VOLCANOES!

FIRE, ROCK, AND WATER

fig. 1
Mount St. Helens
LESSON 4
Snow and Ice Compound Dangers
Mudflows are particular hazards at snow-
capped volcanoes such as Mount St.
Helens. Even small eruptions of hot vol-
canic material can very quickly melt
large volumes of snow and ice. The
resulting surge of water erodes and mixes
with volcanic rock to become mudflows.
For example, the 1985 eruption of
Nevada del Ruiz in Colombia was a very
small eruptionejecting only about 3
percent as much magma as Mount St.
Helensyet it generated high-volume
mudflows because of the presence of
DAVID MUENCH

snow and glacial ice on the volcano. The

mudflows that swept down from Nevada
del Ruiz buried the town of Armero,
Mount St. Helens 2 years before its catcylsmic eruption. When the volcano exploded killing more than 23,000 people. Nevada
on May 18, 1980, huge volumes of snow and ice quickly melted and contributed to del Ruiz, like Mount St. Helens, has
devastating floods and mudflows. snow and ice year round at its highest
elevations.
As hot volcanic debris melted snow and Mudflows Destructive Force
glacier ice on the upper slopes of Mount The largest and most destructive mud- The Risk of Mudflows Continues
St. Helens, mudflowsfast-moving mix- flow came down the valley of the North Even without a major eruption, mudflows
tures of volcanic debris and water Fork of the Toutle River. It originated and floods remain potential hazards of
developed within minutes of the from the hot debris from the avalanche, Mount St. Helens. As a result of the May
beginning of the May 18 eruption. By lateral blast, and ash falls that had been 18, 1980, eruption, huge volumes of vol-
10:10 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time, a mud- deposited in the upper part of the river canic debris dammed preexisting
flow had traveled 43 kilometers (27 valley during the first few minutes of the streams. Because these dammed streams
miles) downstream in the South Fork eruption. By afternoon, water from melt- are composed of loose materials, they are
Toutle River valley. And before the day ing snow and glacial ice, and from within structurally weak. If the dams fail, mud-
ended, nearly all the streams that had the debris itself began to flow. flows and floods can occur. Loose vol-
their sources on Mount St. Helens were The mudflow steamed with hot vol- canic debris on steep slopes is also
affected by mudflows. canic materials (pyroclastic debris). vulnerable to flowing during or after
Fortunately, the major mudflow took Thick, like freshly mixed cement, the heavy rainfalls. The risk of mudflows
hours to reach populated areas, giving mudflow enveloped almost anything that and floods is greatest on Mount St.
people time to evacuate. As a result, only it picked up along its path. Eyewitnesses Helens during the winter months when
a few deaths were attributable to mud- reported seeing everything from ice precipitation is heaviest and the snow-
flows. Volcanic mudflows are also called chunks to a fully loaded logging truck in pack is thickest.
lahars, a term borrowed from Indonesia, the flowing mixture. As debris, mud, and
where mudflows are a major volcanic fallen trees choked the Toutle River, the
hazard. river overflowed its banks and flooded,
cresting at 6.4 meters (21 feet) above its
normal stage.
Activity 1 Forecasting the Path of Mudflows

