Lahar ▪ The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo caused lahars: the

first eruption itself killed six people, but the lahar killed
▪ A term that describes a hot or cold mixture of water
more than 1500. The eye of Typhoon Yunya passed over
and rock fragments that flows down the slopes of a
the volcano during its eruption on June 15, 1991. The
volcano and typically enters a river valley.
rain from the typhoon triggered the flow of volcanic ash,
▪ Small seasonal events are sometimes referred to as boulders, and water down the rivers surrounding the
"debris flows“ volcano. In Pampanga, Angeles City and neighbouring
cities and towns were damaged by the volcano's lahar
▪ Lahars generally occur on or near stratovolcanoes. when Sapang Balen Creek and the Abacan River became
the channels for the mudflows and carried it to the
▪ A moving lahar looks like a rolling slurry of wet concrete,
heart of the city and surrounding areas. Over 6 metres
and as it rushes downstream, the size, speed, and
(20 ft) of mud inundated and damaged the towns of
amount of material carried can constantly change. The
Castillejos, San Marcelino and Botolan in Zambales,
initial flow may be relatively small, but a lahar may grow
Porac and Mabalacat City in Pampanga, Tarlac City,
in volume as it entrains and incorporates anything in its
Capas, Concepcion and Bamban in Tarlac.
path – rocks, soil, vegetation, and even buildings and
bridges. The flowing slurry may consume additional ▪ The lahar in the Sacobia-Bamban River scoured all
water through melting of snow and ice or by engulfing structures in its path, including the bridges and dikes by
river or lake water. Voluminous lahars commonly grow the Parua River in Concepcion. The Tarlac River in Tarlac
to more than 10 times their initial size as they move City was inundated by over 6 metres (20 ft) of lahar,
downslope. causing the river to lose the ability to hold water. On the
morning of October 1, 1995, pyroclastic material which
▪ In steep areas, lahars can exceed speeds of 200 km/hr
clung to the slopes of Pinatubo and surrounding
(120 mi/hr), but as they move farther away from a
mountains rushed down because of heavy rain, and
volcano and decelerate in lowland areas, they eventually
turned into an 8-metre (25 ft) lahar. This mudflow killed
begin to deposit some of the load and decrease in size.
hundreds of people in Barangay Cabalantian in Bacolor.
Why do Lahars occur?
Mayon Volcano (2006, November 30)
With Volcanic Activity
▪ On 29–30 November 2006, heavy rains from
▪ Snow and glaciers can be melted by lava or pyroclastic Supertyphoon Durian remobilized volcanic debris on the
surges during an eruption. southern and eastern slopes of Mount Mayon,
generating major lahars that caused severe loss of life
▪ Lava can erupt from open vents and mix with wet soil, and property in downstream communities. The nearby
mud or snow on the slope of the volcano making a very Legaspi City weather station recorded 495.8 mm of
viscous, high energy lahar. The higher up the slope of rainfall over 1.5 days at rates as high as 47.5 mm/h, far
the volcano, the more gravitational potential energy the exceeding the initiation threshold for Mayon lahars. For
flows will have. about 18 h, floods and lahars from the intense and
▪ A flood caused by a glacier, lake breakout, or heavy prolonged rainfall overtopped river bends, breaching six
rainfalls can generate lahars, also called glacier run. dikes through which they created new paths, buried
downstream communities in thick, widespread deposits,
▪ Water from a crater lake, combined with volcanic and caused most of the 1,266 fatalities. In order to
material in an eruption. mitigate damage from future lahars, the deposits were
described and analyzed for clues to their generation and
▪ Heavy rainfall on unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits.
impact on structures and people
▪ Volcanic landslides mixed with water.
▪ Post-disaster maps were generated from raw ASTER and
Without Volcanic Activity SPOT images, using automated density slicing to
characterize lahar deposits, flooded areas, croplands,
 In particular, although lahars are typically associated and urbanized areas. Fieldwork was undertaken to
with the effects of volcanic activity, lahars can occur check the accuracy of the maps, especially at the edges
even without any current volcanic activity, as long as the of the lahar deposits, and to measure the deposit
conditions are right to cause the collapse and movement thicknesses. The Durian event was exceptional in terms
of mud originating from existing volcanic ash deposits. of rainfall intensity, but the dikes eventually failed
 Rainfall can cause the still-hanging slabs of solidified because they were designed and built according to flood
mud to come rushing down the slopes at a speed of specifications, not to withstand major lahars.
more than 30 kilometers per hour (20 mph), causing Nevado del Ruiz (1985)
devastating results.
▪ The lahar from the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz
PLACES AT RISK that wiped out the town of Armero in Colombia. In
What are the locations affected? 1985, the volcano Nevado del Ruizerupted in central
Colombia. As pyroclastic flows erupted from the
Lahars are extremely dangerous especially to those living in volcano's crater, they melted the mountain's glaciers,
valley areas near a volcano. Lahars can undercut banks and cause sending four enormous lahars down its slopes at 60
houses on those banks to be destroyed. Lahars can bury and kilometers per hour (37 miles per hour). The lahars
destroy manmade structures including roads and bridges. picked up speed in gullies and coursed into the six major
rivers at the base of the volcano; they engulfed the town
HISTORICAL EVENTS
of Armero, killing more than 20,000 of its almost 29,000
Mt. Pinatubo Eruption (1991) inhabitants.[15] Casualties in other towns, particularly
 Chinchiná, brought the overall death toll to 23,000. ▪ During eruption, volcanoes may throw volcanic debris
Footage and photographs of Omayra Sánchez, a young up in the air. Be prepared to see falling rocks and small
victim of the tragedy, were published around the world. stones coming from the crater. Thus, go to a stable and
Other photographs of the lahars and the impact of the safe shelter during an eruption.
disaster captured attention worldwide and led to
▪ Volcanic eruption can also release sulfur. Therefore,
controversy over the degree to which the Colombian
prepare gas masks to avoid inhaling the foul odor
government was responsible for the disaster.
coming from the release of sulfur. Suffocation may
Mount St. Helens (1980) happen and you may not be able to breathe normally
during a volcanic eruption without a gas mask.
▪ Mount St. Helens at Skamania County, Washington, U.S.,
is susceptible to lahars because the vent, and site of ▪ Lava flow is the centerpiece of any eruption. It is also
recent lava-dome building, is surrounded by Crater the most destructive material the volcano can produce
Glacier. Furthermore, the crater floor and flanks of the during an eruption. It is composed of very hot mud or
volcano are made up of large amounts of loose volcanic molten rocks that can instantly burn down any material
material and are covered with a thick snowpack for on contact. At all cost, avoid getting in contact with the
much of the year. Lahars generated by rapid snowmelt lava or do not attempt getting near it.
are likely to accompany any eruptive activity, but they
After
may also be generated without an eruption by intense
storm runoff over erodible sediment or by landslides. ▪ After the eruption, always wait for volcanologists’ or
Past lahars at Mount St. Helens have traveled from 50 to your local authority’s advice on when you can safely go
100 km (30 to 60 mi) from source, often reaching the back to your homes.
Columbia River via the Toutle-Cowlitz, Kalama, or Lewis
Rivers. During the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Description of Ashfall
Helens, approximately 2.3 billion cubic meters (3 billion
 Ashfall is the most widespread and frequent volcanic
cubic yards) of material was deposited in the upper 27
km (17 mi) of the North Fork Toutle River valley hazard.
resulting in massive lahars. Ashfall Or Tephra Fall - The ash that falls as a deposit from the
Mount Ruapehu (1945) eruption of a volcano

