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The Cognitive Theory
of Multimedia Learning
Stephen D. Sorden
Mohave Community College/Northern Arizona University
Abstract
Multimedia learning is a cognitive theory of learning which has
been popularized by the work of Richard E. Mayer and others.
Multimedia learning happens when we build mental
representations from words and pictures. The theory has largely
been defined by Mayers cognitive theory of multimedia learning.
Generally, the theory tries to address the issue of how to structure
multimedia instructional practices and employ more effective
cognitive strategies to help people learn efficiently. Baddeleys
model of working memory, Paivios dual coding theory, and
Swellers theory of cognitive load are integral theories that support
the overall theory of multimedia learning. The theory can be
summarized as having the following components: (a) a dual-
channel structure of visual and auditory channels, (b) limited
processing capacity in memory, (c) three memory stores (sensory,
working, long-term), (d) five cognitive processes of selecting,
organizing, and integrating (selecting words, selecting images,
organizing work, organizing images, and integrating new
knowledge with prior knowledge), and theory-grounded and
evidence-based multimedia instructional methods. Important
considerations for implementing the theory are discussed, as well
as current trends and future directions in research.
Introduction
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning was popularized by
the work of Richard E. Mayer and other cognitive researchers who
argue that multimedia supports the way that the human brain
learns. They assert that people learn more deeply from words and
pictures than from words alone, which is referred to as the
multimedia principle (Mayer 2005a). Multimedia researchers
generally define multimedia as the combination of text and
pictures; and suggest that multimedia learning occurs when we
build mental representations from these words and pictures
(Mayer, 2005b). The words can be spoken or written, and the
pictures can be any form of graphical imagery including
illustrations, photos, animation, or video. Multimedia instructional
design attempts to use cognitive research to combine words and
pictures in ways that maximize learning effectiveness.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
The theoretical foundation for the cognitive theory of multimedia

learning (CTML)draws from several cognitive theories including
Baddeleys model of working memory, Paivios dual coding
theory, and Swellers Theory of Cognitive Load. As a cognitive
theory of learning, it falls under the larger framework of cognitive
science and the information-processing model of cognition. The
information processing model suggests several information stores
(memory) that are governed by processes that convert stimuli to
information (Moore, Burton & Myers, 2004). Cognitive science
studies the nature of the brain and how it learns by drawing from
research in a number of areas including psychology, neuroscience,
artificial intelligence, computer science, linguistics, philosophy,
and biology. The term cognitive refers to perceiving and knowing.
Cognitive scientists seek to understand mental processes such as
perceiving, thinking, remembering, understanding language, and
learning (Stillings, Weisler, Chase, Feinstein, Garfield, & Rissland,
1995). As such, cognitive science can provide powerful insight
into human nature, and, more importantly, the potential of humans
to develop more efficient methods using instructional technology
(Sorden, 2005).
Key Elements of the Theory

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) centers on
the idea that learners attempt to build meaningful connections
between words and pictures and that they learn more deeply than
they could have with words or pictures alone (Mayer, 2009).
According to CTML, one of the principle aims of multimedia
instruction is to encourage the learner to build a coherent mental
representation from the presented material. The learners job is to
make sense of the presented material as an active participant,
ultimately constructing new knowledge.
According to Mayer and Moreno (1998) and Mayer (2003), CTML

is based on three assumptions: the dual-channel assumption, the
limited capacity assumption, and the active processing assumption.
The dual-channel assumption is that working memory has auditory
and visual channels based on Baddeleys (1986) theory of working
memory and Paivios (1986; Clark and Paivio, 1991) dual coding
theory. Second, the limited capacity assumption is based on
cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988,1994) and states that each
subsystem of working memory has a limited capacity. The third
assumption is the active processing assumption which suggests that
people construct knowledge in meaningful ways when they pay
attention to the relevant material, organize it into a coherent mental
2
structure, and integrate it with their prior knowledge (Mayer, 1996,

1999).
The Three Store Structure of Memory in CTML

CTML accepts a model that includes three memory stores known
as sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
Sweller (2005) defines sensory memory as the cognitive structure
that permits us to perceive new information, working memory as
the cognitive structure in which we consciously process
information, and long-term memory as the cognitive structure that
stores our knowledge base. We are only conscious of information
in long-term memory when it has been transferred to working
memory. Mayer (2005a) states that sensory memory has a visual
sensory memory that briefly holds pictures and printed text as
visual images; and auditory memory that briefly holds spoken
words and sounds as auditory images. Schnotz (2005) refers to
sensory memory as sensory registers or sensory channels and
points out that though we tend to view the dual channel sensors as
eye-to-visual working memory and ear-to-auditory working
memory, that it is possible for other sensory channels to introduce
information to working memory such as reading with the fingers
through Braille or a deaf person being able to hear by reading
lips.
Working memory attends to, or selects information from sensory

memory for processing and integration. Sensory memory holds an
exact sensory copy of what was presented for less than .25 of a
second, while working memory holds a processed version of what
was presented for generally less than thirty seconds and can
process only a few pieces of material at any one time (Mayer
2010a). Long-term memory holds the entire store of a persons
knowledge for an indefinite amount of time. Figure 1 is a
representation of how memory works according to Mayers
cognitive theory of multimedia learning.
Figure 1 Mayers Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