30-minute demonstration 5. Large spoons or other sturdy stirring Pour the slurry onto the top of the vol-
45-minute work session instruments cano.
Students participate in a demonstration 6. One paper cup for each student Discuss: Where did the mudflow
that will help them visualize the consis- 7. Sand and gravel flow? (It should go into the valleys.)
tency of mudflows and how they move 8. Water Did it behave differently than the
down stream valleys away from a avalanche? What happens when the
volcanos summit or flanks. In a work Work Session avalanche hits the flat area at the base
session, students use topographic maps 1. Activity Sheet 4.1a-b of the volcano? (Slows down)
of Mount St. Helens before the 1980 2. Transparencies made from Master
eruptions to forecast the path mudflows Sheet 4.1 and Activity Sheet 4.1b. Work Session:
might take during an eruption. 3. Overhead projector Forecasting the path of mudflows
Based on what they saw in the demon-
Key teaching points Procedures: stration, students use a topographic map
1. Volcanic avalanches and volcanic Simulating an avalanche and mudflow of Mount St. Helens before the 1980
mudflows are somewhat similar, but dif- 1. Outdoors, construct a mockup of a eruption to forecast the paths mudflows
ferent in one important respect. Both can volcano by crumbling up newspapers and might take as a result of an eruption. The
contain (a) volcanic debris, such as piling them into the shape of a volcano. students then compare their maps with
tephra of varying sizes ejected during an the map that shows the path the flows
ongoing eruption, and (b) lava and rocks 2. Place a tarp over the newspapers. actually took following the May 18,
from previous eruptions that were Make sure the tarp is large enough to 1980, eruption. (Master Sheet 4.1)
deposited on the volcanos slopes. simulate a flat area at the volcanos base. Distribute Activity Sheets 4.1a-b.
Mudflows, however, are mixtures of vol- Also, create plenty of hills and val- Note that the topographic map on
canic debris and water. Volcanic leys. For ideas, refer to the photographs Activity Sheet 4.1b is the same as Map A
avalanches lack the water of mudflows. on the poster and to the topographic map in Lesson 2 except that it (a) covers a
on Activity Sheet 4.1b. more extensive area, (b) the contour
2. Sources of water can include the (a) interval is 150 meters instead of 100
breakout of a volcanic or glacial lake, (b) 3. Place bricks, rocks, or tent stakes meters, and (c) north is oriented toward
melting snow and glacier ice, (c) streams around the base of the tarp to keep it the top of the map.
and rivers that flow down the flanks of a from moving.
volcano, and (d) intense rainfall. Discussion
4. Tell students that they will be creating 1. Discuss the students forecasts. Will
3. Mudflows behave differently than an avalanche. Ask them to forecast the mudflows follow stream valleys? Will
avalanches. Because water acts as a path the avalanche will take. mudflows occur on all sides of the vol-
lubricant, mudflows travel farther than cano?
avalanches. Both avalanches and mud- 5. Create an avalanche:
flows can move very fast. Distribute paper cups and fill them 2. Show students a transparency of
with sand. Master Sheet 4.1. Compare this map
4. Mudflows move downslope and into Pour the contents onto the top of the with the students forecast maps.
stream valleys. volcano to simulate an avalanche.
Repeat with gravel and then again 3. Discuss why the south flank and the
5. Being able to forecast the path of with a mixture of sand and gravel. area to the south were relatively
mudflows is important to scientists who Have students observe where the untouched by mudflows. (The lateral
assess the potential hazards of volcanic materials slide and which particles blast blew hot volcanic debris to the
eruptions. The chief threat to people is move fastest. north.)
burial. Structures are at risk of being Discuss why. (Gravity pulls the mate-
buried, carried away, or collapsing. rials downslope. The heaviest particles 4. Using your transparencies, compare
move fastest; the smallest particles the extent of the glaciers on Mount St.
Materials move the farthest because they require Helens before and after the eruption.
Demonstration less energy to move them.) What happened to the glaciers? What
1. Newspapers happened to the ice in the glaciers? (It
2. Large plastic tarp, 9 x 12 6. Create a mudflow: was melted by the heat of the eruption or
3. Rocks, bricks, or tent stakes to hold In a bucket, mix water with sand and was ground up by the avalanche)
the tarp in place gravel to make a slurry.
4. Buckets Distribute paper cups and fill them 5. Bring up the point that Mount St.
with the slurry. Helens behaved in an unexpected way
 Activity 2 The Dangers of Snow and Ice

that even the scientists did not anticipate. fig. 2

(For example, David A. Johnston, a The Snowline
USGS volcanologist, was monitoring 6,000
Mount St. Helens on a ridge north of the
volcano, well outside of the anticipated
danger zone, or so he thought. At 8:30 5,000

a.m. on May 18, 1980, Dr. Johnston

made his last radio transmission: 4,000

Elevation in meters
Vancouver, Vancouver, this is it! No
trace of him or his equipment has ever
been found.) 3,000

2,000

1,000

Sea
Level
North Pole 75N 60N 45N 30N 15N 0
This diagram shows how the elevation of the snowline changes with latitude.
The approximate elevation of the snowline is indicated on this diagram where the
white and black areas meet.