Ashfall
▪ At the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New
Zealand, the 1945 eruption emptied Crater Lake and ▪ Gravitational setting of volcanic ash and fragments from
dammed the outlet with tephra. The crater slowly the umbrella clouds of tall eruption columns and ash
refilled with water, until on 24 December 1953 the clouds of pyroclastic flows
tephra dam collapsed causing a lahar in the Whangaehu
River. The lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster, with the ▪ Dispersal depends on prevalent wind directions, column
loss of 151 lives, when the Tangiwai railway bridge heights
across the Whangaehu River collapsed while the lahar
Volcanic Ash - A mixture of rock, mineral, and glass particles
was in full flood, just before an express train crossed it.
expelled from a volcano
It was already known that the river had partially
undermined one of the bridge piers and the lahar during a volcanic eruption
finished the job, causing the bridge to collapse. Although
warned of the collapsed bridge, the train driver was Volcanic ash
unable to stop the train in time and six of the carriages ▪ Small jagged pieces of rocks, minerals, and volcanic glass
fell into the river. the size of sand and silt (less than 1/12 inch or 2
Preparedness measures millimeters in diameter) erupted by a volcano

Before ▪ Hard, does not dissolve in water, extremely abrasive and

mildly corrosive, and conducts electricity when wet
 If your home is located within a few kilometers from the
volcano or within the danger zone, evacuate at once. Cause of Ashfall
You can take your belongings with you or just leave Tephra (fragmented volcanic particles) or ash (fragmented
them. Life is more important. volcanic particles less than 2 mm in diameter) propelled through
the atmosphere in an eruption plume or an eruption column
 Earthquakes are natural occurrences when an active
eventually fall or gravitationally settle over areas downwind of an
volcano is about to erupt so do not panic.
erupting volcano, forming blankets of tephra fall or ashfall.
 Instead, stay calm and proceed to taking precautionary Ashfall can also be rained out from the ash clouds of PDCs. Large
measures. particle tephra called volcanic bombs that are too heavy to
transport in eruption columns are ejected straight out of the
 Sudden rains especially at the crater of the volcano volcanic vent as ballistic projectiles that fall near the vent. Tephra
would lead to an abrupt mudflow or lahar. The mud is or ashfall can accumulate as thick blankets of material, causing
not ordinary mud. It contains pre-volcanic eruption infrastructural damages, roof collapse, contamination of water
debris and could be hot that is enough to hard boil an resources and burial. Ashfall is a health hazard and a danger to
egg. Furthermore, when this mudflow settles, anything aircraft and other industrial machinery, such as those for
buried underneath will be hard to unearth. You should transportation and power generation.
beware or you may suffer from burns coming from the
mudflow. Volcanic ash is formed during:

