Notes on Electrodynamics

One semester course for the first year students of LNM Institute of
Information Technology, Jaipur, India (www.lnmiit.ac.in )

Course : Physics 02
Text Book : Introduction to Electrodynamics:
David J. Griffiths
Year : 2008 – 2009, Second semester
Instructor : Dr Amit Neogi ( amit.neogi@gmail.com)
(mobile: 9413839224)
 Chapter 1:
Vector Analysis
• Vector Algebra
– Addition of two vectors: Head to tail rule
– Multiplication by a scalar
– Dot product of two vectors (scalar)
 
A.B  AB cos  A. A  A2

– Cross product of two vectors (vector) –direction

determined by right hand rule
  
A  B  AB sin  nˆ A A  0
Vector Algebra :Component Form
Any arbitrary vector can be expanded in terms of its components- Basis
vectors. (Here i, j, k are the unit vectors along x, y and z direction)

A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ

A.B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ).( Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ)
 Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz

A. A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2

A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2

iˆ  iˆ  0 iˆ.iˆ  1 iˆ  ˆj  kˆ   ˆj  iˆ
 iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
A  B  Ax Ay Az  iˆ( Ay Bz  Az By )  ˆj ( Ax Bz  Az Bx )  kˆ(...)
Bx By Bz

Scalar Triple Product



A.( B  C )  B.(C  A)  C.( A  B )
Ax Ay Az
 
A.( B  C )  Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz

Vector Triple Product

 
A  ( B  C )  B ( A.C )  C ( A.B ) ( A  B)  C  C  ( A  B )
 Position Vector

 ˆ ˆ

r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ r  xi  yj  zkˆ


r  x2  y 2  z 2


r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ


r xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ
rˆ   
r x y z
2 2 2
 Infinitesimal Displacement
Vector
The infinitesimal displacement vector from
(x, y, z) to (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) is

dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ
Or
 ˆ ˆ ˆ
dr  dxi  dyj  dzk
 Separation Vector
Source Point: Where an electric
charge is located

Field Point: Where Electric or


 r r'
Magnetic Field is calculated

 '
Separation Vector  r r
( note the style of ‘r’ )

A Unit Vector in the direction of separation vector is given by

 '
r r ( x  x ' )iˆ  ( y  y ' ) ˆj  ( z  z ' )kˆ
  ' 
r r ( x  x' )2  ( y  y ' )2  ( z  z ' )2
 Differential Calculus
Ordinary Derivatives
Suppose there is a function of one variable f(x)

What does the derivative df/dx tell you ?

 df 
df    dx
 dx 
Geometrically df/dx is the slope of the graph of f versus x
 Gradient
Let’s take a function of three variables T(x, y, z)
Derivative should tell us how fast the function varies with
distance but it depends in three directions : So problem is
not simple
Answer lies in partial derivatives

 T   T   T 
dT    dx    dy    dz
 x   y   z 
  T  ˆ  T  ˆ  T  ˆ
dT   
  x
i  
  y
 j 
  z  
 ˆ
 k  . dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzk 
 
 (T ).(dl )
   T  ˆ  T  ˆ  T ˆ
T   i    j  k
 x   y   z 

Gradient of T : A Vector Quantity

       
ˆ
 i   ˆj    k  
ˆ 
 x   y   z 

“Del”: A Vector Operator

 Geometrical Interpretation of
 Gradient

dT  (T ).(dl )  T dl cos 
 
where  is the angle between T and dl . Now if we fix the magnitude

dl and search around in various directions (that is vary  ), the maximum
change in T occurs when   0 (for cos =1). That is for a fixed distance
 
dl , dT is greatest when I move in the same direction as T .Thus

The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase
of the function T

The magnitude T gives the slope (rate of increase) along
this maximal direction
 
T  0 mean dT=0  A stationary point: It could be a maximum
minimum or a point of inflection

Imagine you are standing on a hillside . Look around you,

and find the direction of steepest ascent. That is the
direction of the gradient. Now measure the slope in that
direction (rise over run). That is the magnitude of the
gradient. From the gradient equation the direction of
maximum descent is opposite to the direction of maximum
ascent

Ex#1.3
Find the gradient of r  x 2  y 2  z 2 (the magnitude of position vector)
In the above two images, the scalar field
is in black and white, black representing
higher values, and its corresponding
gradient is represented by blue arrows.
 