45-minute demonstration
45-minute work session
Students observe a demonstration of 3. The snowline is highestthat is, less
how melting snow and ice can contribute of the mountain is covered with snow in
to mudflows and then learn in a work the summeron mountains closest to the
session why some volcanic mountains Equator. The snowline is lowest on land
have permanent snow and ice. closest to the poles. The greater the
distance from the Equator, the less eleva-
Key teaching points tion is necessary to establish a snowline.
1. Some volcanic mountains have per- (fig. 2)
manent snowpackssnow that does not
melt during the summer months. The 4. The snowline also is influenced by the
lowest elevation at which snow remains amount of yearly snow fall. Thus, the
on a mountain during the summer is snowline may not be the same for all
called the snowline. (A mountain that has mountains at the same latitude.
no snow in the summer has no snowline.) (Generally, mountains closest to an ocean
The snowline moves up and down a receive the greatest amounts of precipita-
mountain seasonallylowest in late win- tion.)
ter and highest in late summer.
5. Melted snow and glacial ice signifi-
2. The snowline is related to air tempera- cantly contributed to creating the mud-
ture, which in turn is influenced by eleva- flows that followed the May 18, 1980,
tion and distance from the Equator: air eruption of Mount St. Helens.
temperature drops as elevation increases
and distance from the Equator increases. Materials
Even in areas near the Equator, there are Demonstration
some mountains that have snow year- 1. Potting soil, gravel, and water
round at their highest elevations, whereas 2. Baking pan
in polar regions permanent snow can be 3. Freezer
found close to sea level during the sum- 4. Bunsen burner
mer months.
Activity 2 Continued
Activity Sheet 2
Answers
Work Session own group of photographs to make sure
1. Magazines that all of the continents are represented.)
2. Large world map and push pins Part A
3. Activity Sheet 4.2ab 3. In class, make a list of continents on 2. Nevada del Ruiz
4. Transparency of Snowline Diagram the chalkboard and compile the number 3. 4N
(fig. 2) of snow- and ice-covered mountains that 4. Surtsey, 63N
the class found on each continent. Ask
Procedures students if they expected to find snow- Part B
Demonstration covered mountains in every continent. 1. Mount Vesuvius No
1. The day before the demonstration: 2. Mount Etna Yes
In a baking pan, mix potting soil, gravel, 4. Remind students that when Mount St. 3. Kilauea No
and water to make a slurry. Place the Helens erupted on May 18, 1980, it was 4. Mauna Loa Yes
baking pan in a freezer for at least 8 capped by snow and numerous glaciers. 5. Mount Rainier Yes
hours. Ask students if they would expect to see 6. Mount Fuji Yes
snow in May. 7. Mount Pele No
2. The next day: Bring the frozen slurry 8. Katmai Yes
into class. Set it up at a steep angle. Hold 5. Distribute Activity Sheets 4.2ab. 9. Lassen Peak Yes
a Bunsen burner under the high end of 10. Parcutin No
the baking pan. (fig. 3). Observe the pan 6. Students first label a group of volca- 11. Surtsey No
at 3-minute intervals. Wait for the slurry noes on a blank map. After they complete 12. Sunset Crater No
to melt. this part of the activity, ask them to stop. 13. Mount St. Helens Yes
14. Nevada del Ruiz Yes
3. Point out to the students that this 7. Using a transparency, explain the
demonstration is similar to what happens Snowline Diagram. This chart shows
when the heat of an eruption melts snow how the snowline varies with elevation
and ice on a volcanic mountain: water and latitude. To plot a volcano and find
mixes with volcanic debris and creates its snowline : the original publication. Some images have been modified
mudflows. Find the approximate latitude of the or added to improve the scientific visualization of infor-
maiton. This document has undergone official review and
volcano along the bottom of the chart approval for publications established by the National
4. Look at poster figures 10 and 11 that and put a mark. Mapping Division, U.S. Geological Survey.
show Mount St. Helens before and after Keep one finger on that spot and then
the eruption. find the approximate elevation along
the right hand side of the chart.
Work Session: Put a mark where the two points come
1. Make a transparency of the Snow together. (For younger students, you
Line Diagram (fig. 2). may need to do this exercise as a
class.)
2. As a homework or library assign-
ment, have students collect pictures of 8. Explain the concept of a snowline to
snow- and ice-covered mountains. Ask the class.
them to make a list of the names of the
mountains and the countries or continents -----------------------------------------
where they are located. (Collect your This teaching packet was originally published and
printed in 1997. The online edition contains full text from
fig. 3
Master Sheet 4.1
N
853 134
For 1
k