(Mayer 2010a)
Mayer (2005a) states that there are also five forms of

representation of words and pictures that occur as information is
3
processed by memory. Each form represents a particular stage of

processing in the three memory stores model of multimedia
learning. The first form of representation is the words and pictures
in the multimedia presentation itself. The second form is the
acoustic representation (sounds) and iconic representation (images)
in sensory memory. The third form is the sounds and images in
working memory. The fourth form of representation is the verbal
and pictorial models which are also found in working memory.
The fifth form is prior knowledge, or schemas, which are stored in
long-term memory.
According to CTML, content knowledge is contained in schemas

which are cognitive constructs that organize information for
storage in long term memory. Schemas organize simpler elements
that can then act as elements in higher order schemas. As learning
occurs, increasingly sophisticated schemas are developed and
learned procedures are transferred from controlled to automatic
processing. Automation frees capacity in working memory for
other functions. This process of developing increasingly
complicated schemas that build on each other is also similar to the
explanation given by Chi, Glaser, and Rees (1982) for the
transition from novice to expert in a domain.
The Development of the Theory of Working Memory

The current conception of working memory in CTML grew out of
Atkinson & Shiffrins (1968) model of short term memory. The
Atkinson & Shiffrin model was viewed primarily as a structure for
temporarily storing information before it passed to long-term
memory. Eventually, researchers began to question some of the
assumptions of short-term memory and a few started to look for
better explanations. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) subsequently
proposed a more complex model of short-term memory which they
called working memory. Their model for working memory was a
system with subcomponents that not only held temporary
information, but processed it so that several pieces of verbal or
visual information could be stored and integrated.
Baddeley (1986, 1999) later proposed that there was an additional

component in working memory called the central executive.
According to the theory, the central executive controlled the two
subcomponents of working memory, known as the visuo-spatial
sketch pad and the phonological loop. The central executive also
was responsible for controlling the overall system and engaging in
problem solving tasks and focusing attention. Baddeley theorized
that the central executive could transfer storage tasks to the two
subcomponent systems in working memory, so that the central
4
executive would continue to have capacity for performing more

demanding selection and information processing tasks.
The visuo-spatial sketch pad is assumed to maintain and

manipulate visual images. The phonological loop stores and
rehearses verbal information. It has also been suggested that the
phonological loop has an important function of facilitating the
acquisition of language by maintaining a new word in working
memory until it can be learned (Baddeley, Gathercole, &Papagno,
1998). Baddeley (2002) eventually proposed the addition of a third
subsystem known as the episodic buffer, which has acquired some
of the tasks that were originally attributed to the central executive
(now seen as a purely attentional system). The episodic buffer
functions as a storage structure which acts as a limited capacity
interface to integrate multiple sources of information from other
slave systems.
Sweller (2005) and Yuan, Steedle, Shavelson, Alonzo & Oppezo

(2006) suggest that while there is strong evidence for the two main
subcomponents in working memory, that there is less evidence for
a central executive that consciously attends to information in
sensory memory. Rather, Sweller suggests that schemas which
exist in long-term memory serve as the executive function,
ultimately directing working memory to attend to information that
fits pre-existing schemas. Schemas determine which information
enters working memory because we tend to pay attention to
information that fits the knowledge that we already have. This
would support the idea that our paradigms cause us to focus on
information that fits our existing beliefs, while ignoring
information that does not fit neatly into our understanding of the
world.
Meaningful Learning
Mayer (2010a) argues that meaningful learning from words and
pictures happens when the learner engages in five cognitive
processes:
1. selecting relevant words for processing in verbal working

memory
2. selecting relevant images for processing in visual working
memory
3. organizing selected words into a verbal model
4. organizing selected images into a pictorial model
5. integrating the verbal and pictorial representations with
each other and with prior knowledge.
5
These cognitive processes in working memory determine which

information is attended to or selected, which knowledge is
retrieved from long term memory and integrated with new the
information to construct new knowledge, and ultimately, which
bits of new knowledge are transferred to long-term memory.
Knowledge that is constructed in working memory is transferred to
long-term memory through the process of encoding (Mayer,
2008b). However, Dwyer & Dwyer (2006) caution that proper
encoding requires rehearsal and since rehearsal takes time, the
multimedia lesson must allow an adequate period for incubation or
it can be ineffective. Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller (2007) add that
this is why learner control is important when using animation in
multimedia learning.
Mayer (2009) distinguishes meaningful learning from no

learning and rote learning and describes it as active learning
where the learner constructs knowledge. Meaningful learning is
demonstrated when the learner can apply what is presented in new
situations, and students perform better on problem-solving transfer
tests when they learn with words and pictures. Mayer (2008b) also
identifies two types of transfer: transfer of learning and problem-
solving transfer. Transfer of learning occurs when previous
learning affects new learning. Problem solving transfer occurs
when previous learning affects the ability to solve new problems.
Mayer defines learning as a change in knowledge attributable to
experience (2009, p. 59). Learning is personal and cannot be
directly observed because it happens with the learners cognitive
system. It must be inferred through a change in behavior such as
performance on a task or test.
Cognitive Load
The limited capacity assumption states that there is a limit to the
amount of information that can be processed at one time by
working memory. In other words, learning is hindered when
cognitive overload occurs and working memory capacity is
exceeded (De Jong, 2010).DeLeeuw & Mayer (2008) theorize that
there are three types of cognitive processing (essential, extraneous,
and generative)and place them in the triarchic model of cognitive
load. Mayer (2009) made this model the organizing framework for
the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and stated that a major
goal of multimedia learning and instruction is to manage essential
processing, reduce extraneous processing and foster generative
processing ( p. 57).The model is heavily based on Swellers
cognitive load theory (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Sweller, 1988,
1994).
6
According to Sweller, Van Merrienboer, and Paas (1998), there are

three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane.
Intrinsic cognitive load occurs during the interaction between the
nature of the material being learned and the expertise of the
learner. The second type, extraneous cognitive load, is caused by
factors that arent central to the material to be learned, such as
presentation methods or activities that split attention between
multiple sources of information, and these should be minimized as
much as possible. The third type of cognitive load, germane
cognitive load, enhances learning and results in task resources
being devoted to schema acquisition and automation. Intrinsic
cognitive load cannot be manipulated, but extraneous and germane
cognitive load can.
In the triarchic model of cognitive load, essential processing

