Screeningtheory PDF

Screening Theory
and Practice
James F. Sullivan, P. E.
SCREENING THEORY AND PRACTICE
FOREWARD
In these few pages, the author has attempted to distill the essence of fifty-five years of
experience in the design, development, manufacture and sale of bulk granular material
handling and classifying equipment.
It hasnt been the same experience fifty-five times over, but rather a progressive learning
experience punctuated with moments of elation or despair, the latter compensated by
the occasional satisfactions of discovery.
This is an overview, not a Handbook. It is narrowly confined to the basic principles,

as understood by the author, underlying the performance, design and application of
mechanical equipment for particle separation by screening. Its sources are the authors
experiences, supplemented by abundant literature relative to the study of small particles.
A few examples, drawn upon for this paper, are listed in the Bibliography.
James F. Sullivan
January 2013
James F. Sullivan, P. E. is the former President and Chairman,

Triple/S Dynamics, Inc., (Retired). He is currently President,
Professional Engineering Services, Inc. and holds a BME with
Distinction from University of Minnesota, 1947. He is also a
member of Tau Beta Pi, honorary engineering fraternity.
copyright 2012
Triple/S Dynamics, All Rights Reserved
Table of Contents
1. Theory of Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Factors Affecting Screen Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Material Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Machine Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Screening Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Motion In The Horizontal Plane (Shaking Screens) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Motion In The Vertical Plane (Vibrating Screens) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. The Screenability Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4. Estimating Screen Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Coarse Screening Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Electric Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Wet Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fine Screening Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Electric Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Wet Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Rescreening And Discontinuous Size Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5. Fractional Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6. Vibration Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Spring Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Cable Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Vibration In Steel-Framed Industrial Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7. Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Drive Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8. Installation Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Clearances, Platforms and Catwalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Feed to the Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Flexible Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Dust Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9. Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Vibrating Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Screening Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
i
Screening Theory and Practice
Part 1. Theory of Screening
The purpose of screening is to separate from a granular substance particles that are smaller
than the screen opening from those that are larger. This is not as simple as it sounds, and the
difficulties compound as the opening becomes smaller. For example, if a sample of a crushed
mineral ore containing 50% by weight of particles smaller than 1/8 is dropped on a static test
sieve, most of the undersize will remain on the screen, with only a trickle passing through. Now
if the sieve is subjected to some kind of motion, reciprocating or gyratory in the horizontal
plane, or shaken with a reciprocating motion having both vertical and horizontal components,
the minus 1/8 particles will begin to pass through the screen, at a diminishing rate until all
but the particles closest to the opening size have been separated out. The time duration of the
shaking to reach this stage will be roughly proportional to the amount of the sample placed on
the test sieve1, which determines the depth of the static material bed before the shaking starts.
The most commonly used measure of screen efficiency is the cumulative weight of material
that has passed the screen in any time interval, compared to the total weight of undersize in
the feed, expressed in a percentage. This can be reversed, when the oversize is the product to
be recovered; then efficiency is the weight percent of material in the screened oversize fraction
compared to the total weight of oversize in the feed.
The probability (p) that any particle will pass a square opening in a woven wire screen is
governed by the difference between its average diameter (d) and the opening dimension (L),
and the wire diameter (t). A Swedish inventor, Dr. Fredrick Mogensen, predicts the probability p
of a particle passing a square mesh sieve opening, if it approaches at 90 deg. to the plane of the
opening, and does not touch a boundary wire, as
p=K[(L-d)(L+t)]2 (1)
from which it can be seen that the probability of an undersize particle passing the opening
will diminish exponentially as its diameter approaches the opening dimension, and increase
exponentially as the wire diameter (t) approaches zero. It may also be noted that, if the
particle is removed (d=0), the equation equals the percent open area of a square mesh wire
screen100. Thus if p is proportional to capacity, in a square mesh wire screen capacity must be
proportional to the percent open area, a relationship that is made use of later in deriving the
capacity correction factor F (Page 22) for the ratio L/t.
When the screen, supporting a static bed of material of extended size range, is shaken, a
phenomenon called trickle stratification2 causes the particles to stratify from finer at the
bottom to coarser at the top. The shaking motion may be in the horizontal plane of the
screen, circular or reciprocating, or with a vertical component, or it may be a vibration applied
directly to the screen wires.3 In the example above, the particles in the fraction smaller than
1/8 that reach the screen surface have a chance of passing an opening that is expressed by
the Mogensen probability function. Then ideally, for any average particle diameter less than
1/8, the number of particles of diameter d that will pass in a unit of time is the product of the
probability function times the number of times a single particle is presented to an opening
(without touching a boundary wire).
1
This ideal is confounded by unpredictable uncertainties. The necessary turbulence in the
material bed caused by the motion of the screen causes interparticle interference and
affects the angle at which a particle approaches an opening. The possibility for a particle to
pass the opening without touching a boundary wire, a condition of the Mogensen function,
is nil. Impact forces from contact with the boundary wires act as impedances to the force of
gravity, the only force causing the particle to fall through the opening.
So the motion of the screen, necessary for it to work, also can have the effect of limiting
its capacity, in terms of the rate of passage of undersize per unit of area. Different kinds
of motion are employed in the design of screening machines, and each has its special
characteristics. Most modern screening machines can be sorted into four separate
categories4. Each is subdivided into a variety of individual differences, but the following
example will assign operating parameters typical of its category.
A The Gyratory Screen: 285 rpm, 2-1/2 horizontal circle dia.

B. The Shaking Screen: 475 rpm, 1 stroke, zero pitch, 6 deg. slope.
C. The Inclined Vibrating Screen: 1200 rpm, 1/4 vertical circle dia.
D. The Horizontal Vibrating Screen: 840 rpm , 1/2 stroke at 45.
Each has a .063 dia. wire screen with 1/8 clear opening, moving under a particle travelling
at an assumed 20 fpm, for A, 40 fpm for B., 80 fpm for C, and 60 fpm for D. Omitting details
of the calculations, the approximate number of openings presented to the particle per second
is A. 200; B. 64; C. 98; D.50. The time available for the particle to fall through the opening,
in sec.x10-3, is A. 5.0; B. 15.6; C. 10.2; D. 20.0 If it is assumed that the probability of passage
of a single undersize particle is inversely proportional to the number of openings per second
passing underneath, owing to interference with the boundary wires, the relative probabilities
in each case are the same as the time available. Then, on the premise stated previously that
the probabilities are in direct proportion to the number of opportunities (openings) per
second, the product of the two probabilities is exactly the same for each case.
The time for this theoretical particle to pass the opening, from an approach at 90 and
without touching a boundary wire, is 3.3 sec x 10-4. The ratio of time available in each case
to time required is A. 15.2; B. 47.3; C. 30.9; D. 60.6, which leads again to the same conclusion
as before.
Should this oversimplified example lead to a conclusion that there is no inherent difference
in relative performance among these four categories of motion?
The answer is no, because such a conclusion would be overwhelmed by the realities of
differences, to name a few, in turbulence, interparticle and boundary wire interference,
depth of bed, slope of screen surface, relative velocities between particle and surface,
displacement normal to the surface, and acceleration patterns. The correct conclusion is that
performance claims favoring any particular design, whether Category A, B, C, or D to be
valid, must be based on demonstrated comparative test results.
2
Part 2. Factors Affecting Screen Performance
I. Material Factors
Particles in dry bulk materials are found in a variety of shapes, sizes, surfaces, densities, and
moisture content. Each condition must be taken into account when attempting to predict
screen performance, through its effect on capacity in terms of weight passing a given screen
opening per unit area. The combined effects on screen performance, or screenability, of
particle shape, surface texture, and surface or internal moisture, are beyond the reach of
empirical solutions based only on size and density, independent of these variables. More
exact information on their influence has to be gained from actual laboratory testing.
SIZE AND SHAPE

The shape of an individual granule may be angular, spherical, acicular, ovaloid, flaky, or
slabby. They can be mixed in the same material, as sawdust in wood flakes. Separation
cutpoint sizes in most screening applications range downward from 4 to 325 mesh
(.0018). The cutpoint defines the minimum particle size retained on the screen, and the
maximum undersize particle passing. Unless the particle is acicular, platy, ovaloid or a
perfect sphere, it will probably (but not necessarily) be sized by its largest dimension5.
DENSITY
For any given shape and size distribution, bulk density in lb./cu. ft. (PCF) for any material
will be directly proportional to its specific gravity. Screening is essentially a volumetric
measurement, but capacity, or the rate of passage through the screen, is typically charted in
units of weight per unit time, based on a standard bulk density of 100 PCF. The actual rate
for a material of different bulk density then has to be adjusted by the ratio PCF:100. Tables of
bulk density for various materials can be found in most material handling publications6.
MOISTURE
Moisture in granular particles may be absorbed, adsorbed, or both. Either condition can
impair screenability, but tolerance is much greater for internally absorbed than for external
surface moisture. Surface moisture causes particles to stick together, resisting stratification.
Allowable surface moisture for unimpaired dry screening of inorganic granular or pelletized
particles ranges from bone dry for screen openings below 20 mesh, to 3% for 1/4 openings.
Absorbed moisture in permeable soils such as ground clay can block the screen openings
with cumulative buildups of extreme fines attached to the screen wires. Absorbent grains
such as corn, soybeans, wheat etc. will screen freely after drying to 13-15% internal
moisture. Screening of wood chips, flakes and sawdust is unimpaired up to about 30%
internal moisture; however, in laboratory tests with sawdust, efficiency was reduced by
almost 60% when moisture was increased to 68%.
SIZE DISTRIBUTION
The size distribution of particles in a granular bulk material is the primary characteristic
that governs the rate of undersize passage through a screen opening that is larger than
the smallest particle and smaller than the largest particle in a representative sample of
the material. Size distribution is measured by sieve analysis, using a series of standardized
3
wire mesh sieves with square openings that progress, in the commonly used Tyler standard
scale7, at the fixed rate of from 1.05 to .0029 (200 mesh). The size distribution is
expressed as the weight percent of each fraction between successive sieves in a series. If
the weight is plotted on the y-axis against the mean size of each fraction on the x -axis,
the result will resemble a frequency distribution curve.
A more useful graphic form is the logarithmic probability grid, using a two-or three-cycle
log scale as the ordinate and the probability scale as the abscissa. Tyler Standard Screen
openings are spaced equally on the log scale (y-axis), and the cumulative weight percent
retained (or passing) on the probability scale (x-axis). The expansion of the probability
scales outward from the mean emphasizes the extremes of the particle size distribution.
Prints of this grid, shown in Fig. 1, can be obtained from the Internet. Fig, 2 is a sieve
analysis of a sample of comminuted limestone plotted on this grid, using the ordinate
Weight Percent Passing

10 99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
Sieve Opening (L)
1 1
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Weight Percent Retained
Figure 1: Log Probability Graph Coordinates
4
for the sieve opening and the probability axis for cumulative weight percent passing or
retained on each sieve in the series. A different distribution, for a sample of natural sand
from a frac sand deposit, is shown in Fig. 3. These two sieve analyses can be used to
illustrate the influence on screen performance of differences in particle size distribution.

99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01
1.0
4
6
8 .10
10
Clear Opening (in.)

Tyler Standard Sieve
12
20
28
35
49
.010
65
100
150
200
.001
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Figure 2: Communited limestone size distribution
A cutpoint, at the intersection of a line drawn horizontally from the y-axis, and a
vertical line from the x-axis, defines the percent of the feed that passed the selected
opening in the test sieve used for the sieve analysis. This is the reference for calculating
the efficiency of any other screen having the same opening. The test procedure is
designed to allow all the particles that can pass the opening sufficient time to get
through, recognizing that, as the effective particle diameter approaches the screen
opening dimension, the chances for it to get through the opening diminish as the square
of the difference between them. The rate of change of this difference is expressed in the
5
slope of the distribution curve as it passes through the cutpoint. In practical applications,
as the rate increases (slope becomes steeper) the decreasing proportion of particles
approaching the opening dimension has two benefits: (1) the cutpoint becomes sharper,
with consequent improvement in separation efficiency; and (2) it may allow for an
increased opening dimension, improving yield in the fraction under the desired cutpoint,
without exceeding specified oversize limits.
As an example, refer to Fig. 2, the sieve analysis of a sample of comminuted limestone..