During ▪ Explosive volcanic eruptions

 ▪ Phreatomagmatic eruptions ▪ Contamination of water supplies by chemical leachates
may occur.
▪ Transport in pyroclastic density currents
▪ High water-usage will result from ash clean-up
Explosive
operations
Explosive eruptions occur when magma decompresses as it rises,
▪ Roads may need to be cleared to reduce the dust
allowing dissolved volatiles (dominantly water and carbon
nuisance and prevent storm-water systems from
dioxide) to exsolve into gas bubbles. As more bubbles nucleate a
becoming blocked.
foam is produced, which decreases the density of the magma,
accelerating it up the conduit. ▪ Sewage systems may be blocked by ash, or disrupted by
loss of electrical supplies.
Fragmentation is a very efficient process of ash formation and is
capable of generating very fine ash even without the addition of ▪ Damage to electrical equipment and machinery may
water. occur.

Phreatomagmatic 5-100 mm ash thickness

During these eruptions fragmentation occurs when magma ▪ Burial of pasture and low plants. Foliage may be
comes into contact with bodies of water (such as the sea, lakes stripped off some trees but most trees will survive.
and marshes) groundwater, snow or ice. As the magma, which is
▪ Most pastures will be killed by over 50 mm of ash.
significantly hotter than the boiling point of water, comes into
contact with water an insulating vapor film forms (Leidenfrost ▪ Major ash removal operations in urban areas.
effect). Eventually this vapor film will collapse leading to direct
coupling of the cold water and hot magma. ▪ Most buildings will support the ash load but weaker roof
structures may collapse at 100 mm ash thickness,
Pyroclastic density currents particularly if the ash is wet.
These are typically produced by lava dome collapse or collapse ▪ Road transport may be halted due to the build up of ash
of the eruption column. Within pyroclastic density currents on roads. Cars still working may soon stop due to
particle abrasion occurs as particles interact with each other clogging of air-filters.
resulting in a reduction in grain size and production of fine
grained ash particles. In addition, ash can be produced during ▪ Rail transport may be forced to stop due to signal failure
secondary fragmentation of pumice fragments, due to the bought on by short circuiting if ash becomes wet.
conservation of heat within the flow.
100-300 mm ash thickness
Impacts of Ashfall
▪ Buildings that are not cleared of ash will run the risk of
Less than 1 mm ash thickness roof collapse, especially large flat roofed structures and
if ash becomes wet.
▪ Will act as an irritant to lungs and eyes.
▪ Severe damage to trees, stripping of foliage and
▪ Airports will close due to the potential damage to breaking of branches.
aircraft.
▪ Loss of electrical reticulation due to falling tree branches
▪ Possible minor damage to vehicles, houses and and shorting of power lines.
equipment caused by fine abrasive ash.
> 300 mm ash thickness
▪ Possible contamination of water supplies, particularly
roof-fed tank supplies. ▪ Heavy kill of vegetation.

▪ Dust (or mud) affects road visibility and traction for an ▪ Complete burial of soil horizon.
extended period.
▪ Livestock and other animals killed or heavily distressed.
1-5 mm ash thickness
▪ Kill of aquatic life in lakes and rivers.
▪ Possible crop damage.
▪ Major collapse of roofs due to ash loading.
▪ Some livestock may be affected. Most will not be unduly
▪ Loading and possible breakage of power and telephone
stressed but may suffer from lack of feed, wear on
lines.
teeth, and possible contamination of water supplies.
▪ Roads unusable until cleared.
▪ Minor damage to houses will occur if fine ash enters
buildings, soiling interiors, blocking air-conditioning Place at risk During ashfall
filters, etc.
▪ Communities near volcanoes are at the greatest risk for
▪ Electricity may be cut; ash shorting occurs at substations ashfall although it can be problem hundreds of miles
if the ash is wet and therefore conductive. Low voltage from a volcano after a major eruption.
systems more vulnerable than high.
Historical Events of ashfall
1-5 mm ash thickness
2020 Taal Volcano eruption
▪ Water supplies may be cut or limited due to failure of
electricity to pumps. An eruption of Taal Volcano in the Philippines began on January
12, 2020. The  Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS) subsequently issued an Alert Level 4, indicating that
"a hazardous explosive eruption is possible within hours to days.  Prepare emergency supply kit and place in an accessible
It was a phreatic eruption from the main crater that spewed area.
ashes to CALABARZON, Metro Manila, some parts of Central
 Prepare dust masks or clean cloth for covering the nose
Luzon, and Pangasinan in Ilocos Region, resulting in the
and goggles for eye protection.
suspension of classes, work schedules, and flights.
 Prepare cleaning supplies such as broom, vacuum
2008 eruption of Chaitén volcano, Chile 
cleaner with spare bags and filters, and a shovel.
After more than 9,000 years of silence, Chaitén Volcano in
 Have food and water provision for pets, poultry, and
southern Chile erupted on May 2, 2008. The plume of ash and
livestock.
steam rose 10.7 to 16.8 kilometers (35,000 to 55,000 feet) into
the atmosphere, reported the Smithsonian’s Global Volcanism  Know the location of evacuation area.
Program. According to news reports issued by the AFP news
service, ash blanketed the town of Chaitén, 10 kilometers away, DURING
forcing the town’s 4,000 people to evacuate by boat.
 Stay calm. Stay indoors. Cover your nose and mouth
2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull volcano, Iceland with damp, clean cloth or dust mask.

Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull Volcano burst into life on March 20,  Close all windows and doors of your house and your car.
2010. Thick ash poured from Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull Volcano
 Place damp towels or cloth at door openings and other
when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
open sources.
(MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite acquired this image on April
17, 2010. The ash in this image is at two different altitudes. A  Wash all fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating.
concentrated plume rises over a more diffuse cloud of ash,
casting a dark shadow on the ash below. The volcano had been  Listen to the radio for updates/developments regarding
emitting ash in puffs that reached between 16,000 and 24,000 the volcanic eruption.
feet, according to the Icelandic Met Office. The higher plume  Keep your pet/s in their shelter to avoid inhaling ash.
seen here is likely from a more explosive event.
 If outside, look for a shelter and wear glasses to protect
1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo your eyes. Avoid using contact lenses.
A huge cloud of volcanic ash and gas rises above Mount  Cover water containers and food to avoid contamination
Pinatubo, Philippines, on June 12, 1991. Three days later, the from ash.
volcano exploded in the second-largest volcanic eruption on
Earth in this century. Timely forecasts of this eruption by AFTER
scientists from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
 As soon as the ashfall diminishes, scrape off the ash that
Seismology and the U.S. Geological Survey enabled people living
has accumulated on the rooftops to prevent collapse.
near the volcano to evacuate to safer distances, saving at least
5,000 lives.  After removing the ash, clean the roof and gutter with
water to prevent corrosion.
When even more highly gas charged magma reached Pinatubo's
surface on June 15, the volcano exploded in a cataclysmic  Remove ash from windows and doors of the house and
eruption that ejected more than 1 cubic mile (5 cubic kilometers) car. Use water before washing them with soap and
of material. The ash cloud from this climactic eruption rose 22 lukewarm water.
miles (35 kilometers) into the air. At lower altitudes, the ash was
blown in all directions by the intense cyclonic winds of a  Collect the ashes and put them in an area far from water
coincidentally occurring typhoon, and winds at higher altitudes drainage to avoid clogging..
blew the ash southwestward. A blanket of volcanic ash (sand-  Boil water before drinking.
and silt-size grains of volcanic minerals and glass) and larger
pumice lapilli (frothy pebbles) blanketed the countryside. Fine  Use powder detergent in washing clothes covered in
ash fell as far away as the Indian Ocean, and satellites tracked the ash.
ash cloud several times around the globe.
 Cover your nose and mouth while cleaning.
1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt
Pyroclastic flows
The last eruption of the 20th century began in December 1989
 The word pyroclast is derived from the Greek pyr,
with a short period of intense seismicity and vent-clearing
meaning “fire”, and klastos, meaning “broken in pieces.”
explosions that continued for more than five months. Activity
A pyroclastic flow’s “broken pieces” consist of volcanic
included 23 ash-rich eruptions, pyroclastic and debris flows that
glass, crystals, and rocks such as pumice or scoria. These
entrained glacial ice and caused flooding up to 35 km
solids have been heated and fragmented by an explosive
downstream. The debris flows reached Cook Inlet and
eruption. Heavier fragments roll downward along the
temporarily shut down the Drift River Oil Terminal. Lava flows in
ground, while smaller fragments float in a stream of hot
the crater built several lava domes which were later destroyed by
gases.
explosions. One final dome grew before the eruption finally
 is a dense, fast-moving flow of solidified lava pieces,
ceased in June 1990.
volcanic ash, and hot gases.
Preparedness measures (before, during, after)  it occurs as part of certain volcanic eruptions. A
pyroclastic flow is extremely hot, burning anything in its
BEFORE path.
 Listen to the radio for updates from authority when  it may move at speeds as high as 200 m/s
there is an impending eruption that may cause ashfall.
  It is considered as the most deadly of all volcano memory. Because Vesuvius had been dormant for at least 700
hazards. years, it wasn’t recognised as a potential threat.

