PHN-101

Vector Calculus : The tools required to study electrodynamics, theoretically

 
Vectors A 
boldface arrow

‘A physical quantity that has a magnitude and a direction’ : (Is this definition sufficient?)


r  x x̂  y ŷ  z ẑ
ẑ

 r r  x 2  y 2  z 2
r r̂
z ŷ 
r x x̂  y ŷ  z ẑ
x r̂  
y r x 2  y2  z2
x̂


Infinitesimal line element : d l dx x̂  dy ŷ  dz ẑ
‘A physical quantity that has a magnitude and a direction’ : (Is this definition sufficient?)

  
Is this a ‘vector’ ?  ( x̂  ŷ  ẑ)
x y z

(Actually it is a ‘vector operator’ – called the ‘del operator’)

So, one has to look for a ‘better’ or more compact definition of a vector.
 Consider the (x’,y’,z’) system rotated by f
relative to (x,y,z), about the common x=x’ axis

Vector A has components ( Ax , Ay , Az ) or ( Ax ' , Ay ' , Az ' ), depending on the cood. syst.

Ay  A cos  Az  A sin 

Ay '  A cos(   )  A(cos  cos   sin  sin  )

Ay ' cos  Ay  sin  Az

Az '  sin  Ay  cos  Az

In matrix notation  Ay '   cos  sin    Ay 
    
 Az '    sin  cos    Az 

The rotation considered here leaves

the x-axis untouched.

 Ax '   1 0 0   Ax 
    
 Ay '   0 cos  sin    Ay 
 A   0  sin  cos    Az 
 z'  
 The rotation considered here leaves
the x-axis untouched.

 Ax '   1 0 0   Ax 
    
 Ay '   0 cos  sin    Ay 
 A   0  sin  cos    Az 
 z'  

Challenge: Can you now show that the same transformation matrix is responsible for
change of cood. syst. from ( xˆ , yˆ , zˆ )  ( xˆ ', yˆ ', zˆ '), for rotation about the common x=x’ axis.

 xˆ '   1 0 0   xˆ 
ˆ    ˆ
y
  '  0 cos  sin   y
 zˆ '   0  sin  cos    zˆ 
    
 So, what is a ‘vector’ ?

A vector is that quantity that transforms in the same way as the coordinate system itself
does, under the transformation.

(In our example, the ‘transformation’ was a ‘rotation’.)

Another way to define a vector:

A vector is a set of three components that transforms in the same manner as a

‘displacement’, when coordinates are changed (or transformed).
Derivatives

Consider a single valued function, f = f (x)

Derivative
df
df ( )dx
dx

For a multi-valued function, f = f (x,y,z)

f f f
df ( )dx  ( )dy  ( )dz
x y z

Partial derivatives
Partial Derivatives
f(x,y,z) = 3xyz + x2

f
3 yz  2 x
x
f
3 xz
y
f
3 xy
z
Gradient
Consider a scalar field, f = f (x,y,z)
f f f
df ( )dx  ( )dy  ( )dz
x y z
f f f
( x̂  ŷ  ẑ) (dxx̂  dyŷ  dzẑ)
x y z
   
( x̂  ŷ  ẑ)f d l
x y z

The definition of the gradient of a scalar field

   Gradient operator “acting on” a scalar

f ( x̂  ŷ  ẑ)f field produces a vector field
x y z
  
The “del” or gradient operator  ( x̂  ŷ  ẑ)
x y z
Geometrical interpretation of the Gradient

What is its direction?

For a fixed |dl|, when is dT (change in T) greatest?

Move around(change) q, and see that the maximum change in T occurs for q=0

Now turn the above argument backwards :

For a fixed |dl|, dT (change in T) greatest when one moves along

The gradient is in the direction of maximum increase of the scalar function T.

Change in f(x,y) i.e. (fB – fA) is maximum

along which path (actually, rate of change)?

Ans: Path 1

fA

fB

f

f(x,y
)
Path 2 Path 1 Toposheet : 45 D/7
Divergence

   
 ( x̂  ŷ  ẑ) v  v x x̂  v y ŷ  v z ẑ
x y z

   
 v ( x̂  ŷ  ẑ) ( v x x̂  v y ŷ  v z ẑ)
x y z

v x v y v z
    g ( x , y, z )
x y z

The operation of divergence produces a new scalar field g(x,y,z) which is

related to the density of a scalar quantity such as charge, mass, etc.
 Physical interpretation of Divergence

Divergence is a measure of how fast the field lines stretch and/or spread out.