The curve slopes steeply between about 8 mesh and 48 mesh. If the desired cutpoint is
within that range, at 28 mesh, and the screen opening is increased one full interval
on the Tyler scale, to 20 mesh, the undersize fraction in the feed will increase from 64 to
67%, from the addition of the 3% 20x28 m. fraction.
While the probabilities of passage of all particles 28m and smaller are improved by the
larger opening, thus increasing the undersize yield, the probability that a 28m. particle
will be found in the undersize has only been increased from zero to 1 chance in 30.
Compare this with the flatter distribution of Fig. 3. If the desired cutpoint is set at 28
mesh, at 84% passing, and the screen opening is enlarged one interval to 20 mesh, the
undersize fraction in the feed will increase by 8%, to 92%. The probability for passage
of the 28 mesh particle into the undersize remains the same as in the previous example,
meaning that the potential for exceeding a specified limit for oversize in the undersize
fraction is almost 3 times greater for the flatter distribution.
As a general rule, screen capacity at any given level of efficiency, other things being
equal, will be dependent not only on the size of the aperture, but also on the slope of
the size distribution curve through the cutpoint. This latter characteristic is taken into
account in the test-data-based Fractional Efficiency calculations8. The Capacity Estimating
Methods9, at a baseline efficiency of 85%, include correction factors for variances in slope
of a known or assumed size distribution.
Machine Factors
The Screening Media

There are many varieties of screening media. The most common, available in carbon
steel, stainless or other metal alloys, is woven wire screen, made with openings that
may be either square or rectangular. Others include profile bars, perforated plates,
polyurethane and rubber. The importance of making the best selection of media for any
screening application cannot be overstated. In any screening machine, the media will
affect performance in terms of capacity, efficiency and cost. Manufacturers of screening
equipment will offer their recommendations. Much has been written on the subject10, but
often the best results are achieved through trial and error.
6
99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 .100
20
24
28
32
Clear Opening (in.)

35
42
48
.010
60
65
80
100
115
150
.001
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Figure 3: Frac Sand Sample FSI
Motion
Screening requires relative motion between the sieve and the particle mass. In a few
specialized cases the sieve is stationary, but in most commercial screening applications, the
particle mass flows over a sieve to which some kind of motion is mechanically applied. Its
velocity determines the volumetric flow rate of the particle mass over the sieve, whose
motion is intended to enhance both the flow and the passage of undersize through the
sieve. This motion takes several different forms, depending on the design of the screening
machine. It may be circular in the horizontal plane; gyratory, with a vertical rocking oscillation
superimposed on the circular motion; oscillating in a straight-line, simple harmonic motion;
vibrating with a circular motion in the vertical plane; vibrating with a linear pitching motion
on a horizontal sieve having both vertical and horizontal components; or vibrating only in
the vertical direction. In each case, the surface is sloped as required to obtain the desired mass
flow, usually at velocities between 40 and 100 fpm.
7
In most designs the screen media, if woven wire, is stretched taut over a supporting frame
and the vibration is applied through the frame. The vibration is forced, usually by rotating
unbalanced weight(s) driven by an electric motor. For circular motion in the horizontal plane,
the unbalance is rotated on a vertical axis. Circular motion in the vertical plane is generated
by unbalances rotating on a horizontal axis. Straight-line motion is generated by one or more
of a pair of unbalances contra- rotating on horizontal axes. The unbalances are driven by
electric motor(s), usually through V-belt transmissions, or in a few designs directly connected
to, or mounted on, the motor shaft.
These forced-vibration systems are self-balancing, in that the forcing mechanism is an integral
part of the vibrating frame so that the Wr of the mechanism equals the Wr of the vibrating
assembly, which is elastically supported on springs.
The tuned spring-mass, or natural-frequency, vibrating conveyor is sometimes adapted, in

balanced or unbalanced versions, to screening applications11
In a few exceptions, the vibration is applied directly to the screen media mounted in a
stationary frame. The vibrating force can be generated by rotating unbalances, or by
electromagnetic vibrators.
Mechanical details and performance claims for each type are described, more or less
accurately, in the manufacturers literature.
MOTION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE (SHAKING SCREENS)

In most of the designs employing motion in the horizontal plane, the amplitude and
frequency (rpm) are fixed. Amplitudes range from 1/2 up to 1-1/2 in the oscillating,
(straight-line), and up to 3 mean diameter in the circular and elliptical designs. Straight-line
oscillating motion is generated by one or more pairs of unbalance weights contra-rotating on
a horizontal axis. Circular motions are generated by weights rotating on a vertical axis. This
axis may be slightly inclined to produce a gyratory effect. Frequency, or rpm, is selected for
peak accelerations of up to 3-1/2 g.12. The axis of rotation may oscillate slightly to produce a
gyratory motion. In all but the gyratory designs, the screen surface is sloped slightly to induce
or enhance material flow. At a slope of 5, the force component normal to the surface is a
small fraction, about 1/4 to 1/3, of the weight of the particle mass on the surface.
This is the distinguishing characteristic of all the horizontal motion designs: the particle mass
slides smoothly over the screen without bouncing, providing for the stratified undersize particles
the best opportunity to find and pass an opening. The advantage is somewhat diminished by
the ease with which an on-size particle can get stuck in an opening, resulting in progressive
blinding of the screen. For that reason, these machines must all incorporate some means
for impacting the screen surface from underneath to dislodge the stuck particles. The most
common is the resilient elastomeric (bouncing) ball, supported under the screen by a coarse wire
mesh, and contained in groups of three or more within a matrix of confined areas. The random
impacts of the balls against the screen prevent the development of progressive blinding. As an
additional benefit, the transient local turbulence caused by the impacts improves efficiency by
roughing up the smoothly flowing material bed to prevent packing.
8
MOTION IN THE VERTICAL PLANE (VIBRATING SCREENS)
Vibrating screens are characterized by motion components in the vertical plane ranging from
+/- 3.5 to 6 g or more. The lifting and dropping effect expands the material bed; individual
particles are bounced along over the screen with reduced opportunity for finding and passing
an opening. This is a disadvantage, compared with the smoother horizontal motion designs.
But on the plus side, the strong normal force component acts to eject near-size particles
stuck in the openings, thus resisting progressive blinding, and the turbulent expansion of the
material bed prevents packing. These advantages gain strength with increasing bed depth
and particle size.
The two most common types of vibrating screen are the inclined and the horizontal. In the
inclined screen, the single unbalance, rotating on a horizontal axis, generates a circular
motion in the vertical plane. Since this motion has no positive transport property, the screen
surface is sloped at 15-20 to cause the particle mass to travel at velocities of 60 100 fpm.
The horizontal screen employs a pair of unbalances, rotating in opposite directions on parallel
horizontal axes, to generate a straight-line reciprocating motion, inclined to the plane of the
screen surface at 40 50. Travel rates on a horizontal surface range between 60 and 80 fpm ,
and can be increased if necessary by inclining the screen downward at up to about 10.
The vibrating conveyor is in the same class as the

horizontal vibrating screen, but with significant Amplitude of Vibration (mm)
differences that limit its usefulness for screening. 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
70
Relative Percent Efficiency
Its natural frequency operating system, intended Amplitude

for conveying dry bulk granular materials on a
60
smooth surface, is fixed in a longer stroke, lower
frequency regime than the vibrating screen. Peak
accelerations are generally below the threshold 50
Frequency
for blinding prevention. Efficiency, mediocre at
best, deteriorates rapidly for separations below 40
about 1/8.
30
Vibrating screen performance can be optimized 600 1000 1400 1800
for any application by changing amplitude (stroke) Vibrations per Minute
and frequency (cpm or rpm). Tests have shown that
Figure 4: Relative Screening Rate vs. Amplitude and Frequency
the screening rate is more responsive to changes in
amplitude than in frequency13 (Fig. 4), although higher frequencies are helpful in resisting near-
size blinding. As a general rule, the amplitude should increase with particle size, or increased
bed depth, and frequency adjusted to maintain peak acceleration in the normal range of
+/- 4-6 g14. Amplitude and frequency are related to peak acceleration in simple harmonic
motion, or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, in the simplified formula
g = 1.42 N2S, (2)
where
g is a multiple of the normal acceleration due to gravity;
N= frequency (rpm or cpm)
S= total stroke (in.)
9
The relationship between feed rate (proportional to depth of material bed) and optimum
amplitude at constant rpm is illustrated in Fig. 5. Note that in this test peak efficiency was
obtained at successively greater amplitudes as feed rate was increased, but the relative
efficiency at each successive peak declined, as shown by the optimum amplitude envelope
line. This was only one test sequence, on a laboratory-sized inclined circle-throw vibrating
screen, but it supports a cautious generalization that there is no one combination of
frequency (rpm or cpm) and amplitude that can promise best performance without
confirmation by test, in any particular application and feed rate.
In the special case where vibration is applied directly to a woven wire screen cloth, creating
a unidirectional vibration normal to the screen surface, the amplitude is limited by the
strength of the screen wires, but frequency is variable, up to about 3600 cpm. The limited
amplitude is compensated for with a steep inclination of the screen surface, in the range
of 35 - 45. The screening action is created by the vibration of the screen cloth, which
slightly stretches the wires and discourages plugging with nearsize particles. Obviously,
the applications are limited to fine screening, with wire diameters less than about .025.
The width of screen openings has to be increased to correct for the slope, by dividing the
desired cutpoint by the cosine of the angle.
Copper Slag on 30 Mesh;

2 x 4 Inclined Vibrating
100 Optimum Screen at 1640rpm
Amplitude .032 amplitude
90 Envelope
.125 amplitude
Relative Efficiency
80
.188 amplitude
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Feed Rate, TPH
Figure 5: Optimum Amplitude Envelope
10
PART 3. THE SCREENABILITY CHARACTERISTIC
The performance of any screening machine can be expressed in two variables: capacity,
in units of tons or pounds per hour, and efficiency, as defined previously. These are
not independent; efficiency will usually, but not always, vary inversely with loading.
Commercially perfect efficiency is said15 to be 95%, but this is rarely achieved in actual
practice, 85-90% being more realistic when empirical formulas instead of actual test
results are used for predicting (guessing at) screen area requirements.
Screenability is essentially a measure of the rate of stratification of the specific granular

material to be separated. When correctly scaled testing with a representative sample
is not feasible, a simple laboratory test using a sieve shaker can supplement empirical
capacity calculations for cutpoints below about 8 mesh.

99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 .100
.090
.080
.070
.060
.050
20
.040
20
.030
25
30
38
US Standard Sieve Scale
35 .020
40
Clear Opening (in.)

