ANALOG CIRCUITS

MODULE 1: BJT BIASING AND SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

APRIL 22, 2021

VCET , PUTTR
Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Module 1: Prerequisite
Prepared by :Nisha G R
Asst. Professor
Dept. of EC
VCET Puttur
Introduction
Three-terminal devices are far more useful than two-terminal ones, such as the diodes, because
they can be used in a multitude of applications, ranging from signal amplification to the design of
digital logic and memory circuits. The basic principle involved is the use of the voltage between
two terminals to control the current flowing in the third terminal. In this way, a three-terminal
device can be used to realize a controlled Source. The control signal can be used to cause the
current in the third terminal to change from zero to a large value, thus allowing the device to act
as a switch. The switch is the basis for the realization of the logic inverter, the basic element of
digital circuits.
Device Structure and Physical Operation

As shown in Fig.1, the BJT consists of three semiconductor regions: the emitter region (n type),
the base region (p type), and the collector region (n type). Such a transistor is called an npn
transistor. Another transistor, a dual of the npn as shown in Fig.2, has a p-type emitter, an n-type
base, and a p-type collector, and is appropriately called a pnp transistor.
A terminal is connected to each of the three semiconductor regions of the transistor, with the
terminals labeled emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C). The transistor consists of two pn
junctions, the emitter–base junction (EBJ) and the collector–base junction (CBJ). Depending
on the bias condition (forward or reverse) of each of these junctions, different modes of operation
of the BJT are obtained, as shown in Table 1.
The active mode is the one used if the transistor is to operate as an amplifier. Switching
applications (e.g., logic circuits) utilize both the cutoff mode and the saturation mode. As the
name implies, in the cutoff mode no current flows because both junctions are reverse biased.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Table which shows BJT modes of operation

Operation of the npn Transistor in the Active Mode

Figure 6.3 Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode. (Reverse current
components due to drift of thermally generated minority carriers are not shown.)
Two external voltage sources (shown as batteries) are used to establish the required bias conditions
for active-mode operation. The voltage
The voltage VBE causes the p-type base to be higher in potential than the n-type emitter, thus
forward-biasing the emitter–base junction. The collector–base voltage VCB causes the n-type
collector to be at a higher potential than the p-type base, thus reverse-biasing the collector–base
junction.
The forward bias on the emitter–base junction will cause current to flow across this junction.
Current will consist of two components: electrons injected from the emitter into the base, and holes
injected from the base into the emitter.
It is highly desirable to have the first component (electrons from emitter to base) at a much higher
level than the second component (holes from base to emitter). This can be accomplished by
fabricating the device with a heavily doped emitter and a lightly doped base; that is, the device is
designed to have a high density of electrons in the emitter and a low density of holes in the base.
The direction of iE is “out of” the emitter lead, which, following the usual conventions, is in the
direction of the positive-charge flow (hole current) and opposite to the direction of the negative-
charge flow (electron current), with the emitter current iE being equal to the sum of these two
components.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

However, since the electron component is much larger than the hole component, the emitter current
will be dominated by the electron component.
Let us now consider the electrons injected from the emitter into the base. These electrons will be
minority carriers in the p-type base region. Because the base is usually very thin, in the steady
state the excess minority carrier (electron) concentration in the base will have an almost-straight-
line profile, as indicated by the solid straight line in Fig. 4.
The electron concentration will be highest [denoted by np(0)] at the emitter side and lowest (zero)
at the collector side. As in the case of any forward-biased pn junction, the concentration np(0) will
be proportional to 𝑒 𝑉𝐵𝐸/𝑉𝑇 ,

where
np0 is the thermal-equilibrium value of the minority carrier (electron) concentration in the base
region, vBE is the forward base–emitter bias voltage, and VT is the thermal voltage, which is
equal to approximately 25 mV at room temperature.
The reason for the zero concentration at the collector side of the base is that the positive collector
voltage vCB causes the electrons at that end to be swept across the CBJ depletion region.
The tapered minority-carrier concentration profile (Fig.4) causes the electrons injected into the
base to diffuse through the base region toward the collector. This electron diffusion current In is
directly proportional to the slope of the straight-line concentration profile,

