INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT  
 
 
DEFINITION
   When two light waves from different coherent sources meet together, then the
distribution of energy due    to one wave is disturbed by the other. This modification in
the distribution of light energy due to super-    position of two light waves is called
"Interference of light".
CONDITIONS FOR
INTERFERENCE
 
The two sources of light should emit continuous waves of same wavelength and
same time period i.e.      the source should have phase coherence.
The two sources of light should be very close to each other.
The waves emitted by two sources should either have zero phase difference or no
phase difference.
COHERENT SOURCES  
   Those sources of light which emit light waves continuously of same wavelength, and
time period,    frequency and amplitude and have zero phase difference or constant
phase difference are coherent    sources.

TYPES OF INTERFERENCE
......There are two types of interference.
Constructive interference.
Destructive interference.
CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
 
   When two light waves superpose with each other in such away that the crest of one
wave falls on the    crest of the second wave, and trough of one wave falls on the
trough of the second wave, then the    resultant wave has larger amplitude and it is
called constructive interference.
CONDITIONS FOR
CONSTRUCTIVE  
INTERFERENCE
   For constructive interference, path difference between two waves is m
    i.e. path difference = m
   or path difference = 0,…..
   where m = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..
EFFECTS
In constructive interference, two waves of light reinforce each other.
In constructive interference, a bright fringe is obtained on the screen.
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE  
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   When two light waves superpose with each other in such away that the crest of one
wave coincides the    trough of the second wave, then the amplitude of resultant wave
becomes zero and it is called    destructive interference.
 CONDITIONS FOR
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
 
   If the path difference between two light waves is (m+1/2) , then the interference
between them will    be destructive.
   Path difference = (m+1/2)
   i.e. path difference = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 , ….
   where m = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..
EFFECTS
In destructive interference, two waves cancel the effects of each other.
Due to destructive interference a dark fringe is obtained on the screen.

YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT  

 
   The first practical demonstration of optical interference was provided by THOMAS
YOUNG in 1801. His    experiment gave a very strong support to the wave theory of light.
EXPERIMENTAL
ARRANGEMENT
   'S' is a slit, which receives light from a source of monochromatic light. As 'S' is a narrow
slit so it diffracts    the light and it falls on slits A and B. After passing through the two
slits, interference between two waves    takes place on the screen. The slits A and B act as
two coherent sources of light. Due to interference of    waves alternate bright and dark
fringes are obtained on the screen.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS  
   Let the wave length of light = 
   Distance between slits A and B = d
   Distance between slits and screen = L
   Consider a point 'P' on the screen where the light waves coming from slits A and B
interfere such that    PC=y. The wave coming from A covers a distance AP=r1 and the
wave coming from B covers a distance    BP=r2 such that PB is greater than PA.
   

Path difference = BP-AP = BD

 S = r2-r1 = BD
In right angled BAD
 Sin = BD/AB
Or
sin = s/d
Or
S = dsin -------(1)
   Since the value of 'd' is very very small as compared to L, therefore,  will also be very
small. In this    condition we can assume that :
Sin = tan
From (1)
S = dtan ---(2)
In right angled DPEC
Tan = PC/EC = y/L
Putting the value of tan in eq. (2), w get
S = dy/L
Or
y = SL/d -----(3)

FOR BRIGHT FRINGE

   For bright fringe S = m -----(3)

   Therefore, the position of bright fringe is:

   

 y = mL/d

FOR DARK FRINGE AT P  

   For destructive interference, path difference between two waves is (m+1/2) ----(3)
   Therefore, the position of dark fringe is:
   y = (m+1/2)L/d
FRINGE SPACING
   The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes or two consecutive dark
fringes is called fringe    spacing.
   Fringe spacing or thickness of a dark fringe or a bright fringe is equal. It is denoted by
x.
Consider bright fringe.
y = mL/d
For bright fringe m=1
y1 = (1)L/d
for next order bright fringe m=2
y2 = (2) L/d
fringe spacing = y2 - y1
or
x = (2)L/d - (1)L/d
x =L/d (2-1)
x = L/d
Similar result can be obtained for dark fringe.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT  
 
   The bending and spreading of light waves around sharp edges or corner or
 through small openings is called   Diffraction of Light.
CONDITIONS FOR
DIFFRACTION
   Diffraction effect depends upon the size of obstacle. Diffraction of light takes place if the
size of obstacle    is comparable to the wavelength of light.
   Light waves are very small in wavelength, i.e. from 4 x 10-7 m to 7 x 10-7 m. If the
size of opening or    obstacle is near to this limit, only then we can observe the
phenomenon of diffraction.
TYPES OF DIFFRACTION  
   Diffraction of light can be divided into two classes:
Fraunhoffer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction.
FRAUNHOFFER
DIFFRACTION
 