45
50 72
.010
60 .009
70 .008
80 .007
100 .006
120 .005
140 .004
.003
.002
.001
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Figure 6: Frac Sand Sample FS-2 Size Distribution
11
The Screenability Test requires only a laboratory sieve shaker (the W. S. Tyler Ro-Tap is
preferred), a test sieve with its wire mesh screen matching, or close to, the cutpoint to be
evaluated, a collecting pan under the sieve, and a stopwatch. The purpose of the test is
to compare the time rates of recovery of the undersize at different initial bed depths on
the sieve. The range of time intervals and depths tested is chosen to bracket the expected
depth and retention time in the proposed application. A test that was conducted in the
Triple/S Dynamics laboratory can be used as an example. The material was sand from a
different frac sand deposit, having the sieve analysis plotted on the log-probability grid in
Fig. 6. The bed depths tested, on a 40 mesh test sieve (US std), were 1/4, 1/2, and 3/4. A
representative portion of the original sample was loaded to the selected depth on the test
sieve, handling it carefully to avoid shaking, and the shaker was operated at successive
time intervals, weighing the accumulated contents in the undersize pan after 5, 10, 15,
and 60 seconds, and thereafter at 1 min. intervals until there was no further increase in
the accumulated undersize. The results for each depth were used to plot the resulting
constant-depth curves in Fig. 7, showing percent efficiency vs. time for each depth tested.
100
90
80 1/4
70
60 1/2
Efficiency (%)
50
40 3/4
30
20
1 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60
Time (Sec.)
Figure 7: Screenability Characteristic , Frac Sample FS-2
12
These curves cant be used to predict the performance of any particular screening machine
that doesnt exactly match the action of the laboratory sieve shaker, but they do provide
a useful insight into the stratification characteristic of the sample being tested. This
has a direct bearing on the relation between capacity and efficiency in the proposed
application. Retention time, on a screen of a given length, is inversely proportional to the
velocity of the particle mass moving across the screen. Bed depth is directly proportional
to feed rate and inversely to the velocity, expressed by the formula
d = 400F (3)
pVW
Where
d = Bed Depth, in.
F = Feed Rate, stph
r = Bulk Density, lb./ft3
V = Travel Rate, ft./min.
W = Net Width of Screen, ft.
The purpose of the Screenability Test is to evaluate the relationship between retention
time and bed depth.
The data plotted in the curves of Fig. 7 are not used in our capacity estimating methods.
They can, however, be used to predict the relative effect of a change in feed rate for
a rectangular screen of a given length, using the known or assumed travel rate in the
equipment selected for the application. For example, retention time on a TEXAS SHAKER
with 10 ft. of screen length and a normal travel rate of 40 fpm will be 15 seconds. From the
screenability test, the efficiency at 15 seconds on the 40m. screen with an initial bed depth
of 1/4 is 97%. When the depth is increased to 1/2, the efficiency at 15 seconds drops to
78%, a 20% reduction. At 3/4 depth, efficiency is 37%, a 62% reduction.
Retention time in this example is directly proportional to screen length, at the same 40
fpm travel rate. If the length is doubled, to 20 ft., capacity will be unchanged, but the
efficiency at 1/2 increased to 95%, a gain of 22%. Alternatively, if the width is doubled
to reduce the bed depth to 1/4, capacity will still remain the same, but efficiency goes up
to 97%. The screen area is doubled either way, but there is a slight advantage in efficiency
from doubling the width while holding the length constant.
Screenability efficiencies are unique to the laboratory sieve shaker employed in the test
procedure. A calibration factor is needed to predict efficiencies of a production machine
from the Screenability Characteristic curves of efficiency vs. bed depth and retention time.
This can be derived in the following way. For this example, the production machine to be
calibrated was the Triple/S Dynamics TEXAS SHAKER, simulated with a full-size narrow
width single deck laboratory version which duplicated the rpm, amplitude, slope, pitch
and length of the commercial design. The 10 ft. length of the active screen surface was
13
divided into five two-ft. increments, and the undersize at each increment was collected
and weighed separately. At the 40 fpm travel rate over the screen, each increment
represented a time interval of 3 sec. Three test runs were made, with the same frac sand
sample used for the Screenability test (Fig. 6). Screens were stainless steel bolting cloth.
The 72 mesh cloth was backed up with a 10m., .020 dia. wire screen.
Run 1. 20 m. .041 c.o. Bed depth 0.3 .
Run 2. 38 m. .0198 c.o. Bed depth 0.25.
Run 3. 72 m. .0102 co. Bed depth 0.15
Screen efficiency, related to the size distribution in Fig. 6, was calculated for each
successive 3 sec. interval for each of the three runs, and plotted on rectangular
coordinates in Fig. 8. This was 94% for Run 2, (15 sec. at 1/4) at 1/4 depth on the 38m.
screen. From the 1/4 curve in Fig. 7, the efficiency at 15 sec. was 97%. Neglecting the
slight difference in efficiency that would probably favor the 20% larger opening of the
38 m. TEXAS SHAKER test screen compared with the 40m. Screenability test sieve, the
calibration factor is TEXAS SHAKER/Screenability = 97/94 = 1.03.
The curves of Figs. 7 and 8 are useful

in showing qualitatively how screening Time (Sec.) at 40 FPM
efficiency is affected by changes in initial 3 6 9 3 15
100
bed depth and retention time. In most 20m
commercial screening machines, retention
time is more or less fixed in the design.
The initial bed depth per unit of width, 90
38m
directly proportional to feed rate, is thus

the primary control on efficiency. The
Screenability curves of Fig. 7 can be used to
Percent Efficiency
evaluate the effect of changes in feed rate, 80

using as an example the TEXAS SHAKER
laboratory test results.
At the feed rate corresponding to the 70

1/4 initial bed depth, (Figure 8) screening 72m
efficiency was 94%. To find the expected

efficiency from doubling the feed rate, to
a depth of 1/2, at the 15 sec. retention in
60
the TEXAS SHAKER, find the efficiency at
15 sec. on the 1/2 curve (Figure 7). This is
78%. Multiply this by the calibration factor
1.03 determined previously, to obtain the
50
corrected efficiency of 80%. 2 4 6 8 10
Screen Length (Ft.)
Figure 8: Calibration Curves, TEXAS SHAKER

Scale Test , Frac Sample FS-2
14
If the calibration factor had been a more significant 0.8, the corrected efficiency would have
been 62%; if the factor had been 1.25, the predicted efficiency would have been 98%.
If empirical calculations, instead of scaled laboratory tests, had been used to estimate
capacity for a given separation, the usual base efficiency of around 85% would make the
calibration factor .90, and the corrected efficiency for the 1/2 depth 70%. The curves of Fig.
7 show that the loss in efficiency resulting from an increase in bed depth from 1/4 to 1/2
can be fully recovered by increasing the retention time from 15 to 40 seconds. This means
a proportional increase in length, and a 166% increase in screen area. Doubling the width,
which would increase the area by 100%, obviously would achieve the same result.
Percent of Total Removed

Position Time (Sec.) 20m. Screen 38 m. Screen 72 m. Screen
2 ft. 3 97.4 86.3 68.7
4 ft. 6 1.2 8.9 13.8
6 ft. 9 0.86 2.9 8.6
8 ft. 12 0.29 1.1 5.1
10 ft. 15 0.25 0.8 3.8
Total Removed 100.0 100.0 100.0
Feed Rate stph 3.0 2.5 1.5
% Unders in Feed 97 60 18
Percent Eff. 98 96 78
Table 1: TEXAS SHAKER Calibration Test Throughput vs. Time
Data from these tests can be used to show the rate of passage of undersize through
the screen. In Table I, the percentage of total undersize collected from each section is
tabulated against the 2 ft. length increments for each of the three screens. In the last
interval, between 8 ft. and 10 ft., the amount collected as a percent of the total undersize
was .25%, .8%, and 3.8% for the 20, 38 and 72 m. screens, respectively. The percent
undersize in the feed was 97, 60 and 18. The related screening efficiencies were 98, 94 and
78%. It can be seen that more than half of the total in all three cases is recovered in the
first 2 ft. The rates of change with length (proportional to time) diminish so rapidly in all
three cases that overall efficiency, even with the 72 m. screen, would not be significantly
improved by further extensions of length. The differences between the three rates of
throughput, from highest on 20m. to lowest on 72m., reflect not only the diminishing
capacity of smaller screen openings, but also the effects of the size distributions of the
undersize fractions. A sieve analysis of the undersize in each length increment would
show that the median size of the distributions in all three tests shifts from smaller in
the first section to coarser in the last section. Fines go first, governed by the probability
function, which also explains the different rates of change of efficiency with length (or
time) in the three curves of Fig. 8.
15
The value of the Screenability Test procedures and the conclusions that can be drawn from
them is to direct attention to the primacy in screening performance of size distribution
(easily measured by sieve analysis), and the probability factor (which can only be crudely
approximated by empirical calculations). Only scaled testing with actual material samples,
as described above, can accurately predict performance at cutpoints below about 8 mesh.
Some observations can be drawn from a study of the graphs in Figs. 7 and 8, and Table I:
1. Universal rules of thumb for optimum depth of bed as a multiple of aperture size
are meaningless.
2. Retention time for peak efficiency increases exponentially with bed depth.
3. The rate of change in undersize removal vs. screen length (retention time), which
depends on cutpoint, size distribution and bed depth, diminishes rapidly toward
zero as length increases. But capacity is always directly proportional to width of a
rectangular screen at a given bed depth.This means that in any application with any
rectangular screening machine, there will be an optimum retention time beyond
which capacity at constant efficiency will be governed only by bed depth.
4. The graphs help to explain why estimates of screen area requirements for cutpoints
below 8 mesh, based only on empirical formulas, are not a reliable substitute for
actual scaled testing. Nuances in material characteristics, and machine differences,
both of which significantly affect performance, are unavoidably neglected in the
derivation of the formulas.
16
Part 4. Estimating Screen Capacity
Actual scaled testing is the best way to predict screen sizing and performance for a
new application. When this isnt feasible, or even possible, empirical calculations can
provide approximations that are usually better than guesswork. Formulas offered
by manufacturers and trade associations are not all the same, and can lead to quite
different conclusions from the same input data. Accuracy, in terms of actual vs. predicted
performance, is never guaranteed.
The methods presented in this section are subject to the same limitations, but their
accuracy is enhanced by their separation into two categories, Coarse and Fine. The
dividing point is set at 0.1 clear opening.
I. Coarse Screening Method

This method for estimating screen area requirement for coarse screening applications
requires the following information:
Feed rate to the screen surface, stph (F)
Percent undersize (U)
Screen aperture, in. (L)
Percent half-size in the feed (L/2)
Bulk Density, lb./cu. ft. (p)
Particle Shape (natural sand & gravel or crushed stone or mineral ore).
Percent open area of screening medium selected
Standard Percent Open Area