Charge density

 
 E 
0

 
 v 0  v  0
Curl

   
 ( x̂  ŷ  ẑ)
x y z
v  v x x̂  v y ŷ  v z ẑ

x̂ ŷ ẑ

 v   / x  / y  / z
vx vy vz

v z v y v x v z v y v x
 x̂ (  )  ŷ(  )  ẑ(  )
y z z x x y

The operation of curl produces a new vector field which is related to the
density of a vector quantity such as current.
Physical interpretation of Curl

Curl is a measure of how fast the field lines of a vector field twist or bend
in a direction set by a right-hand-rule

Current density

 
 B  0 J
Cartesian Coordinate system ( x, y , z )

ẑ

r  x x̂  y ŷ  z ẑ
 r̂
r
z ŷ
x
y
x̂

The unit vectors do not change direction from point to point

Cylindrical Coordinate system ( s,  , z )

x s cos 
y s sin 
z z

0s 0    2  z

ŝ cos  x̂  sin  ŷ
ˆ  sin  x̂  cos  ŷ
ẑ ẑ
The unit vectors change from point to point (except for Z).

A  x xˆ  y yˆ  z zˆ s cos  xˆ  s sin  yˆ  z zˆ

  
A / s ˆ  A /  A / z
sˆ    ẑ  
A / s A /  A / z

A / s cos  xˆ  sin  yˆ
 2
A / s cos 2   sin 2  1

 sˆ cos  xˆ  sin  yˆ
Spherical polar Coordinate system (r , ,  )
x r sin  cos 
y r sin sin 
z r cos 
0r 0    2
0

A A r r̂  A  ˆ  A  ˆ
r̂ sin  cos  x̂  sin  sin  ŷ  cos  ẑ
ˆ cos  cos  x̂  cos  sin  ŷ  sin  ẑ
ˆ  sin  x̂  cos  ŷ
The unit vectors change direction from point to point

A  x xˆ  y yˆ  z zˆ r sin  cos  xˆ  r sin  sin  yˆ  r cos  zˆ

  
A / r ˆ A /  A / 
r̂     ˆ  
A / r A /  A / 

A / r sin  cos  x̂  sin  sin  ŷ  cos  ẑ
 2
A / r sin 2  cos 2   sin 2  sin 2   cos 2  1

A  x xˆ  y yˆ  z zˆ r sin  cos  xˆ  r sin  sin  yˆ  r cos  zˆ

Homework : Prove that

x̂ sin  cos  r̂  cos  cos  ˆ  sin  ˆ

ŷ sin  sin  r̂  cos  sin  ˆ  cos  ˆ

ẑ cos  r̂  sin  ˆ
 (Volume and area elements in Cartesian coordinates)

ẑ 
• Line element d l dx x̂  dy ŷ  dz ẑ
 r̂
r
z ŷ • Infinitesimal volume element
x
x̂
y dV dxdydz
ẑ
• Infinitesimal area element
dz

da dxdyzˆ (top) dx

da  dxdyzˆ (bottom) ŷ
dy
x̂
(Volume and area elements in spherical coordinates)

dl dlr rˆ  dl ˆ  dl ˆ dr rˆ  rd ˆ  r sin  d ˆ
dr rsind
rd
r r
r 
d
d
rsin

Surface elements r is constant


da1 dl dl rˆ r 2 sin  d d rˆ
 is constant

da2 dlr dlˆ r sin  drdˆ

Infinitesimal volume element d dlr dl dlr 2 sin  drd d

 (Volume and area elements in cylindrical
coordinates)


dl dls sˆ  dl ˆ  dl z zˆ ds sˆ  sd ˆ  dz zˆ
 Curvilinear coordinates and vector calculus

Identify a point in space by three coordinate : (u,v,w)

Unit vectors : (mutually orthogonal)

Infinitesimal displacement vector :

(f,g,h) are functions of position cordinates (u,v,w)


dl dlr rˆ  dl ˆ  dl ˆ dr rˆ  rd ˆ  r sin  d ˆ
Infinitesimal displacement vector :

(f,g,h) are functions of position cordinates (u,v,w)

In spherical polar coordinates :


dl dlr rˆ  dl ˆ  dl ˆ dr rˆ  rd ˆ  r sin  d ˆ

f 1, g r , h r sin 
Gradient operator in curvilinear coordinates
Divergence operator in curvilinear coordinates

Curl operator in curvilinear coordinates

 Line, surface and volume integrals

Line integral

If the path of the integration is closed eg. abca , then it is called a contour integral

Remember : “Work done”

 Line, surface and volume integrals

Surface integral
(Flux of A through S)


 A.dS

For a closed surface defining a volume

Line, surface and volume integrals

Volume integrals

Volume integral of the scalar r over the volume V.

