Lecture 5 Today:

Vector calculus review

Continuity equation
Brief Review of Vector Calculus

A vector is characterized by both direction and magnitude. They are represented by

a variable topped by a bar:

g , q, qs , dh,

A scalar has only a magnitude , , , n, h, S , S s

To construct a vector, we multiply unit vectors by an appropriate scalar:

z (unit vector in the Z direction)

y (unit vector in the Y direction)

X
x (unit vector in the X direction)
a
f = ax + b y + cz Also written f = b
c

Project vector f onto each axis, project straight down to x-y plane, then form right
angles to each axis. Just make a flat line to the z-axis.

To find the magnitude (length) of a vector:

The magnitude of vector f (written f ) is a 2 + b2 + c2

To multiply a vector by a scalar:

ma
m f = ma x + mb y + mc z = mb
Multiplication by a scalar only affects the length.
A vector multiplied by a scalar results in a vector.
mc
 Multiplying vectors by each other:
For groundwater flow, the dot product is the most commonly used method.

g = gx x + g y y + gz z g
g k
k = kx x + k y y + kz z k

What does it mean to multiply these two vectors by each other?

( g dot k ) is the product of the component of g in the direction of k with

magnitude k . The result is a scalar.

g
The double-headed arrow represents
the component of g in the direction of k.

k

g k = g k cos( ) = g x k x + g y k y + g z k z

Force contributed is F2 F3
F2 cos (45) No work contributed
45

F1
100% of force Direction of movement
contributed

g
g k
k g k = g k cos(0) = g k

g k = g k cos(90) = g k 0 = 0
Gradient operator: The gradient operator is a way of doing differentiation with vectors.
This is a vector operator that gives the rate of change of a scalar field in the direction
of the greatest rate of change.

Z
z
( )
( ) : pronounced del
Z1
The ( ) indicates del is operating
on a scalar

In this case it is z because del is

Y
operating on elevation.
Y1
is the scaled gradient vector.
X X1

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) = x+ y+ z
x y z

So, if h ( x, y , z ) = x 2 + 2 y + z , h ( x, y , z ) = 2 x x + 2 y + z
The driving force for groundwater flow is -h because h points in the increasing
direction.

h = J (hydraulic gradient)

For a one-dimensional system (a Darcy column)

h( x) h( x) h( x) h( x) dh
h ( x ) = x+ y+ z= x=
x y z x dx
dh dh h h
If everything is uniform within the column, then is linear, so = =
dx dx x l
Divergence:
The divergence is obtained by taking the dot product of the gradient operator of a
vector. The result is a scalar.

( ) f is the divergence of f

Its basically taking the partial derivative of each component of a vector and adding them.

( )
f = x+
( )
y+
( )
(
z a x + b y + c z = )
a b c
+ +
x y z x y z

[( )] is the divergence of the gradient.

( ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( )
[( )] = + + = + 2 + 2
x x y y z z x 2 y z

Also written 2 ( ) This is essentially just taking the second partial derivative.

2 h ( x, y , z ) 2 h ( x, y , z ) 2 h ( x, y , z )
h = h ( x, y , z ) h=
2

x 2
+
y 2
+
z 2

If 2 h = 0 then the head field is described by straight lines

If 2 h = then the head field isnt just made up of straight lines, but it is still pretty
simple

= k (constant)

The divergence shows the forces operating upon an object, such as those that give it
velocity. If a, b and c are all constants, then the velocity will be constant and
divergence will be zero. There will be no change in the velocity of the object.
 Tensors

K xx K xy K xz Kij is the entry from the ith row, jth column

Kij gives flux in i-direction for a unit gradient applied
K = K yx K yy K yz in the j-direction
K zx K zy K zz

K is a symmetric tensor (Kij = Kji)

h ( K h + K h + K h ) x
x xx x xy xz

qx K xx K xy K xz x y z

h h h h
q = q y = K yx K yy K yz y = ( K yx + K yy + K yz ) y
y x y z
q z K zx K zy K zz h
h h h
z ( K zx x + K zy y + K zz z ) z
z 14444244443
qZ

Darcy's Law in 3-D (vector form)

Kmax

If our coordinate axes for our problem are aligned differently

than the principal directions of K, we must use a full tensor
Kmin for K

Instead, we can rotate coordinate axes so they are parallel to the axes of the
conductivity ellipsoid

z
z
y

x x

y
 If the axes are aligned, then the off-diagonal terms in the tensor are zero.