44 46 55 58 71 73 79 82
8.0
7.0
6.0
Capacity, (CC) Stph Passing/ Sq. Ft.
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
CC = 2.636L 0.617
1.0
0.5
0.10 0.25 0.50 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Clear Opening, (L), in.
Figure 9: Coarse Screen Capacity
17
The unit capacity C, in stph/sq. ft., found from the graph in Fig. 916, is based on a loose,
struck bulk density of 100 pcf, and an assumed screen media percent open area. This
targets a screening efficiency of 85 - 90% for applications in the coarse screening regime,
assuming dry, free-flowing material characteristics. Moisture limit for dry screening scales
upward from 1% at 1/8 to 6% at 1, unlimited above.
Sedimentary minerals such as clays and shales, can be an exception. Granules in bulk may
appear to be dry and free-flowing, but as they flow across the screen they may deposit
micron-sized particles attached to the screen wires, building up to restrict or block
openings up to about 3/8.
In such cases, the unit capacities from Fig. 9 can be used at 3/8 and below if the screen
surface is heated to break the adhesive bond holding the agglomerated fines to the wires
(see ELECTRIC HEAT below).
The screen area, in square feet, is found by dividing the weight of material, in stph,
passing the specified opening by the unit capacity from Fig. 9, and adjusting for the
factors K1 ..K 7, defined in Formula 4:
A= F x U [100 C K1 K2 K3 K4 5 6 7)] (4)
Where
K1 = Percent half-size to the screen
3.0
opening (Fig. 10)17
K2= Bulk density/100
2.0
K3= Particle shape factor, Table II
1.5 K4= Deck location factor (top, middle,
bottom), Table III
Correction Factor K1
1.0
K5= Aperture shape factor, Table IV
0.9 K6= Open Area Factor (Divide the
0.8
0.7
standard % open area from Fig. 9 by
0.6
the actual for the screen or perforated
K1 = 0.404e0.0192X plate selected).
0.5 (where X = Percent in feed half size
to aperture width) K7= Bed Depth Correction Factor (Fig.
0.4
11, K7 vs. D/L).18
0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent in Feed Half-size to Aperture Width
Figure 10: Half-Size Correction K1
18
The half-size correction factor K1 and bed depth correction factor K7 together attempt to
adjust for the impedance of the average oversize depth on the screen surface by taking
into account the depth of the material bed retained on the screen at the discharge end,
and the slope of the feed material size distribution through the cutpoint. Obviously, these
empirically derived factors can be a major cause for differences between predicted and
actual performance.
The bed depth is a function of percent oversize, travel rate on the screen, bulk density,
and width of screen surface at the discharge, expressed as
D = 4[ F x (1-U/100)] ( VpW) (5)
Where
D = depth of material bed at the discharge.
F = Feed rate, stph
U = Percent undersize in feed
V = Travel rate on screen, fpm (typically 60-100 on inclined vibrating screen, 40-60
on horizontal or shaking screens)
p=Bulk density, lb./cu.ft.
W = Width of screen at discharge, ft.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Correction Factor K7
0.5
0.4
0.3
K7 = 0.9 to D/L=4, then 1.572e-(1.272D/L)

0.2
0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
D/L. ( Depth at discharge aperture width)
Figure 11: Bed Depth Correction Factor K7
Note that the bed depth factor K7 (Fig. 11) is a constant 0.9 at D/L ratios up to 4.0.
19
Factors K3, K4 and K5 are taken from Tables II, III, and IV, below.
Particle Shape Factor K3

Smooth and rounded (natural beach sands and gravel) 1.2
Rough and angular (crushed rock, rough natural gravel) 1.0
TABLE II.
Deck Location Factor K4

Top deck 1.0
Second deck 0.9
Third deck 0.8
Note: Stacking more than three decks in a single unit series separation is not usually practical, due
to loss of usable area.
TABLE III.
Aperture Shape Factor K5

Square 1.0
Round 19
0.83
Rectangular slot 20
Length/width ratio 2< l/w <4 1.1
Length/width 4< l/w <25 1.2
TABLE IV.
ELECTRIC HEAT
The basic capacity formula (1) can be used for screening ground clays and shales at
3/8 and below if the screen surface is heated to break the adhesive bond holding the
agglomerated fines to the wires. The common method is electric screen heating, which
can be applied to wire screens weighing up to 1.5 lb./sq. ft. A secondary low voltage, high
amperage current from a line transformer flows across two electrically isolated screen
surfaces connected in series, through bus bars that also serve as the screen tensioning
rails. Typical electrical load is about 1-1.5 KVA/ sq. ft. of screen area.
WET SCREENING
Wet screening is mandatory when moisture exceeds the limits stated above. Water volume
should be 5 or 6 gpm/stph, increasing to 8 gpm if the material includes more than 1%
attached clay. About 20% of this volume should be added in the feed box, and the balance
applied through spray bars spaced at intervals along the length of the screen, with the last
bar positioned within 3-4 ft. of the discharge. Spray deflectors over drilled holes in the bars
spread the water uniformly across the width of the screen, in a thin curtain angled slightly
toward the feed end. When sufficient water is correctly applied, the calculated area can be
increased with the water factor K8 from Table IV, in the denominator of the formula.
20
Water Factor K821
Screen Opening (c.o.)
20 m 1.3
+20m10m 3.0
+ 10m 4m 3.5
+ 4m 3m 3.0
+3m 3/8 2.5
+ 3/8 1/2 1.8
+ 1/2 3/4 1.4
+3/4 1 1.2
+ 1 1.0
TABLE V.
II. Fine Screening Method

Empirical formulas for estimating screen capacities in sizes below 0.1 are increasingly
unreliable with diminishing particle size. A computer could be programmed to account
for the many variables that affect the probability of passage of undersize particles in a
given feed size distribution, but it would be a daunting task, and likely could never match
the results from a scaled test.
The formulas presented here are approximations derived from a combination of test data,
field experience, plain guesswork, and an assumption that the variables are logarithmic
functions. Because of the probabilistic nature of the screening process, empirical formulas
are no substitute for experience, or scaled test work.
The basic capacity formula resembles the Coarse Screening formula, but with some
differences in the modifying factors. The solution for screen area required for a given
application requires the following information:
Feed rate to the screen surface, lb./hr. (F);

Percent half-size
Screen aperture, in. (L);
Wire dia. or bridge width, (t);
Percent undersize (U);
Aperture shape;
Bulk density, lb./cu. ft. (p);
Particle Shape;
Moisture (wt. %)
21
The Unit Capacity Cf, in lb./hr. passing per sq.
2000 ft. vs. screen aperture, found from the graph
1800
1600 in Fig. 1222, is based on a loose, struck bulk
1400
1200 density of 100 pcf, and moisture limited to 1%
1000 from 1/8 to 20m, and 0% below 20m.
Capacity (Cf ), lb/hr passing per sq. ft.
800
The estimated screen area, in square
600 feet, is found by dividing the weight of
material, in lb./hr., passing the specified
400 aperture, by the unit capacity from Fig. 12,
and adjusting for the factors listed below.
The targeted screening efficiency is 85%,
200 within a probability range of 68% (one std.
180
160 deviation). An additional allowance must
140
120 be made if the feed material contains more
100 than about 5% of extreme fines (<100m) in
80 a continuous distribution. The finer particles
Cf = 15,507 L 0.8454 may be attracted to coarser particles, forming
60
low-permeability mats that cause progressive
blinding of the screen area. Different materials
40
will behave differently, according to their
chemical, physical and electrical properties.
The resulting uncertainty is expressed in
20
the factor Kx, a wild card whose value is
.001 .01 0.10
left to the judgment and experience of the
Aperture
.0015
.0021
.0029
.0041
.0059
.0083
.0117
.0165
.0232
.0331
.0469
.0661
.0937
Width (L), in. estimator. There is an additional exception

for rescreening and discontinuous size
Aperture
distributions, described above under Coarse
.038
.053
.074
.104
.147
.208
.295
.417
.580
.833
1.168
1.651
2.362
Width (mm)
Screening Method .
Tyler Standard
400
270
200
150
100
Sieve
65
48
35
28
20
14
10
8
Figure 12: Fine Screen Capacity Cf )
Subject to these exceptions, the estimating formula is
A=F x U [100 (C A B C D E F G X)], (6)

Where:
A= Half-Size Factor, Fig. 1323;
B= Bulk Density/100;
C= Particle Shape Factor, Table I;
D= Deck Location Factor (top, middle, bottom), Table II;
E= Aperture Shape Factor, Table III;
F= Open Area Factor , Fig. 1424;
G= Slope Factor, Fig. 1525, percent between aperture (L) and half-size (K1);
X= Wild Card Factor, allowance for excess fines (may range from 1.0 to 0.50).
22
2.5
2.0
Correction Factor A
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
A = 0.5e 0.0139X
0.5
0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent in Feed Half-Size to Aperture Width
Figure 13: Half-Size Correction A (Fine Screen Method)
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
L/t (square opening /wire dia.)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7 F = 1.33 [log (L/t) + .4604]
0.6
0.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Correction
Correction FactorFF
Factor
Figure 14: Open Area Factor (fine screen method)
23
3.0
2.5
G = 2.354 X 0.257
2.0 (where X = Percent in feed between
Correction Factor G
aperture and half-size.)
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.5
1.0 5.0 10.0 50.0 100.0
Percent of Feed Between Cutpoint and Half-Size
Figure 15: Slope Factor G
ELECTRIC HEAT
Electric screen heating, as described above under Coarse Screening Method, may be needed
to prevent screen blinding by adhesion and plastering with sedimentary fines even at
moisture levels below 1%.
WET SCREENING
The capacity correction factor K8 in Table IV for the water factor can be applied for screening
slurries in the fine mesh range, subject to same conditions as in the Coarse Screening Method.
III. Rescreening And Discontinuous Size Distributions

When a previously screened material is screened again over the same openings to recover
more of the retained undersize, it is called rescreening. The Basic Capacity Formula is
unusable, for two reasons: the undersize retained from the first screening is always near-size
to the aperture, and the oversize bed impedes stratification. If the screen area is the same as
before, efficiency isnt likely to be better than 40 or 50%, and wont be much improved by
adding more area.
The same limitations apply to any screening application calling for the removal of less than
10% of undersize to the screen opening. If the size distribution is continuous, as in the
example of Fig. 2, formulas (4) and (6) will be reasonably accurate within an efficiency range
of 60 to 80%, at D/L ratios up to 4, but beyond that limit it should be verified by scaled
testing.
24
A particle size distribution can be characterized as discontinuous when 90% or more of the
total weight comprises particles within a size range of about 1.5 diameters. This distribution
is common to commercial grain cleaning separations, in which grades are differentiated
by an allowable percent foreign material (among other criteria), and foreign material
is defined by the weight percent passing a specified screen opening. For example, the
USDA specification for #1 grade soybeans allows 1% of fine material passing a 1/8 round
hole, equivalent to a .105 square opening. The chart in Fig. 16 , for Sample A, shows that
approximately 2% is less than 0.105, so that only 1% has to be removed to make #1 grade.
This result can be achieved at an efficiency of 1 2 = 50%.
Percent Passing
99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
3.0
Clear Opening (In.)

0.20
4.0
6.0
0.10
8.0 0.09
0.08
0.07
10.0
0.06
0.05
14.0
0.04
20.0
0.03
28.0
0.02
35.0
48.0
.01
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Percent Retained
Figure 16: Soybean Sample A
25
Continuing the soybean example, full-scale testing was performed in the laboratory on
samples from two different sources, represented by Samples A and B. Preliminary sieve
analyses reported 2.14% minus .131 for both Samples A and B, Figs. 16 and 17. D/L ratios
were the same, at about 15. Both were screened at the same commercial production rate,
350 bu/hr/ft. width, on the same 6 mesh wire screen with .131 clear opening. Separation
efficiency for the 6m. undersize was found at 49% for Sample B, and 79% for Sample A. The
difference can be accounted for by comparing the size distributions of the minus 6 m. fraction
in each sample.
Percent Passing
99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
3.0
0.20
4.0
Clear Opening (In.)