(intrinsic load) relates to the essential material or information to be
learned. Extraneous processing (extrinsic load) does not serve the
instructional goal or purpose and reduces the chances that transfer
of learning will occur. Generative processing (germane cognitive
load) is aimed at making sense of the presented material. It is the
activity of organizing and integrating information in working
memory.
De Jong (2010) has called into question whether there is truly a

distinction between intrinsic (essential) and germane (generative)
cognitive load, writing that if intrinsic load and germane load are
defined in terms of relatively similar learning processes, the
difference between the two seems to be very much a matter of
degree, and possibly non-existent (p. 111).Deleeuw and Mayer
(2008), however, did report finding that extraneous, essential, and
generative processing appear to be able to be measured by different
assessment instruments, suggesting that they are three distinct
constructs.
The Science of Instruction

The previous sections describe what Mayer (2009) calls the
science of learning, while this section explains what Mayer calls
the science of instruction and defines as the creation of evidence-
based principles for helping people learn (2009, pp. 29), or more
simply as the scientific study of how to help people learn
(Mayer, 2010a, p. 543).Mayer insists that research on multimedia
instruction must be theory-grounded and evidence-based. Theory-
grounded means that each principle, method and concept is derived
from a theory of multimedia learning. Evidence-based means that
each principle, method and concept is supported by an empirical
base of replicated findings from rigorous and appropriate research
7
studies, which yields testable predictions. Mayer (2011a)

subsequently adds the science of assessment to the sciences of
learning and instruction to form what he calls the Big Three (p.
2).
As part of his evidence-seeking efforts for the science of

instruction, Mayer (2009) identifies the following twelve
multimedia instructional principles which were developed from
nearly 100 studies over the past two decades:
Coherence Principle People learn better when extraneous

material is excluded rather than included.
Signaling Principle People learn better when cues that
highlight the organization of the essential material are
added.
Redundancy Principle People learn better from graphics
and narration than from graphics, narration, and printed
text.
Spatial Contiguity Principle People learn better when
corresponding words and pictures are placed near each
other rather than far from each other on the page or screen.
Temporal Contiguity Principle People learn better when
corresponding words and pictures are presented at the same
time rather than in succession.
Segmenting Principal People learn better when a
multimedia lesson is presented in user-paced segments
rather than as a continuous unit.
Pre-training Principle People learn more deeply from a
multimedia message when they receive pre-training in the
names and characteristics of key components.
Modality Principle People learn better from graphics and
narration than from graphics and printed text.
Multimedia Principle People learn better from words and
pictures than from words alone.
Personalization Principle People learn better from a
multimedia presentation when the words are in
conversational style rather than in formal style.
Voice Principle People learn better when the words in a
multimedia message are spoken by a friendly human voice
rather than a machine voice.
Image Principle People do not necessarily learn more
deeply from a multimedia presentation when the speakers
image is on the screen rather than not on the screen.
8
As mentioned earlier, these twelve principles are grouped ina

framework based on the three types of cognitive load (Mayer
2009):
reducing extraneous processing coherence, signaling,

redundancy, spatial contiguity, temporal contiguity
managing essential processing segmenting, pre-training,
modality
fostering generative processing multimedia,
personalization, voice, image
In addition to these instructional principles, Mayer (2009)includes

boundary conditions that can determine the effectiveness of some
of the principles. These boundary conditions are a recent addition
to the theory, and they suggest that the instructional principles in
CTML are not universal, absolute rules. Some have criticized the
existence of boundary conditions in CTML as an indicator that the
theory has inconsistencies (De Jong, 2010), but Mayer (2010b)
views boundary conditions as a healthy evolution in CTML that
allows the theory to continue to develop and be implemented
realistically, rather than as a set of immutable rules that have to be
followed in all situations.
One example of a boundary condition is that of individual-

differences, which states that some instructional methods or
principles may be more effective for low-knowledge learners than
for high-knowledge learners (Mayer 2009; Schnotz and Bannert,
2003). Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler & Sweller (2003) have called this
the expertise-reversal effect. Paas, Renkl, & Sweller (2004, pp.2-3)
similarly stated this from a CLT point of view when they wrote:
A cognitive load that is germane for a novice may be extraneous
for an expert. In other words, information that is relevant to the
process of schema construction for a beginning learner may hinder
this process for a more advanced learner. Another example of a
boundary condition is the complexity and pacing condition, which
suggests that some of these methods may be more effective when
the material of the lesson is complex or the pace of the presentation
is fast. Each principle in CTML is subject to boundary conditions
as illustrated by Mayer (2009).
Although they havent appeared in recent CTML literature, Mayer

suggests several advanced principles for multimedia learning in
his 2005 book, The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning,
which are listed as chapters by various authors. These should be
considered as possible areas for future CTML research and not
necessarily evidence-based principles.
9
Animation and interactivity principles People dont