CAUSES The eruption of Vesuvius produced a number of pyroclastic flows

which led to the deaths of at least 1,400 people, and the burial of
Pyroclastic flows form in various ways: the settlements by volcanic material. Recent excavations
 When the column of lava, ash, and gases expelled from revealed evidence of a new type of death from this eruption – a
a volcano during an eruption loses its upward person being struck by a large block, possibly carried by one of
momentum and falls back to the ground. the pyroclastic flows.
 When volcanic material expelled during an eruption Eruption of Volcan de Fuego
immediately begins moving down the sides of the
volcano. Dozens of people have been killed, and with many more missing,
 When a lava dome or lava flow becomes too steep and after Volcán de Fuego (Fuego) in Guatemala erupted on June 3,
collapses. 2018.
 Fountain collapse of an eruption column from a Plinian
In recent years, Fuego has regularly ejected small gas and ash
eruption. In such an eruption, the material forcefully
eruptions, which hold little risk to surrounding populations. But
ejected from the vent heats the surrounding air and the
Fuego also has a reputation for producing larger explosive
turbulent mixture rises, through convection, for many
eruptions. These larger eruptions have two main primary hazards
kilometers. If the erupted jet is unable to heat the
– falling ash and bombs (collectively known as tephra), and
surrounding air sufficiently, convection currents will not
pyroclastic flows. Of these two, pyroclastic flows are the big
be strong enough to carry the plume upwards and it
killers, and are responsible for the deaths from the latest
falls, flowing down the flanks of the volcano.
eruption.
 Fountain collapse of an eruption column associated with
a Vulcanian eruption. The gas and projectiles create a Eruption of Sta. Maria Volacano
cloud that is denser than the surrounding air and
becomes a pyroclastic flow. The Santa Maria eruption in 1902 was one of the largest
 The directional blast or jet when part of a volcano eruptions of the 20th century. The violent explosion in
collapses or explodes. As distance from the volcano Guatemala came after the volcano had remained silent for
increases, this rapidly transforms into a gravity-driven roughly 500 years, and left a large crater, nearly a mile (1.5 km)
current. across, on the mountain's southwest flank.

PLACES AT RISK The symmetrical, tree-covered volcano is part of a chain of

stratovolcanoes that rises along Guatemala's Pacific coastal plain.
 Pyroclastic flows often occur in two parts. Along the It has experienced continuous activity since its last blast, a VEI 3,
ground, lava and pieces of rock flow downhill. Above which occurred in 1922. In 1929, Santa Maria spewed forth a a
this, a thick cloud of ash forms over the fast-moving pyroclastic flow (a fast-moving wall of scalding gas and pulverized
flow. Such a flow can transform the landscape drastically rock), which claimed hundreds of lives and may have killed as
in a short period of time. Not only does it destroy living many as 5,000 people.
material in its path, it often leaves behind a deep layer
Eruption of Mayon Volcano
of solidified lava and thick ash.
 Also places near the volcano are at risk of pyroclastic Pyroclastic flows descend the south-eastern flank of Mayon
flows Volcano, Philippines. Maximum height of the eruption column
 So if you are near the volcano and it erupts evacuate was 15 km above sea level, and volcanic ash fell within about 50
immediately because pyroclastic flow is the deadliest of km toward the west. There were no casualties from the 1984
all volcanic hazards because it is a mixture of hot gas eruption because more than 73,000 people evacuated the
and ash, and they travel very quickly down the slopes of danger zones as recommended by scientists of the Philippine
volcanoes. They are so hot and choking that if you are Institute of Volcanology and Seismology.
caught in one it will kill you. They are also so fast (100-
200 km/hour) that you cannot out-run them. PREPAREDNESS MEASURES

HISTORICAL EVENTS What to do before an eruption?

Eruption of Mount Pelée Unlike earthquakes, volcanoes rouse from sleep with some
notice—shaking the ground, bulging their flanks, or shifting the
One notorious example of a pyroclastic flow happening gases wafting from their craters and vents. And for many
elsewhere was the eruption of Mount Pelée on the island of volcanoes near populations, scientists closely watch their every
Martinique on May 8, 1902. Pyroclastic flows destroyed the town move, which allows them to better understand when they might
of Saint-Pierre and killed an estimated 30,000 people. Only a burst to life.
handful survived, one of whom was a prisoner in a jail cell. This
was the largest loss of life from a pyroclastic flows in the past two So if you live near a volcano, or plan to visit one, familiarize
centuries. The destruction was caused by a nuee ardente, a type yourself with the local monitoring agencies. Understand where
of pyroclastic flow that consists of hot incandescent solid you can safely tromp and where you need to steer clear, regions
particles. known as exclusion zones. It’s also important to look up
evacuation routes and hazards specific to your location.
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius
Some places offer regular updates of volcanic activity. For
One of the most famous historical examples of the devastation example, the U.S. Geological Survey’s Volcano Notification
and loss of life caused by pyroclastic flows is what happened at Service emails information about monitored volcanoes in the
Pompeii and Herculaneum when Vesuvius erupted in 79AD. An United States, which boasts more than 10 percent of the planet’s
important lesson from this eruption is the fickleness of human active or potentially active volcanoes.
Another vital preparation step is assembling an emergency kit Such powerful displays of Earth’s fearsome force can be
that includes supplies like food, water, respiratory protection, frightening, but with some preparation and close following of
eye protection, and a battery-powered radio. When preparing official instructions, you can reduce the risk of being blindsided
your kit, consider each member of your family and their needs— by a blast.
and don’t forget your pets. The Department of Homeland
Security has a detailed guide about putting together a kit for LAVA FLOW
many different contingencies.
Definition
Even if you are just visiting a volcano for a day, make sure you are
 A lava flow is a product of the quiet effusion of molten
traveling with appropriate footwear, first aid supplies, and plenty
rock or magma from beneath a volcano.
of water.
 When a lava flow comes out hot lava flow of a volcanic
What to do during an eruption? vent, its temperature ranges from 700 to 1200 degrees
Celsius.
During a disaster, be wary of misinformation and try to stick to  It travels very slowly, thus it seldom cause deaths
official sources, many of which communicate dangers through directly.
social media. For example, Krippner has assembled a handy list of  Lava flows are harmful to property and the
official volcano agency Twitter accounts. Follow instructions from environment.
authorities during an eruption, and evacuate if you are within
areas told to do so. Magma Generation