Contour Interval
North

366 meters
Crater Rim
Spirit
To

609 Lake
ut
le

River 975
975

Mudflows
Glaciers
975
975

Sm
1340

ith
Sout 609
h
1706
r

1 km
For
k Rive 2072

Cr
e
Toutl

ee
2438

k
2804
975

0
975 5
97

Legend
VOLCANOES!
Activity Sheet 4.1a
Forecasting the Path of Mudflows

Destructive mudflows began within minutes of the begin- hour) on a volcanos steepest slopes. In some places
ning of the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens. the mudflows were between 100 to 200 meters (30 and 60
The mudflows look a lot like wet cement, but they can feet) deep.
move as fast as 144 kilometers per hour (90 miles per

What to do

1. Use the topographic map of Mount St. Helens to fore- 2. Color in the paths on your map.
cast the paths you think the mudflows took as a result of
the May 18, 1980, eruption. 3. Write a brief explanation to support your forecast.
VOLCANOES!
Activity Sheet 4.1b
Forecasting the path of mudflows
60
0 N
North
For 600
k
Spirit

Contour Interval
750
Lake

450
Toutle 600

150 meters
900 Rive
r

Glaciers
0
45

1050
0
60

1200

Smit
1350
Sou
th

h
1500

1 km
1650
r
Rive 1800
Fork e
Toutl 1950
150

2100

Cr
ee
k
0
0

225
30

Pi

0
ne
450

Legend
C
re
ek
VOLCANOES!
Activity Sheet 4.2a
The Snowline

In some mountains, there are areas where snow and ice The snowline differs on volcanoes depending on how far a
stay all year. The elevation above which the snow stays all volcano is from the Equator and the volcanos elevation.
year is called the snowline.

What to do Part A

1. Label the volcanoes listed below on the blank map. 2. Which volcano is closest to the Equator?
(All the volcanoes are north of the Equator.) Write the
volcanos elevation on the map.
What is its latitude?
Volcano Location Elevation in meters
1. Mount Vesuvius 40N 14E 1,281 (Italy)
2. Mount Etna 37N 15E 3,350 (Italy) 3. Which volcano is farthest from the Equator?
3. Kilauea 19N 155W 1,222 (USA)
4. Mauna Loa 8N 157W 4,170 (USA)
5. Mount Rainier 46N 121W 4,392 (USA) What is its latitude?
6. Mount Fuji 35N 138E 3,776 (Japan)
7. Mount Pele 14N 61W 1,397 (Martinique)
8. Katmai 58N 154W 2,047 (USA) 4. Would a volcano at 10N be closer to the Equator than a
9. Lassen Peak 40N 121W 3,187 (USA) volcano at 45N?
10. Parcutin 19N 102W 1,780 (Mexico)
11. Surtsey 63N 20W 155 (Iceland) (Latitude shows us distance from the Equator.)
12. Sunset Crater 35N 111W 2,447 (USA)
13. Mount St. Helens 46N 122W 2,549 (USA)
14. Nevada del Ruiz 4N 75W 5,321 (Colombia)

What to do Part B
Snowline Diagram
Use the Snowline Diagram to find out which of the volca- 6,000

noes on your map will have snow on them during the sum-
mer. 5,000

1. For volcano #1, find its latitude along the bottom of the 4,000

Elevation in meters
chart. Put a mark there.
3,000
2. For volcano #1, find its elevation in meters along the
right hand side. (Round off to the nearest thousand.) Put 2,000
a mark there.
1,000
3. Put a mark where the two points come together. Is the
mark above the dark area of the diagram? If yes, that Sea
Level
volcano is likely to have snow on it during the summer. North 75N 60N 45N 30N 15N 0
Pole
4. If the volcano is likely to have snow on it during the sum- This diagram shows approximately how the elevation
mer, put a next to it on the list of volcanoes. of the snowline changes with latitude.

5. Repeat steps 1-4 for all of the volcanoes on the list.

 VOLCANOES!
Activity Sheet 4.2b
The Snowline
11
8 60
North America
E urope A si a 5
13
1
40
6 9 12
2
3 10
4 7
A f ri c a
14
0
So uth Am erica
Australia
40
60
A nt arc t i c a
0 60 120 80 120 60 0