necessarily learn better from animation than from static
diagrams.
Cognitive aging principle Instructional design principles
that effectively expand the capacity of working memory are
particularly helpful for older learners.
Collaboration principle People learn better when involved
in collaborative online learning activities.
Guided-discovery principle People learn better when
guidance is incorporated into discovery-based multimedia
environments.
Navigation principles People learn better in environments
where appropriate navigational aids are provided.
Prior knowledge principle Instructional principles that are
effective in increasing multimedia learning for novices may
have the opposite effect on more expert learners.
Self-explanation principle People learn better when they
are encouraged to generate self-explanations during
learning.
Site map principle People learn better in an online
environment when presented with a map showing where
they are in a lesson.
Worked-out example principle People learn better when
worked-out examples are given in initial skill learning.
In addition to the twelve principles and the advanced principles

listed in this chapter, Mayer (2011a) discusses several more
principles that have appeared in CTML literature over the years.
This demonstrates once again that the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning is dynamic. Therefore, the twelve principles
should not be taken as a rigid canon, but rather a starting point for
discussion. Mayer (2011b), for example, only lists ten principles
just two years after he published the twelve principles, having
dropped the multimedia and image principles. In fact, this number
seems to vary from publication to publication, so the focus should
be on understanding what the latest research suggests about the
effectiveness of the various instructional methods, rather than
memorizing a codified set of twelve, or any other number of
principles.
Development of the Theory

The evolution of CTML literature and research is evident in the
body of work published by Mayer and his colleagues over the past
twenty years (Mayer, 2005a). Mayer reminds us that even though
the name has changed over the years, the underlying elements of
10
the theory have not changed. In fact, the theory appears to have
matured as it enters its third decade of active research and is finally
reaching a consistently recognizable state.
See Moore, Burton, & Myers (2004) for an excellent overall

accounting of the theoretical and research foundations of
multimedia learning and Yuan et al. (2006) for the extensive
history of working memory. The actual cognitive theory of
multimedia learning first begins to emerge as a distinct theory at
the end of the 1980s when Mayer (1989) introduced the theory as
the model of meaningful learning and then shortly thereafter as
the cognitive conditions for effective illustrations (Mayer &
Gallini, 1990). It has also been called the dual-coding model
(Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992), generative theory (Mayer,
Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, 1995), the generative theory of
multimedia learning (Mayer, 1997: Plass, Chun, Mayer, &
Leutner, 1998), and the dual-processing model of multimedia
learning (Mayer & Moreno, 1998).
The name cognitive theory of multimedia learning was first used

in Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, and Tapangco (1996), but didnt
become the standard name for Mayers theory until the year 2000
and beyond. The various models over the years focused on
different aspects of the current model, but the underlying
assumptions remained unchanged. Elements such as cognitive
processes and mental representations were slowly added and
refined until we have the model currently described by Mayer
(2009).
It is important to note that before her death, Roxana Moreno, a

former student of Mayers, had begun to develop a cognitive-
affective theory of learning with media.(Moreno 2005; 2006;
2007). Moreno (2005) includes factors of self-regulation and
motivation in this theory and explained that this new model
extends the cognitive theory of multimedia learning by integrating
assumptions regarding the relationship between cognition,
metacognition and motivation and affect (2007, p. 767). Moreno
& Mayer (2007) assert that the cognitive-affective theory of
learning with media (CATLM) expands the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning to media such as virtual reality, agent-based,
and case-based learning environments (p. 313).
Morenos model integrates three assumptions. The first assumption

is that humans have a limited working memory capacity
(Baddeley, 1992). The second assumption is that long-term
memory consists of past experiences and general domain
11
knowledge, which is similar to Tulvings (1977) distinction

between episodic and semantic memory systems. The third
assumption is that motivational factors affect learning by
increasing or decreasing cognitive engagement (Pintrich,
2003).Paas (1992) discussed a similar distinction between mental
load and mental effort from a CLT perspective nearly two decades
ago.
Measurement and Instruments

There is no one single measurement instrument that is associated
with CTML research. Mayer (2009) states that since the goal is to
make a causal claim about instructional effectiveness, that one of
the most useful approaches in CTML research is quantitative
experimental comparisons, with random assignment and
experimental control being two important features. The main
question in this type of research is whether a particular
instructional method is effective. CTML researchers generally try
to identify instructional methods that cause large effect sizes of .8
or greater across many different experimental comparisons.
Learning is generally measured through tests of retention and
transfer, and much of the recent research has focused on the
instructional methods discussed earlier in this chapter.
Because of its central role in CTML research, cognitive load

theory research is also of interest. De Jong (2010) provides a
lengthy criticism of the instruments and tests of measurement in
cognitive load theory. He points out that one of the most frequently
used methods for measuring CLT is self-reporting in a one-item
questionnaire where learners indicate their perceived amount of
mental effort. De Jong asserts that this approach often leads to
inconsistency in the outcomes of studies that use this type of
questionnaire. Another way that cognitive load has been measured
is physiologically using indicators such as heart rate, blood
pressure, and pupillary reactions. A third way of measuring
cognitive load has been through the dual-task or secondary-task
approach which indicates increased consumption of cognitive
resources in the primary task when slower or inaccurate
performance on the on the secondary task occurs (Brnken, Plass,
& Leutner, 2003). De Jong criticizes the measurement of cognitive
load as a single construct, as most of these approaches tend to do.
He calls for the development of better instruments and
multidimensional scales that can reliably measure intrinsic,
extraneous, and germane load separately.
Applying the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Instruction
12
Once we understand the science of learning and the science of