   In Fraunhoffer diffraction,
 Source and the screen are far away from each other.
 Incident wave fronts on the diffracting obstacle are plane.
 Diffracting obstacle give rise to wave fronts which are also plane.
 Plane diffracting wave fronts are converged by means of a convex lens to produce
diffraction pattern.
FRESNEL DIFFRACTION
   In Fresnel diffraction,
 Source and screen are not far away from each other.
 Incident wave fronts are spherical.
 Wave fronts leaving the obstacles are also spherical.
 Convex lens is not needed to converge the spherical wave fronts.
DIFFRACTION GRATING  
   A diffraction grating is an optical device consists of a glass or polished metal surface
over which    thousands of fine, equidistant, closely spaced parallel lines are been ruled.
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PRINCIPLE  
   Its working principle is based on the phenomenon of diffraction. The space between
lines act as slits and    these slits diffract the light waves there by producing a large
number of beams which interfere in such    away to produce spectra.
GRATING ELEMENT
   Distance between two consecutive slits(lines) of a grating is called grating element. If 'a'
is the    separation between two slits and 'b' is the width of a slit, then grating element 'd'
is given by;
d=a+b
  OR
d = length of grating/no. of lines
DETERMINATION OF
WAVE LENGTH OF LIGHT  
BY DIFFRACTION GRATING
   Consider two parallel rays of light r1 and r2 falling on a grating .After passing through
slits they are    diffracted and brought to focus on a screen at point B by using a convex
lens.. Draw a perpendicular 'pq'   from P on r1. Ray (1)  covers a distance "rq" more than
ray (2).

   Now consider right angled rpq

rq/rp = sin
Or rq= rp sin
But rp = (a+b)
(a+ b ) = d (grating element)
rq = dsin-----(1)
   Where rq= path difference of r1 and r2.

   We know that for constructive interference at point 'B', path difference between r1 and
r2 will be 0, ,    2, 3l, …….,ml.
   Therefore, rq = m for bright point
   Putting this value in equation (1), we get
                                                                m = dsin             where m =
order
   This equation is called "grating equation" and is used to determine he wavelength of
light.
CONCLUSION
   'm' is called the order of grating and it is the number of bright or dark fringe obtained
on the screen.
   For m=0 , =0, central bright maxima of zeroth order.
   m=1 , =1, 1st order bright maxima (path difference =)
   m=2 , =2, 2nd order bright maxima (path difference = 2)
   With the increase in 'm', fringes of decreasing width and less brightness are obtained.
   No order of line is possible at >90o.
CHARACTERISTICS OF  
 GRATING SPECTRA
Spectra of different orders are obtained symmetrically on both sides of zeroth order
image.
Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp.
Spectral colors are in the order.                               
The spectral lines are more and more dispersed as we go to higher orders.
Most of the incident intensity goes to zeroth order and rest of it is distributed among the
other orders.

DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS THROUGH CRYSTALS-BRAGG'S EQUATION

DIFFRACTION OF X-
RAYS THROUGH
CRYSTALS
The nature of x-rays is electromagnetic i.e. they are electromagnetic waves. X-rays have
very short wavelength of the order of 10 x 10 -10 m. Therefore it is not possible to produce
interference fringes of x-rays by Young's double slit experiment or by thin film method.
The reason is that the fringe spacing is
   x = L/d and unless the slits are separated by a distance of 10 x 10 -10 m, the fringes
so obtained will be closed together that they can not be observed.
How ever it is possible to obtain x-rays diffraction by making use of crystals such as rock
salt in which the atoms are uniformly spaced in planes and separated by a distance of
order of 2 A to 5A. Therefore, the diffraction of x-rays takes place when they incident on
the surface of crystals.
BRAGG'S EQUATION
Consider a set of parallel lattice planes having spacing 'd' between each other as shown.
Consider two rays 'a' and 'b' incident on the surface of crystal of NaCl. After reflection,
these rays reflected and are in phase. After reflection they interfere each other.

  The path difference between the two reflected rays is given by:
 Now the X-rays will interfere constructively if the path difference is an integral multiple of
  wavelength .
Thus,
               
This relation is known as Bragg's Law. The spacing of the atomic layers of crystals can be
  found from the density and atomic weight. Both 'm' and '' can be measured and hence
the wave length of x-rays can be measured by using Bragg's equation.
 