The operator 
       
ˆ
 i   ˆj    k  
ˆ 
 x   y   z 

 known as “Del” or “Nabla” is not simply a
vector but a vector operator which either acts
on a scalar function or a vector function (mainly
3 ways)


1. On a scalar function T : T (gradient)
 
2. On a vector function v, via the dot product: .v (divergence)
  
3. On a vector function v, via the cross product:   v (curl)
 Divergence
  ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
.v =( i + j+ k ).(vx.iˆ + vy.jˆ + vz.k)
ˆ
x y z
vx vy vz
= + +
x y z

Divergence of a vector function v is itself a scalar.

Geometrical Interpretation

Divergence is a measure of how much the vector spreads out

(diverges) from the point
 Different cases of Divergence

(a) Positive Divergence

(b) Zero Divergence
(c) Positive divergence

 If the arrows are in all the direction then it is positive divergence.

f the arrows are in same direction of same size then divergence is zero.
f the arrows are in same direction of increasing size then divergence
is positive.
A point of positive divergence is a source or faucet.
A point of negative divergence is a drain.
 Curl
 iˆ ˆj kˆ 
  Curl of a vector function is a vector

     
v 
 x y z  Geometrical Interpretation
 
v vy vz  This measures how much the vector v
 x “curls around” the point in question

Non zero curl pointing in z direction

Suppose the function sketched in previous slides is v a   yiˆ  xjˆ and
ˆ k)
v  xjˆ. Calculate their curls . (Ans#2k, ˆ
b
 Second Derivatives
1. Divergence of gradient
  ˆ  ˆ  ˆ T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
.(T )  ( i + j+ k ).( i + j+ k)
x y z x y z
 2T  2T  2T
= + + =  2
T
x 2
y 2
z 2

 2T  Laplacian
2. Curl of a gradient 
 
  (T ) = 0
3. Divergence of a curl
 
.(  v )  0
 Integral Calculus
• Line or path Integrals
• Surface integrals
• Volume Integrals
 Line Integrals
A line integral is an expression of the form

 v.dl
a
v  Vector function.
dl = infinitesimal displacement.

The integration is to be carried along a prescribed path P

from point a to point b. At each point on the path we take
the dot product of v (evaluated at that point) with the
displacement dl to the next point on the path)

If the path is a closed loop (that is b=a)

b
 v.dl
 F .dl = Work done
a
When is F called Conservative ?
Line integral of a function v  y 2iˆ  2 x( y  1) ˆj
along the path (1) and (2)
 Surface Integrals

 v.da
S
V is a vector function and da is an infinitesimal
patch of area with direction perpendicular to
the surface (outward normal)

If the surface is closed

(forming a baloon) then :

 v.da
Volume Integrals
V
Td Here T is a scalar function and d is an
infinitesimal volume element

d  dxdydz
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
What is the total change in the function
(from a to b) ?

b
df
a dx dx = f(b) - f(a)

The integral of a derivative over an interval is given by the

value of the function at the end points (boundaries)
 Fundamental Theorem for
Gradients
Total change in T in going from a to b along the selected path is :

 (T ).dl 
a
T(b) - T(a)

Fundamental theorem says that the integral (here a line

integral) of a derivative (here the gradient) is given by
the value of the function at the boundaries (a and b)
b
Cor 1
 (T ).dl is independent of path taken from a to b
a

Cor 2  (T).dl  0, since the beginning and end points

are identical, and hence T (b) - T ( a)  0
 Fundamental Theorem for
Divergence
 
 ( .v
vol
)d  =  v .da
S

Gauss theorem / Green’s theorem/

divergence theorem

 (faucets within the volume)   (flow out through the surface)

i.e changing volume integral to a surface integral
 Fundamental Theorem for Curls
  
 (  v ).da   v.dl
S P

Strokes’ Theorem
 
 (  v ).da depends only on the boundary line, (not on the surface)
S
 
 (  v ).da  0 for any closed surface since boundary shrinks to 0

Changing Surface integral to line Integral

 Curvilinear Coordinates
• Spherical Polar coordinates
• Cylindrical coordinates
 Spherical Polar Coordinates
(r,,)
The spherical polar coordinates
(r,,) of a point P: (imagine a sphere)
r is the distance from the origin, 
(the angle down the z axis) and 
(the angle around from the x axis)
Polar angle
Their relation to cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z) are as follows

x  r sin  cos 
y  r sin  sin  Azimuthal angle
Any vector A

z  r cos  A  Ar rˆ  A ˆ  Aˆ
rˆ, ˆ, ˆ are three unit vectors perpendicular to each other
but change with position
 Infinitesimal displacement (r,,) and Volume
Along unit vectors

rˆ  dlr =dr
ˆ  dl  rd
ˆ  dl  r sin  d

Total

dl  dr rˆ  rd ˆ +r sin  d ˆ
d  dlr dl dl  r sin  d d dr
2
 Infinitesimal Area (r,,)