instruction, the next question becomes how to apply the principles
in order to foster meaningful learning. See Mayers (2011a)
Applying the Science of Learning for a good overview of what to
consider when applying the methods described in this chapter, as
well as others,
This section looks at what to keep in mind as the instructional

methods in CTLM are implemented. In addition to applying the
twelve principles and the advanced principles presented in this
chapter and in Mayer (2005a, 2009, 2011b), the instructional
designer should be aware of the information presented in this
section when creating multimedia instruction. These theories come
from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, cognitive load
theory, and cognitive science in general. It should be remembered
that they are theories, and as such should be applied with caution,
but all of them have research and a theoretical background that
make them worth considering as guidelines for creating better
instruction.
The principles of multimedia learning should be viewed as

instructional methods whose primary goal is to foster meaningful
learning. An instructional method is a way of presenting a lesson;
it does not change the content of the lessonthe covered content is
the same. As discussed previously, the principles should not be
viewed as absolute rules that have to be applied equally in every
situation. They are guidelines that should be adjusted depending on
the intended audience, the goals of the instruction, and boundary
conditions such as the expertise level of the learner. Most
important, the theory is a learner-centered learning theory (Mayer,
2009).
Learner-Centered Focus
A critical perspective to maintain while designing multimedia
lessons according to CTML is that the multimedia instructional
methods are learner-centeredthey are not technology-centered
approaches. Mayer (2009) reminds us that multimedia can be as
simple as a still image with words and that it is the instructional
method, not the technology that matters. Multimedia instructional
designers often fall victim to letting the technology drive the
instructional design, rather than looking at the design from the
perspective, and limitations, of the learner.
Moreno (2006a) expressed this idea when she distinguished

between a method-affects-learning hypothesis versus a media-
affects-learning hypothesis. A media-affects-learning approach
13
could best be described as what occurred in the 20th Century when

state-of-the-art technologies such as radio, television, computers,
and the Internet were introduced into education with the
assumption that they would improve education simply because
they were better tools than had previously been available.
Managing Cognitive Load

Because the principles of CTML are organized around the three
types of cognitive load, designing instruction according to
cognitive load theory (CLT) research findings is important if you
are designing according to CTML. Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, and
Campbell (2004) cite evidence that two important ways to promote
meaningful learning are to design activities that reduce cognitive
load, which frees working memory capacity for deep cognitive
processing during learning, and to increase the learners interest,
which encourages the learner to use this freed capacity for deep
processing during learning. CLT suggests that for instruction to be
effective, care must be taken to design instruction in a way as to
not overload the brains capacity for processing information.
CLT suggests that instructional techniques that require students to

engage in activities that arent directed at schema acquisition and
automation can quickly exceed the limited capacity of working
memory and hinder learning objectives. In simple terms, this
means that you shouldnt create unnecessary activities in
connection with a lesson that require excessive attention or
concentration that may overload working memory and prevent one
from acquiring the essential information that is to be learned. This
is an important guideline in any form of instruction, but it is an
essential rule in multimedia instruction because of the ease with
which distractions can be incorporated. Instructional designers
should not fill this limited capacity with unnecessary, flashy bells
and whistles (Sorden, 2005).
An example of what this means for multimedia instructional design

is that the layout should be visually appealing and intuitive, but
that the activities should remain focused on the concepts to be
learned, rather than trying too much to entertain. This is especially
true if the entertainment is time consuming to construct and
complicated for the learner to master. Working memory can be
overloaded by the entertainment or activity before the learner ever
gets to the concept or skill to be learned. Mayer (2009) states that
effective instructional design depends on techniques for reducing
extraneous processing, managing essential processing, and
fostering generative processing (p. 57).
14
Schnotz and Krschner (2007) echo this idea by stating that

techniques to simply reduce cognitive load can be
counterproductive. They argue that learning tasks should be
adapted to the learners zone of proximal development which in
turn depends on the learners level of expertise, and that intrinsic
and germane cognitive load should be promoted while extraneous
cognitive load is reduced. De Jong (2010) states that the three main
recommendations that cognitive load theory has contributed to the
field of instructional design are: present material that aligns with
the prior knowledge of the learner (intrinsic load), avoid non-
essential and confusing information (extraneous load), and
stimulate processes that lead to conceptually rich and deep
knowledge (germane load) (p. 111). These cognitive load
processes occur simultaneously in working memory, are limited in
capacity, and can only occur at the expense of the other two. If
true, this creates important considerations for multimedia learning.
Task Analysis
Task analysis is tied to the concepts of schemas and levels of
expertise. The multimedia lesson should try to ensure that the
learner has sufficiently automated key core knowledge or tasks.
The learner should do this before trying to tackle an overall task
that may be beyond the learners current ability range, which could
cause unnecessary frustration and possibly even cause the learner
to drop out of the activity. The theories of Vygotskys Zone of
Proximal Development and Piagets concept of scaffolding can be
applied here. This suggests that a task analysis should be done
during the instructional design of a multimedia lesson in order to
breakdown the skills and information that are needed to learn or
perform the educational objective.
Guided Instruction
According to CTML, guided instruction and worked examples are
preferable to discovery learning, even though other learning
theories often support discovery learning as a useful component of
multimedia instruction. Mayer (2004; 2011a) and Kirschner,
Sweller, & Clark (2006) caution against using discovery learning
and argue that guided instruction is much more effective. Mayer
(2011a) presents four principles for studying by practicing that
support this idea. The four principles supporting guided instruction
are spacing, feedback, worked example, and guided discovery.
Interactivity
While the principle of interactivity still requires more research,
much of the literature suggests that infusing interactivity such as
learner control, feedback, and guidance into a multimedia lesson
15
will increase the affective conditions that will improve learning

