Vector Calculus

The Del operator

Gradient of a Scalar
Divergence of a Vector
Divergence Theorem
Curl of a Vector
Stoke’s Theorem
Two Null Identities
Types of Fields
Types of Vector Fields
 The Del Operator
 The Del operator is the vector differential operator.
 It is also called as Gradient Operator, it is not a
vector in itself .
 The operator is useful in defining
1) The Gradient of a Scalar , written as

2) The Divergence of a Vector, written as

3) The Curl of a Vector, written as

4) The Laplacian of a Scalar, written as

 Del Operator is defined in Cartesian Co-Ordinate
System as

 In other Co-Ordinate Systems it is Derived from the

above expression
 In Cylindrical Co-Ordinate System

 In Spherical Co-Ordinate System

 Gradient Of a Scalar
 The Gradient of a Scalar field  is a vector that
represents both magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of 
  d
Q  x  dx, y  dy, z  dz 


P  x, y, z 

For a constant  surface, d = 0.

Therefore P is normal to the surface.
 •
• P
Q3 •

•
• Q1
Q2
 •

•
 Thus, the magnitude of Gradient at any point P is the
rate of increase of  normal to the surface, which is
the maximum rate of increase of  at that point. Thus

Useful for finding unit normal vector to the surface.

Properties of Gradient of a scalar function 

 The magnitude of equals the maximum rate of

change in  per unit distance.
 points in the direction of the maximum rate of
change in .
 at any point is perpendicular to the constant 
surface that passes through that point.
 The projection (or component) of in the direction
of a unit vector is and is called the
directional derivative of  along . This is the rate of
change of  in the direction of .
 If ,  is said to be the scalar potential of
 6-11

Finding unit normal vectors to the surface

2 x2  2 y2  z2  8 at several points:

  x, y, z   2x2  2 y2  z2


   2 x2  2 y2  z2  ax
x

  2 x2  2 y2  z2  a y
y

  2 x2  2 y2  z2  az
z
 4 x ax  4 y a y  2 z az

6-11
 6-12

(a) At  
2, 2, 0 ,
4 2 ax  4 2 a y ax  a y
an  
4 2 ax  4 2 a y 2

(b) At 1,1, 2 ,
4ax  4ay  4az ax  ay  az
an  
4 ax  4ay  4az 3


(c) At 1, 2, 2 , 
4 ax  4 2 a y  2 2 az 2ax  2a y  az
an  
4 ax  4 2 a y  2 2 az 7
6-12
 In Cartesian Co-Ordinate System

 In Cylindrical Co-Ordinate System

 In Spherical Co-Ordinate System

Where Ф is any scalar field

Mathematical Formulas on Gradient

Where U and V are scalar fields

 Divergence Of a Vector
Basic definition of divergence

is the outward flux of A per unit volume in the limit

that the volume shrinks to the point.

Divergence meter
is a device to probe the field for studying the
divergence of the field. It responds to the closed
surface integral of the vector field.
3-15
 In Cartesian Co-Ordinate System

 In Cylindrical Co-Ordinate System

 In Spherical Co-Ordinate System

Divergence positive for (a) and (b),
negative for (c) and (d), and zero for (e)

3-17
 3-18 x
Example
At the point (1, 1, 0) 1

 x  1
2
(a) ax
y
z 1
Divergence zero x

(b)  y  1 ay 1

Divergence positive y
z 1
x

y
(c) e ay
1

Divergence negative
y
z 1
Divergence Theorem
For a very small differential volume element ∆vj bounded
by a surface sj we have

In case an arbitrary volume V , we can subdivide it into many,

say N, small differential volumes which is shown in the above
figure. Let us now combine the contributions of all these
differential volumes to both sides of equation (1). We have
 The left side of equation (2) is, by definition the volume
Integral of

The surface integrals on the right side of equation (2) are

summed over all the faces of all the differential volume
elements. The contributions from the internal surfaces of
adjacent elements will, however, cancel each other, because
at a common internal surface the outward normals of the
adjacent elements point in opposite directions. Hence the
net contribution of the right side of equation (2) is due only
to that of the external surface S bounding the volume V;
that is
 The substitution of equations (3) and (4) in (2) yields
the divergence theorem,

which states that the volume integral of the divergence

of a vector field equals the total outward flux of the vector
through the surface that bounds the volume.
 Curl of a Vector
3-23

Basic definition of curl

is the maximum value of circulation of A per

unit area in the limit that the area shrinks to the point.

Direction of is the direction of the normal

vector to the area in the limit that the area shrinks
to the point, and in the right-hand sense.
Stoke’s Theorem
 For a very small differential area ∆sj bounded by a contour Cj ,
we can write

The left side of above equation is the flux of the vector

through the area ∆sj . Adding the contribution of all differential
areas to the flux, we have
Now we sum up the line integrals around the contours of all
the differential elements represented by the right side of
equation (1). Since the common part of the contours of two
adjacent elements is traversed in opposite directions by two
contours, the net contribution of all the common parts in
the interior to the total Line integral is zero, and only the
contribution from the external contour C bounding the
entire area S remains after the summation:
Combining equations (1) and (2) we obtain the Stoke’s theorem

which states that the surface integral of the curl of a vector

field over an open surface is equal to the closed line integral
of the vector along the contour bounding the surface.
 Two Null Identities
Identity I

The curl of gradient of any scalar field is Identically zero.

Identity II
The divergence of the curl of any vector field is
Identically zero.
 Types of Fields
FIELD is a description of how a physical quantity
varies from one point to another in the region of the
field (and with time).
(a) Scalar fields
Ex: Depth of a lake, d(x, y)
Temperature in a room, T(x, y, z)
Depicted graphically by constant
magnitude contours or surfaces.
y
d1
d3
d2

x
1-29
(b) Vector Fields

Ex: Velocity of points on a rotating disk

v(x, y) = vx(x, y)ax + vy(x, y)ay

Force field in three dimensions

F(x, y, z) = Fx(x, y, z)ax + Fy(x, y, z)ay+ Fz(x, y, z)az

Depicted graphically by constant magnitude contours or

surfaces, and direction lines (or stream lines).

1-30
Example: Linear velocity vector field of
points on a rotating disk

1-31
(c) Static Fields

Fields not varying with time.

(d) Dynamic Fields

Fields varying with time.

Ex: Temperature in a room, T(x, y, z; t)

1-32
Procedure for finding the equation for the
direction lines of a vector field
The field F is
tangential to the
F
direction line at
F all points on a
dl direction line.
F
dl
ax ay az
dl  F  dx dy dz  0
Fx Fy Fz
dx dy dz
 
Fx Fy Fz
1-33
Similarly
dr r d dz
  cylindrical
Fr F Fz

dr r d r sin  d
  spherical
Fr F F

1-34
Obtain the equations for the direction lines for the
following vector field and passing through the point
(1,2,3).

xa x  ya y  za z (Position vector)
dx dy dz
 
x y z

ln x  ln y  ln C1  ln z  ln C2
ln x  ln C1y  ln C2 z
x  C1y  C2 z
1-35
\ Direction lines are straight lines emanating
radially from the origin. For the line passing
through (1, 2, 3),

1  C1(2)  C2 (3)
1 1
\ C1  , C2 
2 3
y z
x 
2 3
or, 6 x  3y  2z

1-36
 Types of Vector Fields
A vector field is

Solenoidal and Irrotational if

Solenoidal but not Irrotational if

Irrotational but not Solenoidal if

Neither Solenoidal nor Irrotational if