Over the surface ( r is cont.)

da2  dlr dl ˆ  rdrd ˆ

da1  dl dl r  r sin  d d rˆ

ˆ 2

Surface lies in x y plane (  is constant)

da2  dlr dl ˆ  r sin  drd ˆ

Volume of a sphere (see the limits)
Vector derivatives in spherical
coordinates
 Cylindrical Coordinates (s,,z)
• The cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional
coordinate system which essentially extends circular polar
coordinates by adding a third coordinate ( z) which measures
the height of a point above the plane.(Think of a Cylinder)
  has the same meaning as in sherical coordinates, z is the same
as cartesian, s is the distance to P from the z axis.
• The relation with Cartesian coordinate:-

x  s cos  , y  s sin  , zz

Range :
dl  ds sˆ  sd ˆ +dz zˆ s:0  

d  sdsd dz  : 0  2
z :   
Vector Derivatives in Cylindrical
Coordinates
 One Dimensional Dirac Delta
Function
• The one dimensional Dirac delta function,  (x) can be
pictured as an infinitely high, infinitesimally narrow
“Spike,” with area 1

0 if x  0
 (x)= 
 if x  0
and


 (x)dx=1
 Summary ( Chapter 1)

Vector Algebra Fundamental Theorems Spherical Polar Coordinates (r,,)

b
df
Position Vector

a dx dx = f(b) - f(a) x  r sin  cos 
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ b
y  r sin  sin 
Infinitesimal displacement P(T ).dl  T(b) - T(a)
 a z  r cos 
dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ Divergence Theorem
 
 (.v )d =  v.da dl  dr rˆ  rd ˆ +r sin  d ˆ
Del Operator vol S
         Strokes Theorem d  dlr dl dl  r 2 sin  d d dr
  iˆ    ˆj    kˆ     
 x   y   z 

 (  v ).da   v.dl
S P
da1  dl dl rˆ  r 2 sin  d d rˆ
1. On a scalar function T : T (gradient) Range of =0-, =0-2, r=0-
 
2. On a vector function v, .v (divergence) Cylindrical Coordinates (s,,z)
  
3. On a vector function v,   v (curl)
Dirac Delta Function x  s cos  , y  s sin  , zz
 2T  Laplacian 0
 (x)= 
if x  0 dl  ds sˆ  sd ˆ +dz zˆ
1.
 if x  0 d  sdsd dz
2. Curl of a gradient  and Range :
 
  (T ) = 0  s:0  
3. Divergence of a curl

 (x)dx=1
 : 0  2
  z :   
.(  v )  0
 Summary: Chapter 1

Vector Algebra Fundamental Theorems Spherical Polar Coordinates (r,,)

b
df
Position Vector

a dx dx = f(b) - f(a) x  r sin  cos 
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ b
y  r sin  sin 
Infinitesimal displacement P(T ).dl  T(b) - T(a)
 a z  r cos 
dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ Divergence Theorem
 
 (.v )d =  v.da dl  dr rˆ  rd ˆ +r sin  d ˆ
Del Operator vol S
         Strokes Theorem d  dlr dl dl  r 2 sin  d d dr
  iˆ    ˆj    kˆ     
 x   y   z 

1. On a scalar function T : T (gradient)
 (  v ).da   v.dl
S P
da1  dl dl rˆ  r 2 sin  d d rˆ
  Range of =0-, =0-2, r=0-
2. On a vector function v, .v (divergence)
  Cylindrical Coordinates (s,,z)
3. On a vector function v,   v (curl)
Dirac Delta Function x  s cos  , y  s sin  , zz
 T  Laplacian
2

0
 (x)= 
if x  0 dl  ds sˆ  sd ˆ +dz zˆ
1.
 if x  0 d  sdsd dz
2. Curl of a gradient  and Range :
   s:0  
  (T ) = 0
3. Divergence of a curl

 (x)dx=1
 : 0  2
  z :   
.(  v )  0