transfer and performance (Mayer, 2009; Piaget, 1969; Renkl &
Atkinson, 2007; Wittrock, 1990). Domagk, Schwartz, and Plass
(2010) define interactivity as reciprocal activity between a learner
and a multimedia learning system, in which the [re]action of the
learner is dependent up the [re]-action of the system and vice
versa (p. 1025). They propose a model of interactivity called the
Integrated Model of Multimedia Interactivity (INTERACT) which
consists of six principal components of an integrated learning
system: the learning environment, behavioral activities, cognitive
and metacognitive activities, motivation and emotion, learner
variables, and the learners mental model (learning outcomes).
Moreno & Mayer (2007) also describe an interactive multimodal
environment that is based on the cognitive affective theory of
learning with media (CATLM) and include five design principles
of guided activity, reflection, feedback, pacing, and pre-training.
Animation and Screencasts

Hasler, Kersten, & Sweller (2007) suggest that animation can be
more effective when learners are allowed to stop and start the
animation instead of having it just play through in one pass,
however this still leaves the question of whether still images are
ultimately just as affective and much easier and cheaper to
produce.
Regarding the use of animation to improve student achievement,

Dwyer & Dwyer (2006) suggest that animation is not a viable
instructional tool for improving achievement when the content to
be learned is hierarchically structured. They go on to state that
previous research does indicate that animation can be effectively
used to teach both factual and conceptual types of information, but
that this content can be taught equally well at less cost with other
instructional strategies. Schnotz (2008) raises similar questions.
This does not necessarily discount CTML studies, as CTML
researchers have argued that simple graphical images can be highly
effective when combined with words, and have already called into
question whether animation is superior to still images in the
advanced principles of animation and interactivity (Betrancourt,
2005).
Evaluation of the Theory

Validation
Theories are meant to be advanced upon and ultimately cast aside
as new information is integrated and new understanding is
developed. Moreno (2006a), for example, writes that we should
concede as cognitive scientists, that valid criticisms can be raised
16
against any existing theory of cognition and that such criticism is

essential to progress. Theories and constructs are useful only as
long as they evolve in their heuristic, explanatory, and predictive
functions (p. 179). While the cognitive theory of multimedia
learning has generally met with acceptance, there remains
questions by various learning and education theorists in certain
quarters about its validity, as well as the validity of other cognitive
theories upon which it is based. Mayer and his colleagues,
however, counter that there is an extensive body of research that
does validate this theory.
In recent years there have been several prominent researchers who

have continued to develop the cognitive theories of multimedia
learning and cognitive load. Among these are Richard E. Mayer,
Roxana Moreno, John Sweller, Jan Plass, and Wolfgang Schnotz.
Significant studies have included Mayer & Anderson (1991);
Moreno & Mayer (2000); Schnotz & Bannert (2003); Pass, Renkl
& Sweller (2004); and Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner (2004). Gall
(2004) points out that much of Mayers research has been
published in top peer-reviewed journals such as the Journal of
Educational Psychology and is available for deeper study and
critique. Dacosta (2008) provides a detailed table of almost 70
published studies by CTML researchers on instructional principles,
along with the number of experiments and the particular principle
each study measured. For a substantial listing of dozens of CTML
studies that support each of the twelve multimedia instructional
principles presented in this chapter, see Mayer (2009). Finally,
Yuan et al. (2006) also cite a series of studies that suggest that
working memory performance correlates with cognitive abilities
and academic achievement.
Mayer (2009) states that his research goal is to contribute to the

cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and ultimately to practical
applied instructional practice. While criticizing the technology-
centered use of multimedia for instruction and the misapplication
of cognitive load theory, Mayer (2005b), Ballantyne (2008), and
Schnotz (2008) have all stated that it is the instructional method
that is important, not the technology, no matter how sophisticated.
Ultimately, the validation of the theory lies in the fact that it has a
large body of studies and literature to support it, that it has
exhibited staying power and that it continues to demand
attention and exert influence in the fields of education and training.
The power of the theory lies in its dynamic structure, in which it is
expected and even driven to constantly change and morph as new
information is discovered and tested in the field of cognitive
science.
17
Critique
There are critics of the theory, however, and the use of multimedia
for instruction has been challenged (Clark & Feldon, 2005; Tufte,
2003). Ballantyne (2008) has criticized the narrowness of some of
the CTML studies and whether the principles derived from CTML
research can be applied in broader, more realistic settings.
Additionally, striking at the very heart of the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning, Rasch & Schnotz (2009) were not able to
show that students actually learned better from text and pictures
than from text alone, calling the multimedia principle itself into
question. They also could not show that students learned better
from interactive pictures than from non-interactive ones.
Gall (2004) points out that Mayers research has tended to focus
mainly on the understanding of physical and mechanical systems,
and thus raises the question of how applicable his results are to
nondidactic, immersive learning environments. This criticism of
whether results obtained in controlled experimental situations can
be applied to dynamic classrooms and learning environments is an
old complaint that has been leveled at psychology since
psychologists first began studying and trying to measure learning.
Often, these charges of non-relevance to real-life learning and
instruction have been justified. But Mayer is careful not to claim
that his research should be seen as the final word on instruction in
the situations he is trying to measure. Rather, it is obvious in the
evolution of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning that they
are only trying to determine what appears to make a difference in
learning situations, hypothesize about it, and then continue to look
for better explanations and hypotheses. The theory is dynamic and
the expectation that it will continue to grow, adapt, and change
appears frequently in the literature.
There has also been general criticism of information-processing

