academy.
ISBN 0-470-84747-6.

Samuel, Flora (2007). Le Corbusier in Detail. Ox-

ford, England: Architectural Press. ISBN 0-7506-
0627-4.

3.2.9 Further reading

Hitchcock, Henry-Russell; Philip Johnson (1966).
The International Style. United States of America:
W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03651-0.
Chapter 4

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4.2 Images
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statue.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
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cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
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commons/3/37/Art_Deco_screen_%22Oasis%22_1925.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
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cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: High Court,Chandigarh,India Original artist: gb pandey from chandigarh, India
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4.2. IMAGES 43

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wikipedia/en/f/f3/Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret_%28Le_Corbusier%29%2C_1914-15%2C_Maison_Dom-Ino.jpg License: Fair
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lapin.lapin Original artist:
lapin.lapin
File:Expo_Arts_deco_Paris_1925.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Expo_Arts_deco_Paris_1925.
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File:Geneve_immeuble_Clarte_2011-08-02_13_55_36_PICT3664.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Hotel_du_Collectioneur_%2C_Exposition_des_Arts_Decoratifs_et_Industrielles_
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File:Jade_clock.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Jade_clock.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
File:L'Esprit_Nouveau_pavilion_at_the_1925_Paris_International_Exposition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts.
jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/L%27Esprit_Nouveau_pavilion_at_the_1925_Paris_International_
Exposition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
File:LC4_Chair_by_Le_Corbusier_and_Perriand_1927-28.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/
LC4_Chair_by_Le_Corbusier_and_Perriand_1927-28.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
File:La_fondation_suisse_(Cit_internationale_universitaire_de_Paris)_n3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/3c/La_fondation_suisse_%28Cit%C3%A9_internationale_universitaire_de_Paris%29_n3.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contribu-
tors: Flickr: La fondation suisse (Cit internationale universitaire de Paris) Original artist: Jean-Pierre Dalbra
File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles-douard_Jeanneret),_1920,_Guitare_verticale_(2me_version),_oil_on_canvas,_100_x_81_cm,
_Fondation_Le_Corbusier,_Paris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c4/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%
89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1920%2C_Guitare_verticale_%282%C3%A8me_version%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100_x_81_
cm%2C_Fondation_Le_Corbusier%2C_Paris.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
Fondation Le Corbusier Original artist:
Le Corbusier
File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles-douard_Jeanneret),_1920,_Still_Life,_oil_on_canvas,_80.9_x_99.7_cm,_Museum_of_Modern_
Art.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bd/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_
1920%2C_Still_Life%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.9_x_99.7_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
MoMA Original artist:
Le Corbusier
File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles-douard_Jeanneret),_reproduced_in_ivot_2_(1922).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/en/0/06/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles-%C3%89douard_Jeanneret%29%2C_reproduced_in_%C5%BDivot_2_%281922%29.
jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
ivot 2 (1922), p. 20 Original artist:
Le Corbusier
File:Le_Corbusier_(Charles_Edouard_Jeanneret),_1922,_Nature_morte_verticale_(Vertical_Still_Life),_oil_on_canvas,_146.
3_x_89.3_cm,_Kunstmuseum,_Basel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/97/Le_Corbusier_%28Charles_
Edouard_Jeanneret%29%2C_1922%2C_Nature_morte_verticale_%28Vertical_Still_Life%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146.3_x_89.
3_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum%2C_Basel.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
Kunstmuseum, Basel Original artist:
Le Corbusier
File:Le_Corbusier_signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Le_Corbusier_signature.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: own reproduction Original artist: user:MuRe
File:MESP4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/MESP4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: En-
viado pelo autor Original artist: Imagens AMB
File:Maison_blanche_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Maison_blanche_01.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: photographie Eveline Perroud Original artist: Eveline Perroud
44 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Maison_blanche_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Maison_blanche_05.jpg License: Copy-

righted free use Contributors: photographie Eveline Perroud Original artist: Eveline Perroud
File:Mdulo_de_vivienda_tipo_de_Unit_dHabitation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/M%
C3%B3dulo_de_vivienda_tipo_de_Unit%C3%A9_d%C2%B4Habitation.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Alberto Contreras Gonzlez
File:National_museum_of_western_art05s3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/National_
museum_of_western_art05s3200.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: 663highland
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Monument_in_Chandigarh.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://flickr.com/photos/ravjotsingh/2109080558/ Original artist:
Ravjot Singh Uploaded to wiki by user:nikkul
File:Palace_of_Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Palace_of_
Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: KIF_4646_Pano Original artist: duncid
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-Pavillon_anglais.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/
a2/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-Pavillon_anglais.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale -
diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
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/></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-Porte_d'Honneur_&_Pont_Alexandre_III.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-Porte_d%27Honneur_%26_Pont_Alexandre_III.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault
Paris Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:
Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-entre_Place_de_la_Concorde.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/af/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-entr%C3%A9e_Place_de_la_Concorde.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Orig-
inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-la_Fontaine_lumineuse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b8/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-la_Fontaine_lumineuse.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original
artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_de_Pologne.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
9/97/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_de_Pologne.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale
- diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_de_Sude.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
7/7d/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_de_Su%C3%A8de.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte
postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_de_l'Italie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
c/cb/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_de_l%27Italie.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale
- diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
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/></a>
4.2. IMAGES 45

File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_de_la_Belgique.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/5/55/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_de_la_Belgique.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original
artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_de_la_Hollande.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/19/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_de_la_Hollande.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original
artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_de_la_Manufacture_royale_de_Copenhague.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_de_la_Manufacture_
royale_de_Copenhague.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris
& ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Orig-
inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_du_Bon_March.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/93/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_du_Bon_March%C3%A9.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Orig-
inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_du_Japon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
4/40/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_du_Japon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale
- diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-pavillon_du_Printemps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b5/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_du_Printemps.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original
artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_dcoratifs-vue_esplanade_des_Invalides.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/2/2f/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-vue_esplanade_des_Invalides.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Carte postale - diteur : Les ditions artistiques LIP : Paris & ses Merveilles - imprimeur : J. Cormault Paris Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Pavillon_de_l'URSS_Paris_(1925).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Pavillon_de_
l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carte postale Original artist: Unknown<a
href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data-le-height='590' /></a>
46 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Pessac_Quartiers_Modernes_Frugs_004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Pessac_

Quartiers_Modernes_Frug%C3%A8s_004.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Pessac_4 Original artist: .pep
File:Plan_Voisin_model.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Plan_Voisin_model.jpg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SiefkinDR
File:Postcard_of_Exposition_des_Art_Decoratifs_et_Industriels_Modernes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/71/Postcard_of_Exposition_des_Art_Decoratifs_et_Industriels_Modernes.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: SiefkinDR
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
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tributors:
I created this work entirely by myself.
Original artist:
Valueyou (talk)
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Tourette_2007.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
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