Introduction to Electronics

Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP)

Module 3

Ref: Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

Boylestad
Opamp (Operational Amplifier)
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with high
input impedance and low output impedance.
An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high
voltage gain.
Figure 10.1 shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as would result using a
differential amplifier input stage.

Note: The Op-amp is used to perform various mathematical operations like

addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. Thus it is called operational
amplifier
Practical Op-amp
Single-Ended Input
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one input
with the other input connected to ground.
 Double-Ended (Differential) Input
 In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each
input—this being a double-ended operation. Figure 10.3 a shows an input,
Vd , applied between the two input terminals (recall that neither input is at
ground), with the resulting amplified output in phase with that applied
between the plus and minus inputs.
Double-Ended Output
 Common-Mode Operation
 When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-mode
operation results, as shown in Fig. 10.8 . Ideally, the two inputs are equally
amplified, and since they result in opposite-polarity signals at the output,
these signals cancel, resulting in 0V output. Practically, a small output signal
will result.
 Common-Mode Rejection

 A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals that are

opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, whereas those that are common to
the two inputs are only slightly amplified—the overall operation being to
amplify the difference signal while rejecting the common signal at the two
inputs.
 Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both inputs,
the differential connection tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted input
while providing an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the
inputs. This operating feature is referred to as common-mode rejection .
 OP-AMP BASICS
 An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input
impedance (typically a few megohms) and low output impedance (less than 100 ) . The
basic circuit is made using a difference amplifier having two inputs (plus and minus)
and at least one output. Figure 10.29 shows a basic op-amp unit.
 Basic Op-Amp
The basic circuit connection using an op-amp is shown in
Fig. 10.31 .
Unity Gain
If
Constant-Magnitude Gain
If is some multiple of , the overall amplifier gain is a
constant. For example, if , then
Virtual Ground
Figure 10.33 depicts the virtual ground concept.
 Input and Output Resistance
 Input Resistance: The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as
the ratio of input voltage to input current expressed in ohms.

where is the input resistance (in ohms), is the input voltage (in volts) and is the
input current (in amps).
 Output Resistance: The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined
as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current
expressed in ohms. Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω
to around 100 Ω, depending upon the configuration and amount of feedback
employed.
Common-Mode Rejection
PRACTICAL OP-AMP CIRCUITS
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
UNITY FOLLOWER( Voltage Follower)
SUMMING AMPLIFIER (Adder)
INTEGRATOR
DIFFERENTIATOR
COMPARATOR
Inverting Amplifier

For inverting amplifier output voltage is

amplified and it is 180 degree out of phase
with respect to the input signal.
The potential at node B is zero, due to virtual
ground concept the potential at node A is
also zero.
Non-inverting Amplifier

For non-inverting amplifier output voltage is amplified and it is in-phase (no phase shift)
with respect to the input signal.
The potential at node B is , due to virtual ground concept the potential at node A is also
same.
In equation (3),+ve sign indicates
that the output is in phase with the
input.
Numericals
Voltage Buffer (Follower)
A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.11. This circuit is
essentially an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back to the input. The
result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance and
a very high output resistance.
Voltage Summing Amplifier

R R R 
Vo   f V1  f V2  f V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
Numericals
 Assignments
 Draw the circuit and find the output voltage of a three input summing amplifier
given:
 An op-amp is used as an inverting amplifier to amplify an input sinewave of
amplitude 100mV (peak to peak). The input resistance and feedback resistance
Calculate the voltage gain and sketch the input and output waveform.
 An inverting amplifier circuit has input series resistor of , feedback resistor of
and a load resistor of . Draw the circuit and calculate the input current, load
current and the output voltage when the applied input voltage is equal to +1.5V.
Design an adder circuit using an op-amp to obtain an output expression, +)
where are inputs
Solution: +) = +) ----------------------(1)
The output of a summing amplifier is given by ----------(2)
Assuming
Comparing equation (1) and (2)

The supply voltages + may be

 DIFFERENTIATOR
 A differentiator circuit is shown in Fig. 10.41 . A differentiator produces an
output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of its input. This may
sound a little complex but it simply means that if the input voltage remains
constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the output also remains constant. The faster
the input voltage changes the greater will the output be.

Input and output waveform for differentiator

 INTEGRATOR
 So far, the input and feedback components have been resistors. If the feedback
component used is a capacitor, as shown in Fig. 10.38 a, the resulting connection is
called an integrator.
 This circuit provides the opposite function to that of a differentiator in that its output is
equivalent to the area under the graph of the input function rather than its rate of change.
 If the input voltage remains constant (and is other than 0 V) the output voltage will ramp up or
down according to the polarity of the input. The longer the input voltage remains at a particular
value the larger the value of output voltage (of either polarity) will be produced.

Input and output waveform for integrator

More than one input may be applied to an integrator, as
shown in Fig. 10.40 ,
COMPARATOR
 A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.17. Since no
negative feedback has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum gain of the
operational amplifier.
 The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will thus rise to the
maximum possible value (equal to the positive supply rail voltage) whenever the
voltage present at the non-inverting input exceeds that present at the inverting input.
 Conversely, the output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will fall to the
minimum possible value (equal to the negative supply rail voltage) whenever the
voltage present at the inverting input exceeds that present at the non-inverting input.