K xx K xy K xz K xx 0 0

K = K yx K yy K yz = 0 K yy 0
K zx K zy K zz 0 0 K zz

h h h
q = Kh = ( K xx x + K yy y + K zz z)
x y z

Suppose K is isotropic: this implies off-diagonal terms in K are zero

(flow is only in the direction of gradient)

h h h
Kxx = Kyy = Kzz = K q = K ( x+ y+ z ) = Kh
x y z

h
If we consider flow in only one direction: q = K
x

Flow Equations
General Continuity Equation
Assumptions
1) Medium is not deformable (id est elastic changes of shape)
2) Fluid density is nearly constant
(storage depends on density, pressure changes can affect density)
3) Darcys law applies

Statement of Mass Conservation (or Continuity)

volume in volume out = change in storage
 Volume into the x face = q X AX = q X dydz

Volume into the y face = qY AY = qY dxdz

Volume into the z face = qZ AZ = qZ dydx

Total volume in =

q X dydz + qY dxdz + qZ dydx

Volume out of the X-face =

q X q
q Xout AX = q X dydz + dxAx = q X dydz + X dxdydz
x x
(If q Xout q Xin , then q X must have changed over dx)

qY
Volume out of the Y-face = qY dxdz + dxdydz
y
qZ
Volume out of the Z-face = qZ dxdy + dxdydz
z
Total Volume of outflow =
q X q qZ
(q X + dx)dydz + (qY + Y dy )dxdz + ( q{Z + dz )dxdy
{
x y Velocity in
z
123 Area
Velocity change
over length

Vw
Change in storage = Vw = S s VT h
t
 h h
Rate of change in storage = S s VT = Ss dx dy dz
t t
storage =
outflow
644444444444 7444444444448
64444Inflow 744448 q q q
q X dydz + qY dxdz + qZ dxdy (q X + X dx)dydz (qY + Y dy )dxdz (qZ + Z dz )dxdy
x y z
q q q h
= X dxdydz Y dxdydz Z dxdydz = S S dxdydz
x y z t

general equation of continuity

The negative of the divergence of velocity is equal to the specific storage times the
rate of change of the head with respect to time.

The negative of the divergence of velocity is equal to the rate of change in storage.

What does the divergence mean?

What sort of field of q does

this represent?
z h

When head changes from h1 to h2, flowlines will have

z h1 to diverge to allow for the fact that more water is
h2 coming out than is being put in. We need to add
additional area to accommodate additional water.

x
What are possible combinations of homogeneous/heterogeneous and
isotropic/anisotropic?

Remember that homogeneity refers to the magnitude of K in any given direction

being equal at all points in an aquifer. Many people are confused as to how an
anisotropic aquifer could be homogeneous; this is due to thinking that homogeneity
requires K in all directions to be the same at a given pointthat is what
isotropic/anisotropic defines. The following diagram from Freeze and Cherry (1979)
is probably the most helpful figure in conceptualizing the properties.
 dh
Left side of continuity equation has q, this is driven by Lets try to relate the left
side to h
dx

Assume the axes of K are parallel to x,y,z

h h h
Then qX = K X , qY = K Y , qZ = K Z
x y z

vector form

h h h
K X Y y K Z
K
x z h
+ + = SS
x y z t
General continuity equation: can represent heterogeneous, anisotropic media

h
If K axes not aligned with x, y, z, then we must use K h = S S
t

How could we simplify the general continuity equation if we are dealing with a
heterogeneous, isotropic medium?

K = f(x,y,z), Kx = Ky = Kz

h h h
K K K
x + y + z = S h
S
x y z t

How could we simplify the general continuity equation if we are dealing with a
homogeneous, anisotropic medium?

K f(x,y,z), Kx Ky Kz

2h 2h 2h h
K x 2 + K y 2 + K z 2 = SS
x y z t
 How could we simplify the general continuity equation if we are dealing with a
homogeneous, isotropic medium?

K f(x,y,z), Kx = Ky = Kz

2h 2h 2h h
K 2 + 2 + 2 = S S
x y z t

h
K 2 h = S S
t
h
Kb 2 h = S S b
t
h
T h = S
2

t
S h
h=
2
T t
Has the form of Ficks second lawdescribes the transient diffusion of solutes

S hydraulic diffusivity
T