6.0
0.10
8.0 0.09
0.08
0.07
10.0
0.06
0.05
14.0
0.04
20.0
0.03
28.0
0.02
35.0
48.0
.01
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Percent Retained
Figure 17: Soybean sample B
26
Comparing Figs. 16 and 17, the distributions are almost identical up to the point of
inflection, at 4 m. Beyond that, the remaining 95% is seen to slope more steeply in A
than in B. Of the minus 6m fraction in both samples, the portion passing 14 m. is 17% in
Sample A, and only 3% in Sample B. Further investigation revealed that the minus 14 m.
fraction in Sample A contained a fine taconite sand typical of the soil in the area where it
was grown, and which was absent in Sample A from a different geographic area.
The soybean example shows why empirical formulas for estimating capacity cant be
trusted for use with discontinuous size distributions, or separations of less than 10%
undersize from continuous distributions. There is no substitute known to this writer for
actual experience or scaled testing.
Manufacturers capacity ratings for screens in grain cleaning applications are based on
abundant field experience, but even so, actual F. M. removal efficiencies may range from
a low of 25% to a high of 80%, averaging 45 to 60%. Reliable ratings for other granular
materials with either discontinuous, or continuous distributions for separations at less
than 10% undersize, and D/L ratios greater than 4, should only be derived from prior
experience or laboratory testing.
27
PART 5. FRACTIONAL EFFICIENCY
Screening efficiency is defined as the weight percent of undersize removed in a single-screen
separation to the total amount of undersize contained in the feed. It has previously been
explained that the probability of passage for an undersize particle of diameter d though an
aperture L increases as the square of the difference (L-d). It follows from this relationship
that screening efficiency depends on the slope of the distribution curve through the screen
aperture. Now if the total size range of the feed is divided into segments of equal intervals on
a standard screen scale, for example 20x28, 28x35, 35x48, etc., and the weight of material in
each parcel is compared with the weight of the same segment in the screen feed, the result
will be the screening efficiency in each segment. This is its Fractional Efficiency.
The relevance of fractional efficiency analysis to an evaluation of the performance

characteristics of any sizing device (screen, air, hydraulic) that is less than 100% efficient,
is explained this way in a paper by J. P. Vandenhoeck26: In order to obtain a worthwhile
yardstick with which to measure the efficiency of a sizing device which will remain true from
one material to another, regardless of cutpoint, product specification, feed gradation, etc., it
is necessary to study the efficiency of the device, not at one cutpoint, but at a whole series of
cutpoints covering the complete size range of the material being classified
The procedure outlined by Vandenhoeck, leading to the fractional efficiency (FE) curve
plotted on a logarithmic probability grid, starts with a sieve analysis of the oversize and
undersize from a single screen separation, in a sieve series covering the complete size range
of the feed material. The weight split between oversize and undersize is known from actual
or scaled laboratory test. Taking the interval between successive sieves as a size group, the size
distribution of the feed is reconstructed from the sum of the fine and coarse fractions in all
groups. Then, each group in both oversize and undersize fractions is compared with the same
group in the feed, and expressed as a percentage of the feed in that group.
Again quoting Vandenhoeck, The fractional efficiency is the ratio of material in the oversize
or undersize to the material available in that group in the reconstructed feed.
The method is illustrated in the following example. A crushed mineral ore was screened in a
laboratory simulation of a full-scale TEXAS SHAKER, equipped with a Tyler standard 12m wire
cloth screen with .055 clear opening. The screen retained 38.6% oversize, passing 61.4%
through. Sieve analyses of both fractions are plotted on a log-probability grid in Fig. 18.
28
Percent Passing
99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01
0.10
8
9
10
Coarse
12 Fine
Clear Opening (In.)

14
17 Feed
20
24
20
.010
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
Percent Retained
Figure 18: Sieve Analysis for Fractional Efficiency Example
Tyler Clear Overs % Feed Throughs % Feed in Feed F. E, F. E,

Std. Opening, Distr, % in Distr, % Throughs Distr, % Overs, Unders,
Sieve in. Overs % %
9 0.078 43.8 16.9 0.0 0.0 16.9 100.0 0.0
10 0.065 19.8 7.7 0.0 0.0 7.7 100.0 0.0
12 0.055 23.0 8.9 0.3 0.2 9.1 97.8 2.2
14 0.046 10.3 4.0 6.8 4.0 8.0 50.0 50.0
16 0.039 1.9 0.7 10.2 6.3 7.0 10.0 90.0
20 0.0328 0.6 0.2 12.2 7.5 7.7 2.6 97.4
Pan 0.6 0.2 70.5 43.4 43.6 0.5 99.5
Total 100.0 38.6 100.0 61.4 100.0
Table VI: Fractional Efficiency Calculation; Crushed Mineral Ore Screened On 12 M.
38.6% Overs,61.4% Unders
The size groups selected for the Fractional Efficiency analysis are found in Table VI as the
intervals between sieves 9 and 10, 10 and 12, 12 and 14, 14 and 16, 16 and 20 mesh. The %
Feed in Overs is calculated as the product of the percent retained in each group and the
percent oversize in the feed, and the % Feed in Unders is calculated in the same way. The
sum of these two numbers in each group is the reconstructed Feed Distribution %. The
feed analysis, reconstructed as the sum in each size group of the oversize and undersize as
percentages of the feed, is also plotted in Fig. 18.
29
Following these calculations for the group between 12m and 14m, the % Feed in Overs is
10.3 0.386 = 4.0. The % Feed in Unders is 6.8 0 .614 = 4.0. The reconstructed feed is 4% +
4% = 8%, and the Fractional Efficiency is thus 48 100 = 50%, for both overs and unders. This
means the average particle in the size group between 12 and 14 m has an equal probability of
being found in either the oversize (coarse) or undersize (fine) fractions. In the group 16 to 20
m., the average particle has only a 2.6% probability of being found in the coarse fraction, and
a 97.4% probability of being found in the fine fraction.
The familiar log-probability grid can now be used to plot the Fractional Efficiency for each
size group. In Fig. 19, the sieve sizes are shown on the ordinate as before, but the abscissa,
which in the size distribution graph was defined as the percent retained or passing, now
becomes the probability axis. The Fractional Efficiency of each size group is shown as a vertical
line representing its size interval, at the corresponding percent efficiency on the probability
axis. The scale at the top of the graph applies to the coarse fraction (overs), and the scale at
the bottom applies to the fine fraction (unders).
In the example, in Fig. 19 the lines are drawn for the fractional efficiencies in the 12x10, 14x12,
16x14, and 20x16 groups. A straight line connecting these groups is drawn to intersect as closely
as possible the midpoint of each line. This is the Fractional Efficiency (FE) line. The intersection
of this line at the 50% probability point is the theoretical cutpoint for the separation. In this
example, the intersection is at an opening of about .049, between 12 and 14 mesh.
The angle of the line with respect to the horizontal (probability) axis is an expression of the
separation efficiency of the machine. If the FE line is parallel to the probability axis, all the
particles coarser than the theoretical cutpoint are in the coarse fraction, and all the particles
finer than the cutpoint are in the fine fraction. The machine efficiency then is 100%. At the
other extreme, the FE line overlies the 50% probability line, at right angles to the horizontal
axis. Fractional efficiencies are 50% for all size groups, in both fine and coarse fractions,
and the screen is simply a sample splitter. Machine separation efficiency is zero. The angle
of the line, in the quadrant between zero and 90 deg., can be used to compare the relative
separation efficiency of different machine designs, the more efficient having the flatter
(smaller angle) FE line.
Note that fractional efficiency, screening efficiency, and machine efficiency are not the
same. Fractional efficiency is particular to individual size groups, while screening efficiency
encompasses the entire population. In the example, 61.4% of the feed is recovered as minus
12m undersize, but the feed analysis shows 66.3% passing 12 m. Screening efficiency is
then (61.466.3) 100 = 92.6%. But if screening efficiency is calculated from the theoretical
cutpoint rather than the actual screen aperture, in the present example the undersize
recovery of 61.4% matches the percent minus .049, the theoretical cutpoint, in the feed
analysis, and screening efficiency is 100%. Machine efficiency, as the slope of the FE line, is
useful only for comparing the relative separation efficiency of different machines.
30
If screen apertures are changed to increase or decrease the theoretical cutpoint, the FE line
will move to intersect the new cutpoint at the 50% probability line, but will be parallel to
the first line, provided the slope of the feed size distribution curve remains about the same
at the new cutpoint. This will be true for relatively small changes in cutpoint.
Probability Coarse Fraction

99.99 99.9 99.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01
0.10
0.09
9 0.08
0.07
10
0.06
12
Clear Opening (In.)

0.05
14
16 0.04
20 A FE B 0.03
24
28
32 0.02
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99

Probability Fine Fraction
Figure 19: Fractional Efficiency Graph
The Fractional Efficiency graph, constructed from actual test or production results, can be
used to guide screen selections in the following way. Referring to Fig. 19 and Table VI, the FE
line shows on the lower (unders) scale a 2% probability that particles between about 12m and
10m will be found in the unders from the screen. Now, if a product specification allows only
0.3% plus 12m in the fine (product) fraction, the graph can be used to find the screen size,
smaller than the original 12m., needed to comply with this specification. Find the intersection
of a horizontal line from 12 m. on the ordinate with the 99.7% line extended from the upper
(overs) scale. This will be at the coarse limit of the 12m to 14m. size group, indicated by a line
drawn from 12 m. to 14 m. on the 99.7% probability line. Draw a median line A from the
midpoint of this line parallel to the median line from the test result. The intersection with the
50% probability line for both unders and overs is about 0.038. This is 0.011 less than the
first in the example, at .049. It follows that the new screen aperture should be reduced by
the same amount from the original .055 Tyler standard, to .044, suggesting a 14m. screen
with .028 wire, or 16m. with a .018 wire. Note that this change, while limiting the topsize
to conform to the specification, will result in reduced capacity, screening efficiency, or both, if
the size distribution of the feed remains the same.
If instead the specification limited the coarse fraction to a maximum of 2% passing 14 m.,
from the same feed distribution, this places the 12 to 14m size group on the 2% overs-98%
unders line. The parallel median line B crosses the 50% probability line at .060,
compared with the original .049. Adding the .011 difference to the original Tyler 12m. at
.055, the new screen could be a 10m. .035 wire or a 10 m, .035 wire.
31
Referring to the feed distribution curve in Fig.18, if efficiencies remained the same (not
likely), the smaller opening in the first case will increase the oversize by about 8%, from
38.6 to 46.6%, while the larger opening in the second case will reduce the oversize by 12%,
from 38.6 to 26.6% .
A word of caution, when using the Fractional Efficiency method for adjusting screen
apertures: pinpoint accuracy cannot be expected, since it is subject to a variety of sources
of error. These can include, in addition to experimental error, the effects of moisture,
static electricity, and attraction of coarse for fine particles ranging below 75-50 m (about
200 mesh). But if carefully executed, recognizing the possibilities for error, it is superior
to guesswork in taking account of the slope of the size distribution curve through the
cutpoint.
32
PART 6. VIBRATION TRANSMISSION
Most modern screening machine designs are based on Newtons Third Law, and accordingly
are self-balancing. But they arent space ships; they do have to stay in the same place,
suspended from, or supported on, a stationary structure or foundation.
Spring Suspensions
High speed vibrating screens, either inclined or horizontal, are typically supported on
compression springs, which may be steel coil springs, rubber, or pneumatic. Fixed at one
end, the other end must follow the motion of the vibrating system. The resistance of the
spring to displacement in both vertical and horizontal directions determines the amount
and direction of force transmitted through the spring to the supporting foundation or
framing. For steel springs, the load/deflection ratio, (spring constant) is linear, directly
proportional to deflection. The units of spring stiffness (k) are lb./in. displacement,
expressed in the formula
K=w/, (7)
Where
W = weight supported, lb.
= static deflection, in.
The load supported by each spring is simply the weight of the vibrating system divided
by the number of springs in the suspension, while the static deflection is the same weight
divided by the total stiffness. The cyclic vertical force transmitted to the supports, Fv, is the
total spring stiffness times the vertical displacement component of the motion27:
Fv = K (S/2) (8)
Where
S = Total displacement, (stroke, straight line motion), or (circle dia. circular motion), and
= Pitching angle (straight line motion)
This transmitted force will be about the same in the horizontal direction in the case of
the inclined vibrating screen. For the horizontal high-speed screen with the same static
deflection , the force is multiplied by the sine of the pitching angle for the vertical
direction, and by the cosine for the horizontal.
For reasons of stability, steel coil springs are mostly limited to a maximum static deflection
of about 3/4 in. Rubber springs like the Firestone Marshmellow 28, having a non-linear
load/deflection curve, can offer equivalent static deflections up to about 2 for reduced
force transmission. The Firestone Airmount29 is a type of pneumatic spring using Boyles
Law of gas compressibility for linear static deflection equivalents up to 4 30.
33
There are some restrictions on stroke, frequency range and ambient temperature for
applications of these springs in vibrating equipment. The manufacturers recommendations
should be followed when making substitutions to reduce force transmission.
Cable Suspensions
Because of practical limitations on maximum allowable vertical and transverse displacements
of compression springs, shaking or gyratory screening machines with total displacement
greater than about 3/4 in. are usually suspended from steel cables or rods. When their motion
is confined to the horizontal plane, the cables or rods are connected directly to overhead
support framing, with terminals designed to allow for angular movement through the cycle.
If the motion includes a significant vertical component, the cables or rods are connected
through springs, and the vertical force component is found with the formula (8). The larger
component will be horizontal, either straight line for shaking or rotating for gyratory designs,
and from the diagram in Fig. 20, can be derived by similar triangles, thus:
Fh =W (S/2L) (9)
Where
W = Weight of suspended machine, lb.
S = Total (w/wn) displacement, or stroke, in.
L = Length of suspension cable (or rod), in.
It will be noted that this horizontal force