NEWTON'S RINGS
 
   NEWTON'S RINGS  
  When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass sheet,
an air film of gradually increasing thickness outward is formed between the lens and
the sheet. The thickness of film at the point of contact is zero. If monochromatic
light is allowed to fall normally on the lens, and the film is viewed in reflected light,
alternate bright and dark concentric rings are seen around the point of contact.
These rings were first discovered by Newton, that's why they are called NEWTON'S
RINGS .
  WHY NEWTON'S RINGS ARE
  FORMED
 
Newton's rings are formed due to interference between the light waves reflected
from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the lens and glass
sheet.

  EXPLANATION  
The phenomenon of the Newton's rings can be explained on the basis of
  formation of the wave theory of
    light.
An air film of varying thickness is formed between the lens and the glass sheet.
When a light ray is incident on the upper surface of the lens, it is reflected as well
as refracted.
  When the refracted ray strikes the glass sheet, it undergo a phase change of 180O
on reflection.
Interference occurs between the two waves which interfere constructively if path
difference between     them is (m+1/2)and destructively ifpath difference
between them is mproducing alternate bright     and dark rings.
  RADIUS OF RINGS  
  Let the radius of curvature of
the convex lens is R and the
radius of ring is 'r'. Consider
light of wave length '' falls on
the lens. After refraction and
reflection two rays 1 and 2 are
obtained. These rays interfere
each other producing alternate
bright and dark rings. At the
point of contact the thickness of
air film
is zero and the path difference is
also
zero and as a 180O path
difference occurs, so they cancel
each other and
a dark ring is obtained at the
centre.
 As we move away from the central point , path difference is also changed and
  alternate dark and bright rings are obtained.
Let us suppose that the thickness of air film is 't'.
  By using the theorem of geometry,

    r2 = 2Rt
  In thin films, path difference for constructive interference is:
  2nt = (m+1/2)
Where n= refractive index
  For air n = 1
Therefore,
                  2t = (m+1/2)
For first bright ring m = 0
For second bright ring m = 1
For third bright ring m = 2
Similarly
For Nth bright ring m = N-1
Putting the value of m in equation (2)
     2t = (N-1+1/2)
2t = (N-1/2)
                             t =1/2 (N-1/2)
Putting the value of 't' in equation (1)
  r2 = 2Rt
2
r = 2R . 1/2 (N-1/2)
r2 = R (N-1/2)

This is the expression for the radius of Nth bright ring where
rn = radius of Nth bright ring
N = Ring number
R = radius of curvature of lens
 = Wave length of light

INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

  THIN FILM  
Soap bubbles and thin layers of oil floating on water surface are common examples of
  thin films. When light is reflected from such a thin film, we observe different colors.
  INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
In thin films of soap and oil , visible color bands are the result of interference of light
in thin films . The interference in this situation is caused by the interference of light
waves reflected from the opposite surfaces of thin films. White light consists of seven
colors each of different wave length, Therefore, interference may be constructive or
destructive.
 ANALYSIS OF INTERFERENCE IN
 
THIN FILMS
 
To understand the interference of light in thin films, consider two plates X & Y of ultra
  thin glass separated by a thin uniform film of air as shown in the
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 The film has a refractive index equal to 'n' and is surrounded by air whose refractive
index is equal to one.
The ray of light 'AB' strikes the upper surface of film at point B on the air-glass inter
phase. The ray 'AB' is partially reflected as a ray 'BC' and partially transmitted as ray
  'BD'. At point D another partial reflection takes place as ray 'EF'. The ray BC & EF
interfere each other and produce constructive and destructive interference depending
upon the phase relation.
For nearly normal incidence, the path difference = 2t,
If path difference is an integral multiple of , we expect constructive interference
otherwise destructive interference. Unfortunately here the situation is different. First
  we consider what happened to the phase of rays which are reflected and transmitted.
We also consider that two wave lengths are involved here.
The wave length in medium is n = /n ------- (1)
What happens to phase of rays?
When uniform thickness of air film is converted into a thin film of variable thickness
along the line where plates are in contact, there is no path difference and we expect a
constructive interference . But in actual practice this does not happen.
  One of the two rays has gone under a phase change of 180o during reflection and
therefore, conditions for constructive and destructive interference are reversed. Here
we observe that only ray BC undergoes phase reversal. Ray BC and EF which are out
of phase interfere each other.
Path difference in case of thin film for constructive interference is:
  Path difference = (m +1/2) n
  But
  path difference = 2t               
  Thus                             
  2t = (m +1/2) n
  From equation (1)   n =  /n
 2t = (m +1/2)  /n
2nt = (m +1/2) 
Similarly for destructive interference
2nt = m 
Where m = 0,1,2,3,4, ........
Position of bright and dark fringes depend on the wave length of light. When white
light is used, colored fringes are obtained.