Volume, V

I  dv
Divergence revisited

Divergence of A at a given point, P, is the

outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P
Divergence theorem (Gauss’s theorem)

Total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the same as the
volume integral of the divergence of A.

Consider the flow of water out of a volume having an outer surface

(flow out through the surface) (flow from the 'taps' within the volume)
S v
Curl revisited

The curl of A is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero.
Stokes’ theorem

Circulation of A around a closed path L

= surface integral of curl A over open surface S bounded by L

(A and curl A should be continuous over S)

1)

2)

2
Divergence of the electric field

The flux of E through a surface S

Actually, what does this measure?

Flux through any closed surface is a measure of the total charge inside.

q
q
Point charge q at the origin, the flux of E through a sphere of radius r is

Notice: same number of field lines pass through

any sphere (whatever be its size, centered at the charge)
q
or any other shape too.

Actually it is independent of the shape of the volume (bounded by the closed surface)

Flux through any surface enclosing the charge

 What if there are more than one charges?

Use superposition principle :

Flux through a surface that encloses them all, is

Qenc is the total charge within the volume (bounded by the closed surface S)

Gauss Law (integral form)

Differential form of Gauss’s Law

(Applying divergence theorem)

r is the charge density

Gauss Law (differential form)

Curl of the electric field

Calculate
Calculate
Using Stokes theorem,
Concept of ‘potential’
As (i.e. Gradient of a scalar)

Check that : ( V ) 0 V : ‘potential’

How does Gauss law look like in terms of the potential :

(Laplacian of the potential)

(Poisson’s equation)

(charge free region, Laplace’s equation)

 (The gradient theorem)
b 
P (T) d l T(b)  T(a )
a

Integral is taken along any curve P that has end-points a and b

b
Fundamental theorem of calculus df ( x )
for a function of one variable 
a
dx
dx f (b)  f (a )

For the electric potential, the line integral of a gradient is

independent of the path taken from a to b. The gradient
theorem ensures this. Such fields are said to be ‘conservative
fields’
b
  b 
a
E d l  (V) d l V(a )  V(b)
a
 Curvilinear coordinates and vector calculus

Identify a point in space by three coordinate : (u,v,w)

Unit vectors : (mutually orthogonal)

Infinitesimal displacement vector :

(f,g,h) are functions of position cordinates (u,v,w)


dl dlr rˆ  dl ˆ  dl ˆ dr rˆ  rd ˆ  r sin  d ˆ
Infinitesimal displacement vector :

(f,g,h) are functions of position cordinates (u,v,w)

In spherical polar coordinates :


dl dlr rˆ  dl ˆ  dl ˆ dr rˆ  rd ˆ  r sin  d ˆ

f 1, g r , h r sin 
Gradient operator in curvilinear coordinates
Divergence operator in curvilinear coordinates

Curl operator in curvilinear coordinates

 Line, surface and volume integrals

Line integral

If the path of the integration is closed eg. abca , then it is called a contour integral

Remember : “Work done”

 Line, surface and volume integrals

Surface integral
(Flux of A through S)


 A.dS

For a closed surface defining a volume

Line, surface and volume integrals

Volume integrals

Volume integral of the scalar r over the volume V.

Volume, V

I  dv
Divergence revisited

Divergence of A at a given point, P, is the

outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P
Divergence theorem (Gauss’s theorem)

Total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the same as the
volume integral of the divergence of A.

Consider the flow of water out of a volume having an outer surface

(flow out through the surface) (flow from the 'taps' within the volume)
S v
Curl revisited

The curl of A is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero.
Stokes’ theorem

Circulation of A around a closed path L

= surface integral of curl A over open surface S bounded by L

(A and curl A should be continuous over S)

1)

2)