-------------------(2)
where AE is the cross-sectional area of the base–emitter junction q is the magnitude of the electron
charge, Dn is the electron diffusivity in the base, and W is the effective width of the base

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Some of the electrons that are diffusing through the base region will combine with holes, which
are the majority carriers in the base. However, since the base is usually very thin and lightly doped,
the proportion of electrons “lost” through this recombination process will be quite small.
Nevertheless, the recombination in the base region causes the excess minority carrier concentration
profile to deviate from a straight line and take the slightly concave shape indicated by the broken
line in Fig. 4. The slope of the concentration profile at the EBJ is slightly higher than that at the
CBJ, with the difference accounting for the small number of electrons lost in the base region
through recombination.
The Collector Current
Because the collector is more positive than the base (by vCB volts), these successful electrons will
be swept across the CBJ depletion region into the collector. They will thus get “collected” to
constitute the collector current iC. Thus iC = In, which will yield a negative value for iC, indicating
that iC flows in the negative direction of the x axis (i.e., from right to left). Since we will take this
to be the positive direction of iC, we can drop the negative sign in Eq. (6.2). Doing this and
substitutingfor np (0) from Eq. (6.1), we can thus express the collector current iC as

An important observation to make here is that the magnitude of iC is independent of vCB. That is,
as long as the collector is positive with respect to the base, the electrons that reach the collector
side of the base region will be swept into the collector and register as collector current.
The saturation current IS is inversely proportional to the base width W and is directly proportional
to the area of the EBJ. Typically IS is in the range of 10−12A to 10−18 (depending on the size of
the device).
Because IS is proportional to 𝑛𝑖2 it is a strong function of temperature, approximately doubling for
every 5°C rise in temperature.
The Base Current
The base current iB is composed of two components. The first component iB1 is due to the holes
injected from the base region into the emitter region.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

This current component is proportional 𝑒 𝑉𝐵𝐸/𝑉𝑇 to The second component of base current, iB2, is
due to holes that have to be supplied by the external circuit in order to replace the holes lost from
the base through the recombination process.
Because iB2 is proportional to the number of electrons injected into the base, it also will be
proportional to 𝑒 𝑉𝐵𝐸/𝑉𝑇 Thus the total base current, iB = iB1 + iB2, will be proportional to and
can be expressed as a fraction of the collector current iC as follows:

------------------------(5)

---------------------------(6)
For modern npn transistors, β is in the range 50 to 200, but it can be as high as 1000 for special
devices. For reasons that will become clear later, the parameter β is called the common-emitter
current gain.
Relation between α and β
emitter current iE is equal to the sum of the collector current iC and the base current iB; that is,

It can be seen from Eq. (7) that α is a constant (for a particular transistor) that is less than but very
close to unity. For instance, if β = 100 , then α = 0.99. Equation (8) reveals an important fact:
Small changes in α correspond to very large changes in β. This mathematical observation manifests
itself physically, with the result that transistors of the same type.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

The Collector–Base Reverse Current (ICBO)

In our discussion of current flow in transistors we ignored the small reverse currents carried by
thermally generated minority carriers.
Although such currents can be safely neglected in modern transistors, the reverse current across
the collector–base junction deserves some mention.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

This current, denoted ICBO, is the reverse current flowing from collector to base with the emitter
open-circuited (hence the subscript O). This current is usually in the nanoampere range, a value
that is many times higher than its theoretically predicted value.

The Three Basic Configurations

There are three basic configurations for connecting the BJT as an amplifier. Each of these
configurations is obtained by connecting one of the three BJT terminals to ground, thus creating a
two-port network with the grounded terminal being common to the input and output ports.
In the circuit of Fig. (a) the emitter terminal is connected to ground, the input voltage Vi signal is
applied between the base and ground, and the output voltage signal Vo is taken between the
collector and ground, across the resistance Rc. This configuration, therefore, is called the
grounded-emitter or common-emitter (CE) amplifier.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

The common-base (CB) or grounded-base amplifier is shown in Fig.(b). It is obtained by

connecting the base to ground, applying the input between the emitter and ground, and taking the
output across the resistance connected between the collector and ground.
The common-collector (CC) or grounded-collector amplifier is obtained by connecting the
collector terminal to ground, applying the input voltage signal between base and ground, and
taking the output voltage signal between the emitter and ground, across a load resistance RL . For
reasons that will become apparent shortly, this configuration is more commonly called the emitter
follower.