theory and cognitive science on which CTML is based, and there
have also been some negative critiques of certain aspects of
cognitive load theory. Gerjets, Scheiter, & Cierniak (2008) for
example, state that according to the traditional critical rationalism
of Popper, CLT cannot be considered a scientific theory because
some of its fundamental assumptions cannot be tested empirically.
However, Gerjets et al. go on to suggest that in spite of this
limitation, CLT can still be viewed as a scientific theory under
Sneeds structuralist view of theories. De Jong (2010) asserts that
many studies supporting CLT make speculative interpretations of
what happened, but that only when a suitable measure of cognitive
load is developed can these interpretations be considered valid.
18
Several cognitive and CTML researchers have also challenged

CLT as they attempt to evolve the theory and address perceived
shortcomings (Moreno, 2006; Schnotz and Krschner, 2007;
Gerjets et al., 2009). De Jong (2010) provides an excellent critical
analysis of cognitive load theory which discusses many
problematic areas that currently exist in the existing body of
research and literature.
De Jong (2010) points out that cognitive load theory is used to

suggest guidelines for instructional design, which assumes that
CLT research results are applicable to real-life situations, which de
Jong questions. For example, de Jong cites several recent studies
that could not find support for the modality principal when learner
control is increased. In response to de Jongs article, Mayer
(2010b) responds that criticism such as de Jongs is welcome and
can only strengthen the cognitive theory of multimedia learning as
weaknesses are exposed and researched in ways that contribute to
the on-going evolution of the theory.
Current Trends and Future Directions

As has already been pointed out, the field of research for the
cognitive theory of multimedia learning is very active; new studies
and literature are being added every year. While Richard Mayer,
Jan Plass, John Sweller, and the late Roxanna Moreno continued to
publish research and books in support of their theories, many
others have also contributed to the growing and maturing field.
Dissertations, for example, are a way to gauge general trends and
the overall vitality of the field.
As a quick search in the ProQuest database will attest, there are

dozens of dissertations that have been added in the last five years
which have studied some aspect of Mayers cognitive theory of
multimedia learning. The following are just a few examples of
recent dissertations and their findings. Lu (2008) found that
animated instructions with narration lead to better performance on
retention tests, possibly due to less cognitive load on the learner.
Lu also found that levels of learner control may not benefit
learners when learners do not have enough prior experience. Dong
(2007) found that when positive emotions are elicited through an
aesthetically-pleasing interface design, it can result in deeper
learning, at least for low prior knowledge learners. Dacosta (2008)
tentatively reported that his study was not able to reproduce the
modality effect reported by Mayer & Moreno (Mayer, 1998,
Experiments 1 and 2; Moreno & Mayer, 1999a, Experiments 1 and
2; 2002a, Experiments 1 and 2; Moreno et al., 2001, Experiments
4a and 4b and 5a and 5b), stating that it did not appear that middle-
19
aged learners attained a higher degree of meaningful learning from

animation with concurrent narration than animation with
concurrent printed text. Um (2008) reported that positive emotions
induced before learning begins, facilitate cognitive processes and
other affective experiences in a multimedia-based learning
environment and that the positive mood state continued until the
end of the learning and made significant effects on learning
performance, cognitive load, motivation, satisfaction and
perception of the learning. Finally, Musallam (2010) found that
students who received pre-training through a screencast prior to
instruction reported a statistically significant decrease in perceived
mental effort, as well as an increase in performance when
compared to students who did not receive pre-training.
Major trends at the moment appear to be continued research on the

various CTML principles as well as identifying possible new ones.
The focus on the affective domain in multimedia learning also
seems to be strengthening as noted in the recent dissertations by
students of CTML researcher Jan Plass (Dong, 2007; Um, 2008)
and recent research by Moreno & Mayer (2007) on interactivity
and the CATLM; and McLaren, DeLeeuw, & Mayer (2011) on
whether learning is enhanced when web-based intelligent tutors
use polite language instead of direct language in instruction.
Another promising area for future research is that of interactivity,
especially as intelligent tutoring system technology continues to
improve (Domagk, Schwartz & Plass, 2010; McLaren, DeLeeuw
& Mayer, 2011; Moreno & Mayer, 2007).
Possibly a holy grail for CTML and CTL researchers in the near
future will be the quest to find evidence of three separate cognitive
load processes (essential, extraneous, generative) and how to
measure them reliably (Brnken, Plass, & Leutner, 2003;
Antonenko, Paas, Grabner, and van Gog, 2010). A recent study by
Antonenko & Niederhauser (2010) found that measuring overall
cognitive load with self-reports may not be adequate. Instead, they
suggest that cognitive load should be viewed as a dynamic process
and assessed with EEG-based measures to provide a more
complete picture for explaining the causes and effects of cognitive
load.
While not directly focusing on the cognitive theory of multimedia

instruction, the use of electroencephalography, or brain waves, to
measure increased cognitive load as learners engage in tasks
provides an interesting new development in CTML and CLT
theory. The use of electroencephalography has been around for
many years (Gerlic & Jausovec, 1999; Klimesch, 1999), but it is
20
only recently that the technology has advanced to the point of