component is independent of frequency
Fh or inertia force31. If the applied force
is horizontal, the cyclic lifting force
is negligible. The horizontal force,
inversely proportional to the length of
the suspension cable, may or may not be
W inconsequential in a steel-framed building.
S/
2
Figure 20: Horizontal Force Transmission in Cable or Rod Suspensions
34
Vibration In Steel-Framed Industrial Structures
The effect of vibration transmission from vibrating equipment can be magnified to
uncomfortable or possibly dangerous levels by resonance, a natural phenomenon in
which, if the frequency of the disturbing force is very close to the natural frequency of the
system, the amplitude of vibration of the system is very large.
In new construction, benefitting from modern structural design practice, FEA analysis can
provide a safeguard if the magnitude, direction and frequency of these forces is known to
the designer (as they should be).
But in retrofitting new equipment into existing structures, or if FEA methods are
impractical or unavailable, most problems with resonance can be avoided by observing a
few simple rules that govern the behavior of single structural elements.
The natural frequency of a pendulum, applying to cable suspension, is expressed in the

formula
?? = 1881?? (10)
Where
wn = Natural frequency, cycles/min;
L = Free length of cable, in.
The natural frequency of any beam, supported at its ends, is the same, with static
deflection (in.) substituted for L.
If a beam is loaded only by its own weight, its natural frequency can be calculated from
the formula
n = KL2EIW (11)
Where
K = Constant determined by end conditions, i. e.,
Ends Clamped ....... 88.6
Ends supported.39.6;
L = Length of beam, ft.;
E = Elastic modulus (for steel, 30E6psi);
I = Moment of inertia of beam about its neutral axis, in4;
W = Unit weight of beam, lb/ft.
35
Calculation of stresses due to deflection must take into account the weight and position
of the vibrating system (equipment), in addition to the weight of the beam and the
transmitted dynamic forces. The static deflection due to the sprung weight of the
equipment is neglected in calculating the natural frequency of the supporting beam;
however, if concentrated unsprung loads such as hoppers with their contents, other
machines, etc. are supported by the beam, the natural frequency of the beam will be
proportional to the square root of the reciprocal of the sum of static deflections due to
each separate load plus the deflection of the beam, from the formula
fn= 188 1 1+ 2 + 3+n (12)
The static deflection of the beam under its own weight can be calculated from the
previously determined natural frequency, as
= 188??2 (13)
The horizontal force component transmitted through the springs is transferred to the
columns supporting the beam. The resulting horizontal displacement is dependent on the
elastic behavior of the whole structure, not easily calculated except by FEA methods. The
physiological effects on operating personnel of the vertical vibrations (displacements) of
the beam are usually of more immediate concern to the designer. The vibration amplitude
X (half the total deflection, not to be confused with its static deflection) is a function of
the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural frequency of the beam, n. When
damping is negligible, X (for values of w/wn 1) can be calculated from the formula.32
X = X0 (1 (???)2, (14)
Where
X0 = Zero frequency deflection of the beam under the action of the peak vertical force
applied through the suspension springs, and
X/X0 is the Magnification Factor, by which X0 must be multiplied to obtain the

amplitude X at any frequency ratio.
At resonance, when w/wn = 1, the amplitude X can increase, at zero damping, without limit.
As the frequency ratio is increased to , X becomes equal to X0. As the ratio increases
further to 3:1, the amplitude X diminishes to 1/8 of X0. On the other side of resonance, if
the stiffness of the supporting member is increased to frequency ratios <1, amplitude X
will decrease rapidly from the resonant condition {for example, to 1.33X0 at w/wn = 0.5). As
wn is increased further, approaching zero, the Magnification Factor will approach unity as a
minimum.
36
The purpose of the isolation system is to minimize the forces transmitted to the building
structure. Vertical vibrations in the screen support framing, transmitted to the floor, are
necessarily limited by design to amplitudes and frequencies that can be tolerated by the
average human being. Stresses resulting from transmitted omnidirectional vibrations,
superimposed on stresses due to static loading, can cause fatigue failures in structural
connections.
When a vibrating screen is to be installed in a new or existing steel structure, the designer
needs to know its weight and the magnitude, frequency, direction and position(s) of the
transmitted forces that will be applied to the primary support members. This information
should be provided by the equipment manufacturer. It is then the designers responsibility
to use this information in designing a structure that will meet criteria set by the Owners
specifications (if any) limiting allowable vibration amplitudes.
Formula 14 is a useful guide to allowable frequency ratios ( w/wn) Obviously, unity is a no-
go, but which side to come down on is an engineering decision based on the disturbing
frequency and allowable structural stresses. As a general rule, consider excluding any
structural or mechanical frequency ratio in the range between 0.8 and 1.2. At these limits,
the magnification ratios are 2.7 and 2.3, respectively.
Cyclic forces applied at any point in a steel-framed building, if not fully absorbed by
damping, can be transmitted to secondary bracing members and attachments such as
piping, rigid conduit, lighting fixtures, etc. Excessive amplitudes due to resonance with the
disturbing frequency are most easily suppressed with bracing to reduce the frequency ratio
( w/wn). When increasing the natural frequency of any structural section, its useful to note,
from Formula 11, that stiffening by reducing length is more effective than increasing section
properties (I/W) in the same proportions.
37
PART 7. MECHANICAL DESIGN
Drive Mechanisms
The various kinds of motion employed in screening machines are described in a previous
section. Most modern commercial designs employ either circular or straight-line
reciprocating motion. Governed by Newtons second and third Laws of Motion, they
(excluding the rare electromagnetic or ultrasonic designs) develop their driving force from
the rotation of unbalanced weights, mounted in anti-friction bearings. The load on the
bearings is a constant, proportional to the live (vibrating) weight times the amplitude of
the motion and the square of the rpm, according to the simplified formula
P (lbf) = 1.42W S N2E5 (15)
Where:
W = Total weight of moving parts, lb;
S = Total stroke, in. for reciprocating motion, or circle dia. for rotary or gyratory.
N = RPM (rev./min)
The centrifugal force P applied to the moving structure is constant for circular motion in
any plane, and periodic for reciprocation in any linear direction. Only one unbalanced
rotor is needed for circular motion, but two rotors, with their unbalances 180 opposed,
and turning in opposite directions, are needed to generate a straight-line reciprocating
motion. In both cases, the bearings through which the force is applied are mounted on,
and move with, the machine structure to which they are attached. The weight of the
unbalances is thus a part of the total moving weight W in the formula 15.
The selection and sizing of the bearings is an important indicator of overall quality, and
is fundamental to the serviceability of the screening machine. That is why a buyers RFQ
specifications commonly include a Minimum B-10 (or L-10) Life for the bearings. That
number represents one-fifth of the predicted average hours to failure of 90% of the
individuals in a statistical universe, under defined conditions of lubrication, loading,
and rpm. But the typical RFQ overlooks the huge influences of rpm and loading in the
empirical formula for the B-10 calculation, leaving the bidder free to manipulate the
calculation to satisfy the requirement. The unspoken reality is that the term B-10 Life
can mean, Humpty-Dumpty-like, whatever the responder chooses it to mean. This can be
appreciated by an examination of the NAFBM-approved empirical formula for the B-10
life of a bearing supporting any rotating unbalance:
38
B10 Life = 0.23{[BDC (WRN AF)]3.33}} RPM 7.66 (16)
Where
BDC = The bearing manufacturers Basic Dynamic Capacity rating, in lb;
Wr = Dynamic loading of the bearing, in terms of the weight W (lb) of the rotating
unbalance times the moment arm r (in.) from the center of rotation to the
center of gravity of the weight;
N = Number of
bearings 100.0
supporting each
rotor;
af = Application Factor,
a dimensionless
number usually
suggested by the
manufacturer.
RPM = Obviously,
revolutions per
10.0
Relative B10 Bearing Life (Hr.)
minute.
The relative influence on
bearing life of the rotating
unbalance (Wr) and RPM
RPM
is shown graphically in
Fig. 21. Since the stroke S
of the vibrating system is
proportional to the Wr of
the rotating weight, it can
be seen from formula 16 that 1.0
a 10% increase in stroke will
shorten the B10 life by about Stroke
27%, and a 10% increase
in RPM cuts it by 52%.
However, formula 15 shows
that a 10% increase in peak
acceleration (g), if gained by
a corresponding change in
Wr, will reduce bearing life
by the same 27%, but if the 0.1
stroke is kept constant and 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
only the RPM is changed, the
reduction in bearing life for Relative Stroke or RPM
the same increase to 1.1g
will be about the same, at Figure 21: Effect on Relative Bearing Life of Changes in RPM and Stroke
31% (11/1.1 3.83)
39
The user of any vibrating screen of the types described here should be aware of the
consequences of changing, in pursuit of improved capacity, efficiency, or blinding
resistance, either speed (RPM) or stroke (S) from the original factory settings. The
specification writer or purchaser should know that the mere statement of B10 life
is meaningless unless defined by speed (RPM), stroke (S), vibrating weight (W), and
application factor (Af). And that assumes that the manufacturers Basic Dynamic Capacity
(BDC) rating can be trusted.
The ultimate bearing life of five times B-10, at the inception of fatigue spalling, is rarely,
if ever, realized in practice. Probable life expectancy depends first on the design of the
bearing installation and the degree of protection it provides against contamination, a
common cause of premature failure. Contamination can be introduced with the lubricant,
or from the environment in the form of atmospheric dust and moisture. If the lubricant
is grease, replenishment can be too much or too little. Oil, in circulating systems or bath,
is desirable for the larger bearing sizes and higher speeds, but can be susceptible to seal
leakage. Despite the claims of manufacturers, theres no rose without a thorn, and no
substitute for meticulous attention to lubrication. On-site replacements of failed bearings
often set the stage for premature failure, caused by contamination, unrepaired wear, or
damage to housing bores and bearing journals.
Structures
Screening requires some kind of circular, vibrating or shaking motion, which is imparted to the
structure supporting the screening surface by forces generated in the vibrating mechanism. In
modern designs, the mechanism becomes an integral part of the vibrating structure. Obeying
Newtons Third Law, the generating and reacting forces are equal and opposite, and thus the
vibrating system is self-balancing.
The common structure supporting the vibrating mechanism and the screen surface is subjected
to the inertia forces causing the motion. The resulting stresses in the structure, are constant,
horizontal, and omni-directional in gyratory or circle-throw designs. In vibrating and shaking
screens the forces are cyclic, linear, and have both vertical and horizontal components.
According to Newtons Second Law, the force required to produce the motion is proportional
to the product of the weight of the vibrating system, and its acceleration33 This means that the
design of the system is necessarily a compromise between weight, strength and stiffness.
Ranking second to life-limiting mechanical failures in the vibrating mechanism is fatigue

cracking within the structure. This will occur at points of stress concentration in a primary
load path, or a branch. The point of origin can be a weld, an abrupt change in section, or an
accidental or intentional notch.
The probabilities for fatigue cracking in screening machines as they age can never be reduced
to zero. But if a crack is detected before it has progressed to structural failure, most can be
successfully repaired on-site34. There is no one-size-fits-all repair technique known to this writer,
so for a successful long-term repair its advisable to first consult the manufacturer (who should
know what to do).
40
PART 8. INSTALLATION PLANNING
Whether the new screening machine is to be installed in a new facility or in an existing
process, advance planning is essential to a successful result in terms of cost, safety, and
maintainability.
Structure
No special foundation is needed for vibrating or oscillating screens of modern balanced
design, if they are installed on ground level reinforced concrete floors suitable for
industrial buildings. Above ground installations in steel-framed buildings, however,
are subject to the effects of transmitted vibration from cyclic forces which, although
small, can be magnified through resonance, as described in the previous section on
Vibration Transmission. With information supplied by the manufacturer on the locations,
magnitudes, and frequencies of the transmitted forces, the supporting structure can be
designed to minimize vibrations of primary and secondary structural members and non-
structural attachments.
Clearances, Platforms and Catwalks