Module-1: Portion
BJT Biasing: Biasing in BJT amplifier circuits: The Classical Discrete circuit bias (Voltage
divider bias), Biasing using a collector to base feedback resistor.
Small signal operation and Models: Collector current and transconductance, Base current and
input resistance, Emitter current and input resistance, voltage gain, Separating the signal and the
DC quantities, The hybrid Π model.
MOSFETs: Biasing in MOS amplifier circuits: Fixing VGS, Fixing VG, Drain to Gate feedback
resistor.
Small signal operation and modeling: The DC bias point, signal current in drain, voltage gain,
small signal equivalent circuit models, transconductance.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits

The dc currents and voltages in the circuit are established by using a resistive network along with
power supply. This process is called biasing. The biasing problem is that of establishing a constant
dc current in the collector of the BJT.
This current has to be calculable, predictable, and insensitive to variations in temperature and to
the large variations in the value of β encountered among transistors of the same type.
Another important consideration in bias design is locating the dc bias point in the iC–VCE plane
to allow for maximum output signal swing
Need for biasing
• To operate transistor in the desired region.
• To get the output signal power greater than input signal power.
Before presenting the “good” biasing schemes, we should point out why two obvious arrangements
are not good.

Fig 8: two biasing schemes

First, attempting to bias the BJT by fixing the voltage VBE by, for instance, using a voltage divider
across the power supply VCC, as shown in Fig. (a), is not a viable approach: The very sharp
exponential relationship iC–vBE means that any small and inevitable differences in VBE from the
desired value will result in large differences in IC and in VCE.
Second, biasing the BJT by establishing a constant current in the base, as shown in Fig.(b), where
IB =((VCC – 0.7) ⁄ RB is also not a recommended approach. Here the typically large variations in
the value of β among units of the same device type will result in correspondingly large variations
in IC and hence in VCE.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

The Classical Discrete-Circuit Bias Arrangement

Figure 9(a) shows the arrangement most commonly used for biasing a discrete-circuit transistor
amplifier if only a single power supply is available.
The technique consists of supplying the base of the transistor with a fraction of the supply voltage
VCC through the voltage divider R1, R2. In addition, a resistor RE is connected to the emitter.

------------------------(1)
Figure 9(b) shows the same circuit with the voltage divider network replaced by its Thévenin
equivalent,

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

we design the circuit to satisfy the following two constraints:

Condition (14) ensures that small variations in VBE ( 0.7 V) will be swamped by the much larger
VBB. There is a limit, however, on how large VBB can be: For a given value of the supply voltage
VCC, the higher the value we use for VBB, the lower will be the sum of voltages across RC and
the collector–base junction (VCB).
On the other hand, we want the voltage across RC to be large in order to obtain high voltage gain
and large signal swing (before transistor cutoff). We also want VCB (or VCE) to be large to provide
a large signal swing (before transistor saturation). Thus, as is the case in any design, we have a set
of conflicting requirements, and the solution must be a trade-off.
VBB=Vcc/3, VCB orVCE=VCC/3 and ICRC=VCC/3
Condition (15) makes IE insensitive to variations in β and could be satisfied by selecting RB small.
This in turn is achieved by using low values for R1 and R2. Lower values for R1 and R2, however,
will mean a higher current drain from the power supply, and will result in a lowering of the input
resistance of the amplifier (if the input signal is coupled to the base),18 which is the trade-off
involved in this part of the design.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