Comparator
Comparator input and output waveform
 OP-AMP SPECIFICATIONS—DC OFFSET PARAMETERS
These specifications include both dc and transient or
frequency operating features,
Offset Currents and Voltages
The op-amp output should be 0 V when the input is 0 V, in actual operation there is some
offset voltage at the output. For example, if one connected 0 V to both op-amp inputs and
then measured 26 mV(dc) at the output, this would represent 26 mV of unwanted voltage
generated by the circuit and not by the input signal.
Since the user may connect the amplifier circuit for various gain and polarity operations,
however, the manufacturer specifies an input offset voltage for the op-amp. The output
offset voltage is then determined by the input offset voltage and the gain of the amplifier,
as connected by the user.
The output offset voltage can be shown to be affected by two separate circuit conditions:
(1) an input offset voltage VIO and (2) an offset current due to the difference in currents
resulting at the plus () and minus () inputs.
Input Offset Voltage VIO

Using Vo = AVi, we can write

 Output Offset Voltage Due to Input Offset Current IIO

 An output offset voltage will also result due to any difference in dc bias currents at
both inputs. Since the two input transistors are never exactly matched, each will
operate at a slightly different current. For a typical op-amp connection, such as that
shown in Fig. 10.44
Total Offset Due to and
Since the op-amp output may have an output offset voltage due
to both factors covered above, the total output offset voltage
can be expressed as
Op-amp Specifications-Frequency Parameters
Gain and Bandwidth
The op-amps high frequency response is limited by its internal circuitry. The plot shown is
for an open loop gain (Aol or Avd). This means that the op-amp is operating at the highest
possible gain with no feedback resistor.

In the open loop mode, an op-amp has a narrow bandwidth. The bandwidth widens in
closed-loop mode, but the gain is lower.
Slew Rate
Slew rate of the op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of change
of its output voltage with respect to time and it is expressed in
volts per microsecond.
(Or)
Slew rate is the maximum rate at which an op-amp can change
output without distortion.
Slew rate = maximum rate at which amplifier output can change
in volts per microsecond ()

For 741 SR = 0.5

 Maximum Signal Frequency
 The maximum frequency at which an op-amp may operate depends on both the
bandwidth (BW) and slew rate (SR) parameters of the op-amp. For a sinusoidal signal
of general form
For the signal and circuit of Fig.10.48, determine the maximum frequency that may be
used. Op-amp slew rate is SR = 0.5 V/µs.
CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
 CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential gain to the common mode
gain

CMRR is always expressed in decibels as

For 741 op-amp CMRR is 90dB

Since the op-amp has two inputs that are opposite in phase (inverting and non-
inverting input) any signal that is common to both inputs will be cancelled.
Op-amp CMRR is a measure of the ability to cancel out common-mode
signals.
 PSRR (Power Supply rejection Ratio)
 PSRR is defined as the ratio of change in input offset voltage due to
change in the supply voltage producing it, keeping other power supply
voltage constant.
 Oscillator
 An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as generator, generating the
output signal which oscillates with constant amplitude and constant desired
frequency.
 The feedback is a property which allows to feedback the part of the output,
to the same Circuit as its input. Such a feedback is said to be positive
whenever the part of the output that is feedback to the amplifier as its input,
is in phase with the voltage gain A is shown in figure 2.1.1
 Assume that a sinusoidal input signal Vs is applied to the circuit.
As amplifier is non-inverting, the output voltage Vo is in phase
with the input signal Vs .
 The part of the output fed back to the input with the help of a
feedback netork.no phase Change is introduced by the feedback
network.
 As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of the input
applied the feedback is called positive feedback. The closed loop
gain of positive feedback is given by,

 Thus without an input, the output will continue to oscillate hose

frequency depends upon the feedback network or the amplifier or
both. Such a circuit is called as an oscillator.
Barkhausen criterion
It states that
1. The total phase shift around a loop as the signal proceeds from
input through amplifier, feedback network back to the input
again, completing a loop, is precisely or or of course an
integral multiply of 2π radians.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the
amplifier (A) and the feedback factor βis unity i.e. |Aβ|=1.

 If satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator

producing sustained oscillations of constant frequency and
amplitude. In reality no input is needed to start the oscillation.
 In practice Aβ>1 to start the oscillation and then circuit adjust
itself to get Aβ=1, finally resulting into selfsustained oscillations.
Let us see the effect of the magnitude of the product Aβ on the
nature of the oscillations.
1. |Aβ| >1: When the total phase shift around a loop is or and |
Aβ| >1, then the output oscillates but the oscillations are of
growing type.

2. |Aβ| =1: When the total phase shift around a loop is or and |
Aβ| = 1, then the oscillations are with constant frequency
amplitude called sustained oscillations.
3. |Aβ| <1 When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or
3600 and |Aβ| <1, then the oscillations are of decaying type
i.e such oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially and the
oscillations finally cease.
 OSCILLATOR OPERATION
 The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-
loop gain greater than 1 and satisfies the phase conditions will result in
operation as an oscillator circuit.
 An oscillator circuit then provides a varying output signal. If the output signal
varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as a sinusoidal oscillator.
 If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later drops quickly
to another voltage level, the circuit is generally referred to as a pulse or square-
wave oscillator.
 Oscillator: An Oscillator is an amplifier which uses positive feedback and
generates the output without external input at a constant frequency.
 To understand how a feedback circuit performs as an oscillator,
consider the feedback circuit of Fig. 14.18 .
Phase-Shift Oscillator
 Numerical
Example 9.1 Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder network
oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.

Solution: The frequency of oscillation is given by

WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
• Resistors R1 and R2 and
capacitors C1 and C2 form
the frequency-adjustment
elements, and resistors R3
and R4 form part of the
feedback path.
• The op-amp output is
connected as the bridge
input at points a and c.
• The bridge circuit output at
points b and d is the input
to the op-amp.
The frequency of oscillation is given by
 Numerical
Calculate the resonant frequency of the Wien bridge oscillator shown in Fog. 14.24

Solution:
 Example 9.2 In a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier. If C1 = C 2
= 100 nF, determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 =
R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.

Solution (a) When R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ

The frequency of oscillation is given by

(b) When R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ

The frequency of oscillation is given by