A good installation provides ample working space around and above the machine.
A 30 in. minimum clearance allows convenient access for inspection and some routine
maintenance. The manufacturer should be consulted about the most advantageous
placement of catwalks and platforms. OSHA regulations call for guard rails and toeboards
around catwalks and platforms more than 48 in. above the nearest floor level, and 18 in.
minimum clearance from guard rails to machine.
In most modern screen designs, screen cloth may be side tensioned and stretched over a
crowned deck frame (high speed vibrating screens), or attached to a flat frame (oscillating or
gyratory screens). Removal requires a frontal clearance equal to half or all of the active screen
length. This minimum clearance should be specified in the manufacturers certified drawings.
Vibrator mechanisms may be either built in to the structure of the machine, or enclosed
in a separate module attached to the structure. In the former case, provision must be
made in the installation plan for clearances and access needed for on-site repair and
parts replacement. The separate module can either be repaired on-site, or replaced with
a spare, and moved to the shop for repair or rebuilding under conditions more favorable
to a successful result. A good installation plan will exploit this advantage by providing
space for handling and transit. The manufacturer, or his distributor, should be asked for
recommendations.
41
Feed to the Screen
Any screening machine will perform at its best with a steady constant-rate feed. This
condition is satisfied in typical dry bulk material handling systems, the process starting
with a surge bin and feeder that can deliver a steady flow at the desired throughput.
Delivery to the screen may be via belt or screw conveyor, or bucket elevator. The
feed stream is usually concentrated into a cross-section of fairly narrow width. This
concentrated stream has to be quickly expanded to the full width of the screen surface.
Gyratory screens, whether rectangular or round, make this expansion with their circular
motion. The crowned, side-tensioned screen surface in high-speed vibrating screens, either
inclined or horizontal, helps with distribution, but up to 20% of active screen surface may
be lost if not assisted by an initial spread in the screen inlet. Straight-line reciprocating
flat screens, or shakers, can lose up to half of their screen surface without the assistance
of an upstream spreader.
Feed spreaders may be either dynamic, in which the material flow is not interrupted, or static.
In the latter, a surge bin interrupts the flow, and discharges a continuous full-width stream. 35
Flexible Connections
Some screening machines are fully enclosed. Others (most vibrating screens) offer a
choice of open or enclosed construction. Enclosures are usually integral with the vibrating
structure, requiring flexible connections
or boots between the moving inlet
or outlet(s) and the stationary feed and
discharge chutes. The boots are supplied
for the connection to the machine, but
it is left to the installation designer
to match the boots to the stationary
A A
chutes. In doing so, he must allow at the
interfaces ample clearance (should be
Discharge Chute
(moves with screen). specified by the manufacturer) to avoid
Hook and Loop physical interference at maximum vertical
Fastening Strips. and horizontal displacement limits. The
Perimeter Clamp for suggested designs shown in Fig. 22 for
Transfer Sleeve.
feed and discharge connections comprise
Outer Dust Sleeve
(PTFE Fabric). an inner abrasion-resistant rubber sleeve
Hook and Loop attached at one end only, and an outer
Fastening Strips. dust jacket attached at both ends. There
Inner Transfer Sleeve are no internal ledges to trap pockets of
(Natural or Silicone Rubber).
material, that could rub against the dust
Section A-A Stationary Receiving Chute.
jacket, at its downstream attachment. The
dust jacket must be long enough to avoid
stretching at the maximum displacement
limits.
Figure 22: Suggested Flexible Boot Design for Stationary to
Moving Interfaces
42
Feed inlets and discharge outlets may be either round, elliptical, or rectangular. Round
or elliptical connections are easily made with various types of band clamps, or hook-and-
loop (Velcro) tapes. Hook-and-loop connections are most convenient for rectangular
connections, and have proved to be very secure if correctly designed.
A good boot design and installation will make life easier for operating and maintenance
personnel. The manufacturers General Arrangement drawings should include, for
approval by the purchaser, details showing the boots to be furnished and how to connect
them to his matching stationary feed and discharge chutes.
Dust Control
Enclosures are designed for dust containment from infeed to discharge. As the dust is
generated, it needs a place to go, or else it will build up on internal surfaces, to eventually
contaminate the separated fractions. This calls for a dust control system which, by
maintaining a slight negative pressure in the enclosure, entrains the initially airborne dust
in an exhaust air stream that may be independent, or a branch of a central plant dust
control system.
There is a well-known risk, notably in grain handling facilities, of fire and explosion from
concentrations of organic dusts in confined spaces. To mitigate this risk, the National Fire
Prevention Association, in Code 69 B for grain elevators, recommends for all enclosed
screening machines an exhaust flow volume of 50 CFM per square foot of projected
screen area. Thus, for an enclosed machine with active screen dimensions 5 x 10, the
recommended exhaust flow is 2,500 CFM, regardless of the number of parallel screen
decks enclosed.
To facilitate compliance with this code, the screen manufacturer should provide an
exhaust connection designed to induce an airflow distributed well enough to entrain
airborne dust and carry it to an outlet transition sized for a velocity of 3,500-4,000
fpm. This transition may be located anywhere in the enclosure where there is no risk of
entrainment of product fines. It is then up to the buyer to decide whether or not to make
use of the connection.
This ventilation for dust control is not to be confused with aspiration, whose purpose is to
separate from the product, before or after screening, a light fraction that is differentiated
from the product by terminal velocity in air, rather than size. Screening and aspiration are
two different operations, that may be, but seldom are, combined in a single unit.
43
PART 9. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Instructions for installation and routine maintenance are covered in the Manuals provided
with new screening machines of all types. The suggestions in this Section are intended
to prevent unexpected failures, not to supersede the manufacturers instructions, in the
event of conflict. Unexpected failures presaging unscheduled shutdowns in screening
machines are most likely to occur in any of three principal components: structure,
vibrating mechanism, or screen cloth.
Structure
Vibrating or shaking screens are vulnerable to fatigue failures caused by the cyclic forces
applied to the entire structure. Fatigue fractures in gyratory and circle-throw screens,
subjected mainly to a constant rotating centrifugal force in the horizontal plane, are
confined to the structure that transfers the load from the bearings to the screen box.
Fatigue failures start with a crack initiated at a stress concentration in a welded

intersection, the end of a weld run, or an abrupt change in section (stiffness). The crack
usually propagates slowly at first, the rate of growth increasing as the crack grows
longer. If unchecked, it will travel along grain boundaries, the average stress in the sound
material ahead of the crack increasing toward ultimate fracture.
Fatigue cracks in plates may grow to a length of several inches before detection. Cracks in
external surfaces are easily seen by close visual inspection. Cracks in concealed structures
can escape detection until a fracture results, evidenced by unusual rattles or knocking
sounds. Any unusual sounds are cause for an immediate shutdown and inspection to find
the source. When discovered, the immediate (temporary) remedy is to find exactly the
end(s) of the crack (and its branches, if any) using a dye check if necessary, and drill a hole
there as a crack arrestor to prevent further growth.
If the crack is in a weld, either along a toe or in the root, it can be ground out through
the root completely to the ends and re-welded, using the precautions essential to good
welding practice36. In an emergency, if necessary to keep the machine running, a tension
strap can be positioned to cross the crack at right angles, forming a bridge across the
crack, and welded around the ends. The welds should not be continuous and should not
intersect the crack. Otherwise, improvised patching and welding over a stop-drilled crack
is not recommended, as it may interfere with permanent repairs.
Hastily improvised and executed field remedies often have a short life expectancy, and can
start cracks from unintended new stress concentrations. When fatigue cracks or fractures
are detected or suspected, immediate consultation with the manufacturer on the best
long-term repair techniques is advised.
44
Vibrating Mechanisms
Vibrating mechanisms may be mechanical, pneumatic, or electromagnetic. The latter
two are always packaged modular units, which can be quickly replaced when they
malfunction.
Mechanical vibrators, whether integral with the structure or externally mounted modules,
comprise one or more rotating shafts mounted in anti-friction bearings. Impending
failures almost always are signaled by the gradual development of noise and/ or vibration
in one or more bearings. Both are symptoms of fatigue spalling, or pitting, in the bearing
races and/or rollers. If neglected, these symptoms will invariably lead to an eventual
seizure within the bearing.
The only remedy is to replace the bearing, after a thorough investigation to isolate the
cause of the failure37.
If the two parallel rotors in a vibrator unit are gear-coupled, the gears normally will
generate some noise, but without vibration. Excessive backlash in the gearset, or damage
from lubricant contamination with foreign material, may result in an increasing noise
level, but with little or no vibration.
A few simple rules can reduce the probability for premature bearing failure in well-
designed mechanisms:
For grease lubrication:

1. Observe the manufacturers recommended intervals for grease replenishment
and replacement, and dont overgrease.
2. Open purge ports (if provided) when adding grease, to expel old grease from the
bearing housing.
3. Wipe grease fittings clean before connecting the grease gun.
4. Guard against contamination of grease supplies with moisture or foreign material.
For oil lubrication:

1. Maintain the oil level within the manufacturers recommended limits;
2. Use the manufacturers recommended oil, or approved substitutes;
3. Use a strainer to guard against introducing contamination when adding makeup
or changing oil.
4. When changing oil at the manufacturers recommended intervals, drain while the
oil is hot. Clean magnetic drain plugs, if provided.
5. Inspect vent filters periodically, more often in very dusty environments, and
replace when clogged. Dont substitute automotive oil filters.
45
If symptoms of impending failure are detected:
Follow the manufacturers instructions when repairing or rebuilding vibrator mechanisms.