If you are instructed to remain in your home, close all windows, ▪ The heat that forms molten rocks and comes from the
doors, and other points of entry for ash. Bring pets inside and heat still trapped inside the earth which is left over from
move livestock to shelters, when at all possible. Avoid running air the Earth’s formation 4.6 billion years ago. Some of the
conditioning systems, fans, and heaters during or immediately heat comes from the sinking of the materials that make
after an eruption, since they can pull in volcanic gasses and ash. up the core.
Also, fill large containers, sinks, and bathtubs with clean water
▪ Most of the magma and the lava are formed at plate
since eruptions can cause disruptions or contamination of water
boundaries. The heat in the mantle forms convection
supplies.
cells that drive the motion of tectonic plates. This
If an evacuation seems on the horizon, the Centers for Disease motion that basaltic kava comes out of divergent plate
Control recommends gathering additional supplies to keep in margins or mid-oceanic ridges.
your vehicle, which should include flares, maps, basic tools,
▪ Some volcanoes and its magma are formed along
sleeping bags, and a fire extinguisher. When packing personal
convergent boundaries and transform faults.
items, take only the essentials. And don’t forget including at least
a week’s supply of any required prescription medications. If you Lava Effusion and Explosive Eruptions
don’t own a vehicle, contact neighbors or others nearby who
might be able to provide a ride in case you and your family need  Some molten materials come out to the surface almost
to leave. unnoticed while others come out with a bang. As
magma rises to the surface where the pressure is less,
If you must be outside, try to use a mask whenever possible. The gases dissolved in the magma expand. The volume of
CDC recommends the use of N-95 respirators, which can be gas expands as pressure is reduced. Too much gas gives
purchased in a hardware store. While a dusk mask can be used as magmas their explosive character because of the
a last resort, the CDC cautions that they only should be used sudden and tremendous expansion of gas volume.
outdoors for short periods of time when ash is falling. Other ash While explosive eruptions that produce fragments are
protection includes long-sleeved shirts and long pants as well as called tephra, quiet eruptions create lavas.
goggles. Be aware of your surroundings, and be extra cautious if  The amount of gas involved is dependent on the
you are in low-lying regions or near river valleys as those viscosity of magmas, which in turn depends on the
commonly funnel debris flows. composition and temperature of the magma. Magmas
with higher silica content (andesitic to rhyolitic) have
What to do after an eruption?
higher viscosity than magmas with lower silica content
Heed authorities’ instructions for when it’s safe to go back (basaltic to andesitic). Viscosity increases with
outside or return to your home. Alert family and friends of your decreasing magma temperatures.
status via text message or using the Red Cross’ Safe and Well
Types of Lava Flows
website. Avoid making phone calls unless it is an emergency as
telecommunications are commonly very busy during and after Basaltic Lava
disasters.
▪ Fastest flowing lava because of its relatively low
When it is safe to return home, check the structure and utilities viscosity.
for damage. The Red Cross has helpful guides that detail what to
look for when returning after disaster. Also, document any ▪ The most abundant lava on earth and is the lava most
damage in photos for insurance purposes. commonly depicted in pictures and media.

Don respiratory protection when cleaning up ash indoors or out. ▪ Usually associated with the broad landforms of shield
The Red Cross suggests removing ash from your roof as soon as volcanoes.
possible since it is heavy and cause structural collapse—a
Andesitic Lava
problem only made worse with rainfall. However, be extra
careful with ash removal if you have breathing problems. Also, if ▪ These viscous lavas have relatively high aspect ratios
you must climb on your roof, watch out, since ash can also be (thickness/area), generally > 1/100, and some are thick
slippery and cause falls. enough to form as lava domes.
 ▪ These flows are called block lava flows as the surface least 2,200 years, lasting 1,774 days and producing 350 million
fragments are loosely termed blocks. cubic meters of lava. Lava flowed down the sides of the feature
and large lava fountains (Including one 539.5 meter high
▪ Andesitic flows are slow by lava flow standards (travels 5
fountain) were witnessed.
meters/day).