It should be noted that condition (15) means that we want to make the base voltage independent
of the value of β and determined solely by the voltage divider. This will obviously be satisfied if
the current in the divider is made much larger than the base current. Typically one selects R1 and
R2 such that their current is in the range of IE to 0.1IE.
Consider that for some reason the emitter current increases. The voltage drop across RE, and hence
VE will increase correspondingly. Now, if the base voltage is determined primarily by the voltage
divider R1, R2, which is the case if RB is small, it will remain constant, and the increase in VE will
result in a corresponding decrease in VBE. This in turn reduces the collector (and emitter) current,
a change opposite to that originally assumed. Thus RE provides a negative feedback action that
stabilizes the bias current. This should remind the reader of the resistance Re
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: It provides excellent stabilization against variations in temperature and Transistor
current gain.
Disadvantages: The negative feedback reduces the gain. However this problem can be solved by
introducing capacitor in parallel with RE.The capacitor acts as short circuit for ac inputs and makes
ac feedback equal to zero.
Biasing Using a Collector-to-Base Feedback Resistor

Figure (a) shows a simple but effective alternative biasing arrangement suitable for common-
emitter amplifiers. The circuit employs a resistor RB connected between the collector and the base.
Resistor RB provides negative feedback, which helps to stabilize the bias point of the BJT.
Analysis of the circuit is shown in Fig. 6.62(b), from which we can write

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

BJT with input ac signal

BJT with small ac input signal

Small ac signal refers to the input signal (vbe) whose magnitude is much small than thermal
voltage (VT) i.e. vbe << VT.
Magnitude of the ac signal applied for amplification must be small so that
1. The transistor operates in the linear region for the whole cycle of input (called as a linear
amplifier)
2. transistor is never driven into saturation or cut-off region.
On the other hand, if the input signal is too large. The fluctuations along the load line will drive
the transistor into either saturation or cut off. This clips the peaks of the input and the amplifier is
no longer linear

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Small-Signal Operation and Models

Consider once more the conceptual amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 1ss(a). Here the base–emitter
junction is forward biased by a dc voltage VBE (battery). The reverse bias of the collector–base
junction is established by connecting the collector to another power supply of voltage VCC through
a resistor RC. The input signal to be amplified is represented by the voltage source vbe that is
superimposed on VBE.
We consider first the dc bias conditions by setting the signal vbe to zero. The circuit reduces to
that in Fig.1ss(b), and

we can write the following relationships for the dc currents and voltages:

Obviously, for active-mode operation, VC should be greater than (VB -0.4) by an amount
that allows for the required signal swing at the collector.

The Collector Current and the Transconductance

If a signal vbe is applied as shown in Fig. 1ss(a), the total instantaneous base–emitter voltage vBE
becomes

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Here we have expanded the exponential in Eq. (5) in a series and retained only the first two terms.
This approximation, which is valid only for vbe less than approximately 10 mV, is referred to as
the small-signal approximation. Under this approximation, the total collector current is given by
Eq. (6) and can be rewritten

Thus the collector current is composed of the dc bias value IC and a signal component ic ,

This equation relates the signal current in the collector to the corresponding base–emitter signal
voltage. It can be rewritten as
ic = gm*vbe-------------(9)
where gm is called the transconductance, and from Eq. (8), it is given by
gm=Ic/VT-----------------(10)
gm represents the slope of ic-VBE curve at Q-point
We observe that the transconductance of the BJT is directly proportional to the collector bias
current IC. Thus to obtain a constant predictable value for gm, we need a constant predictable
IC. Finally, we note that BJTs have relatively high transconductance as compared to
MOSFETs, for instance, at IC = 1 mA,

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Linear operation of the transistor under the small-signal condition

A small signal vbe with a triangular waveform is superimposed on the dc voltage VBE. It gives
rise to a collector signal current ic, also of triangular waveform, superimposed on the dc current
IC. Here, ic = gm*vBE, where gm is the slope of the iC–vBE curve at the bias point Q.
The small-signal approximation implies keeping the signal amplitude sufficiently small that
operation is restricted to an almost-linear segment of the iC–vBE exponential curve. Increasing
the signal amplitude will result in the collector current having components nonlinearly related to
vbe. The analysis above suggests that for small signals (vbe << VT), the transistor behaves as a
voltage-controlled current source. The input port of this controlled source is between base and
emitter, and the output port is between collector and emitter. The transconductance of the
controlled source is gm, and the output resistance is infinite.
The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base
To determine the resistance seen by vbe, we first evaluate the total base current iB using Eq. as
follows:

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

-----(12)
The small-signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the base, is denoted by
rπ and is defined as
𝑉𝑏𝑒
𝑟𝛱 = ------------------(13*)
𝑖𝑏
𝛽
Using Eq. (12) gives 𝑟𝛱 = 𝑔𝑚

Thus rπ is directly dependent on β and is inversely proportional to the bias current IC. Substituting
for gm in Eq. (6.51) from Eq. (6.45) and replacing IC /β by IB gives an alternative expression for
rπ ,
𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝛱 = ---------------(13)
𝐼𝐵

The Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter

The total emitter current iE can be determined from

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

If we denote the small-signal resistance between base and emitter looking into the emitter by re, it
can be defined as

The relationship between rπ and re can be found by combining their respective definitions in Eqs.
(13*) and (14*) as

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Illustrating the definition of rπ and re.

Voltage Gain
We have established above that the transistor senses the base–emitter signal vbe and causes a
proportional current gm*vbe to flow in the collector lead at a high (ideally infinite) impedance
level. In this way the transistor is acting as a voltage-controlled current source. To obtain an output
voltage signal, we may force this current to flow through a resistor, as is done in Fig. 6.36(a). Then
the total collector voltage vCE will be

Here the quantity VCE is the dc bias voltage at the collector, and the signal voltage is given by

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Here again we note that because gm is directly proportional to the collector bias current, the gain
will be as stable as the collector bias current is made. Substituting for gm from Eq. (6.45) enables
us to express the gain in the form

Separating the Signal and the DC Quantities

Fig.2ss: A representation of the signal operation of the BJT and not an actual amplifier circuit.
The analysis so far we have seen indicates that every current and voltage in the amplifier circuit
of is composed of two components: a dc component and a signal component. For instance, vBE =
VBE + vbe, IC = IC + ic, and so on. The dc components are determined from the dc circuit given
in Fig. 1ss(b) A representation of the signal operation of the BJT can be obtained by eliminating
the dc sources, as shown in Fig. 2ss. Observe that since the voltage of an ideal dc supply does not
change, the signal voltage across it will be zero. For this reason we have replaced VCC and VBE
with short circuits.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

Fig(a) is composed of two components: dc and signal component. Fig(b) is composed of dc

components only
Fig 2ss composed of signal component only. This circuit is the equivalent to the transistor as far
as small signal operation is concerned and hence it is considered as an equivalent small signal
model. If the circuit contained ideal dc current sources, these would have been replaced by open
circuits. Note, however, that the circuit of Fig. 2ss is useful only in so far as it shows the various
signal currents and voltages; it is not an actual amplifier circuit, since the dc bias circuit is not
shown. Figure 2ss also shows the expressions for the current increments (ic, ib, and ie) obtained
when a small signal vbe is applied. These relationships can be represented by a circuit. Such a
circuit should have three terminals—C, B, and E—and should yield the same terminal currents
indicated in Fig. 2ss. The resulting circuit is then equivalent to the transistor as far as small-
signal operation is concerned, and thus it can be considered an equivalent small-signal circuit
model.
The Hybrid-π Model

An equivalent circuit model for the BJT is shown in Fig. 3ss(a). This model represents the BJT as
a voltage-controlled current source and explicitly includes the input resistance looking into the
base, rπ .
The model obviously yields ic = gm*vbe.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur

Module-1: BJT BIASING & SMALL SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

The model also yields the correct expression for ie. This can be shown as follows: At the emitter
node we have

This results in the alternative equivalent-circuit model shown in Fig. 3ss(b). Here the transistor is
represented as a current-controlled current source, with the control current being ib. The two
models of Fig. 3ss are simplified versions of what is known as the hybrid-π model. This is the
most widely used model for the BJT.
It is important to note that the small-signal equivalent circuits of Fig. 3ss model the operation of
the BJT at a given bias point. This should be obvious from the fact that the model parameters gm
and rπ depend on the value of the dc bias current IC , as indicated in Fig. 3ss.

Prepared By: NISHA G R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of ECE, VCET, Puttur