Whenever possible, move enclosed vibrator modules to a clean shop environment before
opening up the enclosure. For best results, send the module to the factory for rebuild, and
replace with a spare.
Screening Media
Screening machines can be fitted with a variety of media, as explained in a previous
section (see note 10). Woven wire, profile bars, perforated plate, polyurethane and rubber
are available options. Because it is a consumption item, the choice is governed by cost,
aperture size and shape, expected life (wear resistance), and efficiency (percent open
area), not necessarily in that order.
Woven wire cloth is usually the most efficient, in terms of capacity per unit area, and
lowest cost, hence the most commonly used. Wire cloth openings range from .0015
up to 4, in wire diameters as fine as .0012 increasing to 1. An almost infinite range
of combinations and permutations of openings and wire diameters allows the user to
balance ruggedness (coarser wire) with percent open area (finer wire).
Screen cloth is subject both to impact and abrasive wear from material passing over the
surface and through the openings. There is no empirical formula for life expectancy.
As a general rule, coarse screens with larger wires last longer than fine screens with
smaller wires. Within that rubric, the objective of preventive maintenance is to forestall
premature failures before the screen wears out from normal impact and abrasion.
Screen cloth in high-speed vibrating screens, both horizontal and inclined, is typically
stretched taut across the width of the screen deck, slightly crowned over rubber-
cushioned longitudinal rails. Tension bars engage formed hooks along the edges parallel
to the rails, reinforced in various ways for wire diameters below 3/8. Tension is applied
with bolts or other devices, with threaded bolts being the most common.
Assuming that the screen cloth is correctly specified and manufactured, and the screen
support deck is designed with the correct camber (crown), the principle cause of
premature failure will be over-or-under tensioning. Too much tension can overstress the
transverse (shoot) wires carrying the tension load; too little will allow the screen to flutter
over the support rails, leading to fatigue failure, usually along the edges of reinforced
hook strips, in the shoot wires carrying the tension.
The tension in these wires is a function of the tension bolt torque, averaged over
the number of wires and their cross-section area. The allowable tension is limited by
the tensile strength of the wire material. Theoretically there could be a formula for
calculating the allowable bolt torque based on material properties, wire diameter and
46
number of wires per unit length, but it would be of dubious value because of errors due
to variances in uniformity, camber and friction. As a practical matter, correct tensioning is
the responsibility of the operator who installs and periodically inspects the screen cloth,
and has learned by experience.
Gyratory and shaking screens, having a negligible vertical motion component, are typically
equipped with flat screens, pre-stretched on frames. After the screen cloth is mounted on
the frame, there is nothing left to the judgment of the operator, except to make sure that
the screen frames are secured tightly in their mountings.
Disposable screen frames with factory-mounted screens can be purchased from some
manufacturers or in some cases from screen cloth vendors, but the user may prefer to
buy the screen cloth in bulk and mount it in-house. In mounting the screen, tensioning is
required to smooth out wrinkles only in fine-mesh screens. Various mounting techniques,
using rivets, tacks or adhesives, are prescribed by the manufacturers38.
47
NOTES
1. J. M. Dalla Valle, Micromeritics, p.108, Pitman Publishing 1948
2. Elements of Ore Dressing, Arthur F. Taggart, p. 18, Wiley 1951
3. See Dalla Valle, 1-7, for a description of sieving motions and their relative effects on
efficiency.
4. Excluded from these four categories, because they dont share any of their characteristics,
are special types including disc screens, rotary screens (trommels) and sieve bend static
dewatering screens, (also known as DSM after the original user, Dutch States Mines). Disc
screens and trommels are described in http://www.sssdynamics.com/docs/white-papers/the-
place-of-the-trommel-in-resource-recovery.pdf . They are used for coarse screening in solid
waste classification, taking advantage of their tumbling action with bulky , wet oversize.
For a description of the sieve bend static screen and its uses, see P. L. Stavenger, SME
Minerals Processing Handbook, Society of Mining Engineers 1985, pp. 19-25.
5. SME Minerals Processing Handbook, pp 3E2-3
6. For instance, Mechanical Conveyors, Appendix D, Fayed & Skocir, Technomic Publishing
Company, 1997
7. Dalla Valle, Micromeritics, Table 11, page 97.
8. Section 5, Fractional Efficiency, pp. 29-34
9. Section 4, Capacity Estimating Method, pp. 20-29
10. See C. W. Matthews, Screening Media, Section 4, SME Mineral Processing Handbook, SE
25-41
11. The mechanics of this system, commonly used in vibrating conveyors, are explained in an
ASME reprint available at http://www.sssdynamics.com/docs/white-papers/the-vibrating-
conveyor-for-incinerator-ash-handling-systems.pdf accessed Sept. 7, 2012
12. A multiple of the acceleration due to gravity (1g)
13. Dalle Valle, op. cit., pp 104-109
14. See Matthews, op. cit., Table 7, p. 3E13, for typical stroke/rpm combinations for various
separation sizes in circle-throw inclined screens.
15. K. G. Colman, SME Mineral Processing Handbook, p. 3E-17, Society of MIning Engineers,
1985
16. C = 2.636 L0.617
17. K1 = 0.404e0.0192x , where X = Percent in feed half size to aperture width
18. K7 = 0.9 to D/L=4, then 1.572 e (0.1272 D /L)
19. Adapted from Table 5, Simplified Practice Bulletin R163-36, Coarse Aggregates,
published by Bureau of Standards, United States Department of Commerce
20. C R Matthews, Chart F, SME Mineral Processing Handbook, Section 3E-11
21. Adapted from K. G. Colman, Table II, SME Mineral Processing Handbook, Section 3E-48
48
22. Cf (lb/hr/passing/ft2) = 15,507 L0.8454
23. A = 0.5e0.01391X, where X = Percent in feed half-size to screen aperture.
24. F = 1.33 [log (L/t) + .4604]
25. G = 2.354 X (0.257), where X = Percent in feed between aperture and half-size.
26. J P Vandenhoeck,Effects of Sizing Equipment Efficiency on Product Gradation and
Weight Splits, Preprint #65B28, Society of Mining Engineers, 1965.
27. Absent magnification due to resonance, the amplitude of the vibrating system is in direct
proportion to the Wr of the rotating weights, where W is the rotating weight and r is the
distance from the center of rotation to the centroid of the weight. Thus, if the rotating
weight is 100 lb, and r is 4, and the total weight of the system is 2000 lb, its amplitude
S/2 will be100 x 4/2000 = 0.2. To avoid significant magnification of the transmitted force,
the ratio of the vibration frequency (rpm) to the natural frequency of the suspension
( )should be held above 3:1.
28. See MMDM-A4 703 for applications of the Marshmellow Rubber Spring in vibrating
equipment.
29. See Firestone Catalog MASAM 203 for details on the Firestone Airmount spring.
30. Triple/S Dynamics Screening Technology Handbook, 1972, p. 72, footnote #1.
31. Because of the low natural frequency of the pendulum ( ), where L is in
inches, magnification due to resonance is insignificant.
32. See W. T. Thompson, Chapter 4, Mechanical Vibrations, Prentice-Hall 1953, for
the derivation of Formula (14). For values of n 1, reverse the signs in the
denominator.
33. Acceleration, in harmonic motion, is directly proportional to the square of the
frequency w and the first power of amplitude (S/2)
34. Techniques for on-site repair of fatigue cracks are discussed in Section 8, Preventive
Maintenance, pages 45 46.
35. How to Feed the TEXAS SHAKER, http://www.sssdynamics.com/literature.pdf, accessed
Aug. 17 2013
36. Weld repairs should be attempted only on mild or HSLA steels, with less than .02 carbon.
Use only E7018 coated electrodes, from a freshly opened package. Make sure that
surfaces are dry by heating with a rosebud-tip oxyactylene torch to 250-300 deg. F.
Use a disc grinder to clean edges for fillet welds, or to grind a bevel on cracks before
filling. Use a chipper to remove slag between passes in multi-pass welds. Max. temp.
between passes 250 deg. F. For further information, see AWS Structural Welding Code
D1.1/D1.1M:2010, Section 5, pages 179-198.
37. A well-illustrated discussion of anti-friction bearing failures and their causes can be found
in an SKF publication Product Information 401.
38. J. D. White, How to Install Screen Cloth on a Flat Screen Frame, http://www.sssdynamics.
com/literature.pdf, accessed Jan. 4, 2013.
49
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SME Mineral Processing Handbook. 1981. Screening, pp. 3E1-45.
Thomson, W. T. Mechanical Vibrations. New York: Prentice-Hall. 1953.
The Tyler Wire Cloth Handbook. Catalog 74, 1998 Edition.
VSMA Vibrating Screen Handbook. CIMA, Milwaukee.
Dallavalle, J. M. Micromeritics: The Technology of Fine Particles. New York: Pitman 1948.
Taggart, Arthur F. Elements of Ore Dressing. New York: John Wiley & Sons 1951.
Vandenhoeck, J. P. Effects of Sizing Equipment Efficiency on Product Gradation and

Weight Splits. Society of Mining Engineers, 1965.
American Welding Society Structural Welding Code D1.1/D1.1M. 2010. Section 5. pp. 179-
178.
Fayed, Mohammed E. at al. Mechanical Conveyors: Selection and Operation. Lancaster:

Technomic Publications. 1997.
Sullivan, J. F. Resonant Screens for the Mining Industry. Mining Congress Journal.
(September 1962).
Sullivan, J. F. What the Western Contractor Should Know About Aggregate Screens and
Screening Western Construction. (1961).
Sullivan, Jeffrey et. al., The Place of the Trommel in Resource Recovery ASME,
Proceedings of National Waste Processing Conference. Book No. 100328 1992.
Screening Solutions International Mining. February 2011: 70-79.
Sullivan, J. F. et al, The Vibrating Conveyor for Incinerator Ash Handling Systems ASME
National Waste Processing Conference. Book No. 100301 19
50

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What factors affect screen performance?

What factors affect screen performance?

What is the screenability characteristic?

What is the screenability characteristic?

Screening Theory

This is an overview, not a Handbook. It is narrowly confined to the basic principles,

James F. Sullivan, P. E. is the former President and Chairman,

A The Gyratory Screen: 285 rpm, 2-1/2 horizontal circle dia.

SIZE AND SHAPE

Weight Percent Passing

Weight Percent Retained

Figure 1: Log Probability Graph Coordinates

Weight Percent Passing

Clear Opening (in.)

Figure 2: Communited limestone size distribution

As an example, refer to Fig. 2, the sieve analysis of a sample of comminuted limestone..

The Screening Media

Clear Opening (in.)

Figure 3: Frac Sand Sample FSI

The tuned spring-mass, or natural-frequency, vibrating conveyor is sometimes adapted, in

MOTION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE (SHAKING SCREENS)

The vibrating conveyor is in the same class as the

Its natural frequency operating system, intended Amplitude

g = 1.42 N2S, (2)

Copper Slag on 30 Mesh;

Figure 5: Optimum Amplitude Envelope

Screenability is essentially a measure of the rate of stratification of the specific granular

Weight Percent Passing

Clear Opening (in.)

Figure 6: Frac Sand Sample FS-2 Size Distribution

Figure 7: Screenability Characteristic , Frac Sample FS-2

Run 1. 20 m. .041 c.o. Bed depth 0.3 .

Run 2. 38 m. .0198 c.o. Bed depth 0.25.

Run 3. 72 m. .0102 co. Bed depth 0.15

The curves of Figs. 7 and 8 are useful

directly proportional to feed rate, is thus

evaluate the effect of changes in feed rate, 80

At the feed rate corresponding to the 70

efficiency was 94%. To find the expected

Figure 8: Calibration Curves, TEXAS SHAKER

Percent of Total Removed

I. Coarse Screening Method

Standard Percent Open Area

Clear Opening, (L), in.

Figure 9: Coarse Screen Capacity

A= F x U [100 C K1 K2 K3 K4 5 6 7)] (4)

Percent in Feed Half-size to Aperture Width

Figure 10: Half-Size Correction K1

D = 4[ F x (1-U/100)] ( VpW) (5)

K7 = 0.9 to D/L=4, then 1.572e-(1.272D/L)

D/L. ( Depth at discharge aperture width)

Figure 11: Bed Depth Correction Factor K7

Particle Shape Factor K3

Deck Location Factor K4

Aperture Shape Factor K5

Length/width ratio 2< l/w <4 1.1

Length/width 4< l/w <25 1.2

II. Fine Screening Method

Feed rate to the screen surface, lb./hr. (F);