Sheet Lava The flows formed during this time period cover 44 sq. km and
some lava deposits are reported to be 7.6 meters deep. The
▪ Thicker than pahoehoe and have surface textures flows destroyed parts of the Chain of Craters Road, but the
ranging from ropy to striated. damage has since been repaired and the dormant cone can be
now be visited.
▪ Usually collapse as a result of the emptying of lava
below the hardened surface. 1669 Mount Etna Eruption

Pillow Lavas The 1669 eruption of Mount Etna is the largest-recorded

historical eruption of the volcano. After several weeks of
▪ Pillow-shaped rocks formed by the sudden cooling of
increasing seismic activity that damaged the town of Nicolosi and
lava that is deposited underwater.
other settlements, an eruption fissure opened on the
▪ Undersea volcanoes are the usual sources of lavas that southeastern flank of Etna during the night of 10-11 March.
form pillows. Several more fissures became active during 11 March,
erupting pyroclastics and tephra that fell over Sicily and
Rhyolitic Lava accumulated to form the Monti Rossi scoria cone.
▪ Flows have relatively higher viscosity that is why these Lava disgorged from the eruption fissures flowed southwards
are slower than andesitic and basaltic flows. away from the vent, burying a number of towns and farmland
▪ Associated with violent eruptions involving pyroclastic during March and April, eventually covering 37–40 square
flows and with very steep landforms such as lava domes kilometres (14–15 sq mi). The inhabitants of the towns fled to the
and lava spines. city of Catania and sought refuge there; religious ceremonies
were held in the city to implore the end of the eruption. 
▪ Flow out of a volcano after the pyroclastic event
There are no known fatalities of the 1669 eruption but many
Lava Flow Hazard Zoning: Factors Affecting Volcanic Landforms towns, parts of Catania and farmland were destroyed by the lava
and Lava Flow Extent flow and the earthquakes that accompanied the eruption. 

There are few important things that geologists bear in mind 1814 Mayon Volcano Eruption
when drawing a lava flow hazard zones. Aside from considering
the viscosity discussed in earlier sections, the morphology Its most destructive recorded eruption occurred on February 1,
(including how wide it is) and how far the lava flow travels 1814. Lava flowed but less than the 1766 eruption. The volcano
depends also on extrusion rate and and slope of the land. belched dark ash and eventually bombarded the town
of Cagsawa with tephra that buried it. Trees burned, and rivers
▪ At low effusion rates (10m/sec) small basalt lava flows were certainly damaged. Proximate areas were also devastated
merely pile up near the vent. by the eruption, with ash accumulating to in depth. 

▪ At discharged rate of tens of cubic meters per second: In Cagsawa town, about 1,200 locals perished in what is
basalt lava flow cover tens of square kilometers. considered to be the most lethal eruption in Mayon's history
according to PHIVOLCS. The eruption is believed to have
▪ At effusion rate 5000m/sec: basalt lava flows cover
contributed to the accumulation of atmospheric ash together
more that 500km.
with the catastrophic 1815 eruption of other volcanoes like
▪ At discharge rate of 1000000m/sec: flood basalt flows Indonesia's Mount Tambora, leading to the Year Without a
cover tens of thousands of square kilometers. Summer in 1816.

Places at Risk 2018 Lower Puna Eruption

Lava flows occur frequently at Hawaii. That is why United States The 2018 lower Puna eruption was a volcanic event on the island
Geological Survey (USGS) created Lava Flow Hazard Zones. of Hawaiʻi, on Kīlauea volcano's East Rift Zone that began on May
3, 2018. It is related to the larger eruption of Kīlauea that began
First prepared in 1974 by Donal Mullineaux and Donald Peterson on January 3, 1983, though some volcanologists and USGS
of the USGS and revised in 1992, the maps outline the qualitative scientists have discussed whether to classify it as a new
hazard posed by lava flows based on the past history of lava flow eruption. Outbreaks of lava fountains up to 300 feet (90 m) high,
activity on each of the 5 volcanoes that form the Island of lava flows, and volcanic gas in the Leilani Estates subdivision
Hawaiʻi. Zone 1 represents the areas that are most hazardous were preceded by earthquakes and ground deformation that
and Zone 9 the least hazardous. created cracks in the roads.
Zone 1 - Includes summits and rift zones of Kilauea and Mauna ▪ 24 persons were injured from lava fountains and lava
Loa volcanoes, where vents have been repeatedly active in flows
historical time. ▪ At least $800 million (2018 USD) in property damage
Historical Events ▪ Volcanic gas and earthquakes forced the evacuation of
populated areas and destroyed houses, roads, and
Mauna Ulu Eruption (1969-1974) utilities.

The eruption that formed Mauna Ulu began on May 24, 1969 and 2002 Mount Nyiragongo
continued until July 22, 1974. At the time, this was the longest-
lasting and most voluminous eruption on Kīlauea's flank in at Another major eruption of the volcano began on January 17,
2002, after several months of
increased seismic and fumarolic activity. A 13 km fissure opened Ballistics are associated with all forms of explosive eruptions but
in the south flank of the volcano, spreading in a few hours from are considered major hazards of hydrothermal, phreatic,
2800 m to 1550 m elevation and reaching the outskirts of the city phreatomagmatic, Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions,
of Goma, the provincial capital on the northern shore of Lake especially those which have little to no precursory signals of
Kivu. volcanic unrest.