possibly being able to non-obtrusively and reliably measure what
appears to be cognitive load while learners engage in normal
learning activities. Jaeggi et al. (2007), for example, observed
specific patterns of brain activity when cognitive load was thought
to be high. This neuroscientific approach may also eventually be
able to help with distinguishing between intrinsic, extraneous, and
germane cognitive load, which has not been possible up to this
point. Since CLT is a central concept of CTML, a breakthrough in
CLT measurement technology as this study suggests could be very
significant for the future of CTML research.
Mayer (2011b), states that more research is needed including (a)

the continued discovery of evidence-based principles for
multimedia design particularly in authentic learning situations; and
(b) research that pinpoints the boundary conditions of multimedia
design principles (p. 441). Mayer notes that new multimedia
technology is emerging faster than the science of instruction is
developing, and that more research in these new areas is needed,
especially as textbooks migrate to computer-based media,
instructional multimedia games and simulations become more
prevalent, and mobile learning on hand-held devices becomes
common. He reiterates that it is the instructional method that
matters, not the sophistications of the technology and believes that
we do not need more comparison research between technologies or
unscientific studies on the development of new multimedia
technologies for instruction.
As de Jong (2010) and Mayer (2010b) point out, there are many,
many unresolved issues in CLT and CTML research, which means
that the field continues to be wide open and should provide a
challenging and stimulating area of research for many years to
come. De Jong suggests that research in CLT should now turn to
finding load-reducing approaches for intensive knowledge-
producing strategies such as learning from multiple
representations, self-explanations, inquiry learning, or game-based
learning which all stimulate germane (generative) processes. While
speaking to cognitive load theory, de Jongs recommendation for
future research can be applied as easily to the cognitive theory of
multimedia learning in determining: (1) which instructional
treatments lead to which cognitive processes (and how), (2) what
the corresponding effects are on memory workload and potential
overload, (3) what characteristics of the learning material and the
student mediate these effects and (4) how best to measure effects
on working memory load in a theory-related manner (p. 127).
21
Conclusion
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning has progressed over
the past two decades and is poised to become a mature, robust
theory as it enters its third decade. Fortunately, the theoretical
cognitive foundations upon which the theory is based go much
further back and have contributed heavily to its framework of the
big three sciences, as well as the structure given to its principles
by the triarchic theory of cognitive load. Together, these two areas
of study form what we generally understand today to be the
cognitive theory of multimedia learning.
The theory is expanding into exciting new areas that will allow it
to continue to evolve. Its learner-centered and cognitive-
constructivist orientation makes it very relevant in current
educational applications. The fact that it focuses on finding
effective instructional methods rather than a specific technology
makes it a dynamic theory that will allow it to expand well beyond
the life cycle of any particular technology.
While the theory continues to have problematic and unanswered

areas, the researchers acknowledge this and expect that the theory
will continue to develop and change as new and better research
techniques are developed for the study of how we learn and how
the human brain works. It is an exciting field that is developing
very quickly due to advances in technology and neuroscience, and
there is a great need for new researchers to contribute new
scientific studies to the development of the theory, the principles,
the boundary conditions, and finally, the big three sciences of
learning, instruction, and assessment themselves.
22
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The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

The theoretical foundation for the cognitive theory of multimedia

Key Elements of the Theory

According to Mayer and Moreno (1998) and Mayer (2003), CTML

structure, and integrate it with their prior knowledge (Mayer, 1996,

The Three Store Structure of Memory in CTML

Working memory attends to, or selects information from sensory

Figure 1 Mayers Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Mayer (2005a) states that there are also five forms of

processed by memory. Each form represents a particular stage of

According to CTML, content knowledge is contained in schemas

The Development of the Theory of Working Memory

Baddeley (1986, 1999) later proposed that there was an additional

executive would continue to have capacity for performing more

The visuo-spatial sketch pad is assumed to maintain and

Sweller (2005) and Yuan, Steedle, Shavelson, Alonzo & Oppezo

1. selecting relevant words for processing in verbal working

These cognitive processes in working memory determine which

Mayer (2009) distinguishes meaningful learning from no

According to Sweller, Van Merrienboer, and Paas (1998), there are

In the triarchic model of cognitive load, essential processing

De Jong (2010) has called into question whether there is truly a

The Science of Instruction

studies, which yields testable predictions. Mayer (2011a)

As part of his evidence-seeking efforts for the science of

Coherence Principle People learn better when extraneous

As mentioned earlier, these twelve principles are grouped ina

reducing extraneous processing coherence, signaling,

In addition to these instructional principles, Mayer (2009)includes

One example of a boundary condition is that of individual-

Although they havent appeared in recent CTML literature, Mayer

Animation and interactivity principles People dont

In addition to the twelve principles and the advanced principles

Development of the Theory

See Moore, Burton, & Myers (2004) for an excellent overall

The name cognitive theory of multimedia learning was first used

It is important to note that before her death, Roxana Moreno, a

Morenos model integrates three assumptions. The first assumption

knowledge, which is similar to Tulvings (1977) distinction

Measurement and Instruments

Because of its central role in CTML research, cognitive load

Applying the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Instruction

Once we understand the science of learning and the science of

This section looks at what to keep in mind as the instructional

The principles of multimedia learning should be viewed as

Moreno (2006a) expressed this idea when she distinguished

could best be described as what occurred in the 20th Century when

Managing Cognitive Load

CLT suggests that instructional techniques that require students to

An example of what this means for multimedia instructional design

Schnotz and Krschner (2007) echo this idea by stating that

will increase the affective conditions that will improve learning

Animation and Screencasts

Regarding the use of animation to improve student achievement,

Evaluation of the Theory

against any existing theory of cognition and that such criticism is

In recent years there have been several prominent researchers who

Mayer (2009) states that his research goal is to contribute to the