Lava streamed from three spatter cones at the end of the fissure Places at Risk
and flowed in a stream 200 to 1000 m wide and up to 2 m deep
These blocks and bombs travel like cannonballs and usually land
through Goma. Warnings had been given and 400,000 people
within 2km of the vent (but can travel as far as 5km, or even
were evacuated from the city across the Rwandan border into
further, if the eruption is very explosive.)
neighbouring Gisenyi during the eruption. 
Ballistic projectiles are a risk to life on active volcanoes and can
About 245 people died in the eruption
cause substantial damage to exposed infrastructure and the
from asphyxiation by carbon dioxide and buildings collapsing due
environment due to their high kinetic energy, mass, and often
to the lava and earthquakes. [9] At least 15% of Goma comprising
high temperatures. Volcanic ballistic projectiles are amongst the
4,500 buildings were destroyed, leaving about
most frequent causes of fatal incidents on volcanoes, with at
120,000 people homeless.
least 76 recorded deaths at six volcanoes (Galeras, Yasur,
Immediately after the eruption stopped, a large number of Popocatepetl, Pacaya, Raoul Island and Ontake) since 1993.
earthquakes were felt around Goma and Gisenyi. This swarm
Many more people have been injured as a result of ballistic
activity continued for about three months and caused the
impacts, frequently suffering from blunt force trauma (broken
collapse of more buildings.
bones), lacerations, burns, abrasions and bruising Additionally,
Precautionary Measures damage to buildings, infrastructure, property and the
surrounding environment are also common occurrences from
Take it with you…
ballistics during explosive eruptions.
▪ Essential medicines, toilet items and baby needs
Historical Events
▪ Important documents e.g. identification, insurance,
photos 2014 Mt. Ontake Eruption
▪ Transistor radio and torch
Recently, more than 50 people were killed by the 2014 Mt.
▪ Extra clothing
Ontake eruption and most of the fatalities were caused by
Before Leaving… ballistic projectiles. Another fatality occurred at Mt. Kusatsu in
January 2018 despite the growing awareness (among the public)
▪ Consider your pets and animals
of the dangers posed by ballistic projectiles, following the Ontake
▪ Turn off water, electricity, gas and heating oil at the
eruption.
mains.
▪ Secure premises Mt. Vesuvius 79 A.D.

When you reach safety… On 24 August, Vesuvius erupted ash, mud and toxic gases,
completely burying the nearby cities of Pompeii and
▪ Listen to your radio for further instructions, including
Herculaneum. The eruption killed 16,000 people. It took until
registration requirements.
1595 for the cities to be excavated and rediscovered. If the same
After an Eruption… eruption occurred today it would cost in the billions.

▪ If you have been evacuated, return home only if you Laki, Iceland, June 8, 1783
have been advised by government that it is safe.
The devastation of the Laki eruption was felt globally for years
▪ Seek medical help or counselling if needed.
after the event. The Laki eruption lasted for 8 months, emitting
▪ Write a list of all damage as soon as possible.
about 14.7km3 of lava. Toxic gases poisoned crops and killed 60
▪ It takes a long time to recover from an emergency - so
per cent of Iceland’s grazing livestock. The eruption resulted in a
tell the local government of your on-going needs.
famine that killed over 10,000 Icelandic people, roughly a quarter
of the country’s population at the time.
Ballistic Projectile
Krakatoa, Indonesia (August 1883)
Description
On the morning of 27 August, a series of massive eruptions tore
Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting volcano may hurl
the volcano’s walls apart. Krakatoa’s final eruption was four
into the air. Ballistic projectiles are one potentially lethal and
times more powerful than the largest bomb that humans have
damaging hazard produced in volcanic eruptions. Ballistics are
detonated. It produced a series of tsunamis that devastated the
fragments of lava (bombs) or rock (blocks) ejected in explosive
region, killing around 36,000 people and destroying whole
eruptions. Ballistic Projectiles are volcanic materials which are
villages. Some have estimated the cost of the eruption to be as
directly ejected from the volcano's vent with force and
high as $1.5 billion
trajectory. These object may endanger life and property due to
the force of impact of falling fragments, this only occurs only Preparedness Measures
close to an eruption vent.
A hazard map is a primary tool used to present hazard and risk
Causes information. Zonation is generally used as a means to distinguish
areas of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and risk. Ballistic hazard
Ballistic Projectiles are volcanic materials which are directly
map zones may be classified by maximum travel distance of
ejected from the volcano's vent with force and trajectory. These
particles, number of ballistic impacts per unit area, probability of
objects endanger life and property due to the force of impact of
falling fragments, but this occurs only close to an eruption vent.
a specific size of ballistics reaching a given area, or probability of
a specific consequence occurring e.g. death, injury, damage.

Effective communication is an essential component of this. Once

these steps are complete, we then suggest that a ballistic risk
assessment is undertaken to help underpin effective
management and communication of ballistic hazard and risk.
Best-practice ballistic risk assessment generally consists of: (1)
reviewing the volcano’s eruptive history to establish eruption
frequency and eruption magnitude; (2) determining the nature
and extent of past ballistic distributions; (3) exploring possible
future ballistic distributions; (4) identifying assets exposed in the
area; and (5) estimating the asset’s vulnerability.