1

Experiment No. 1

1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION &DEMODULATION

I. AIM:
To perform the function of Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation (under
modulation, perfect modulation & over modulation) and also calculate the
modulation index.

II. APPARATUS:
1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation trainer kit.
2. C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Function generator (1MHz).
4. Connecting chords & probes.


III. THEORY:

Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal.
An AM wave may thus be dscribed, in the most general form, as a function of time
as follows.
S(t)=A
c
{1+K
a
m(t)}cos(2f
c
t)
Where K
a
- Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator
S(t) Modulated signal
A
c
- carrier signal
m(t) modulating signal

The amplitude of K
a
m(t) is always less than unity, that is K
a
m(t) <1 for all t.
It ensure that the function 1+K
a
m(t) is always positive. When the amplitude
sensitivity Ka of the modulator is large enough to make K
a
m(t)>1 for any carrier
wave becomes over modulated ,resulting in carrier phase reversal whenever the
factor 1+K
a
m(t) crosses zero. The modulate wave then exhibits envelope distortion.
The absolute maximum value of K
a
m(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the
percentage modulation.
Vmax-Vmin
Or percentage modulation = -------------- 100
Vmax +Vmin

The carrier frequency f
c
is much greater than the highest frequency component of
the message signal m(t),that is f
c
>>W
Where W is the message bandwidth.
If the condition is not satisfied, and envelope cannot be visualized satisfactorily.
The trainer kit has a carrier generator, which can generate the carrier wave of 100
KHz when the trainer is switched on.
The circuits carrier generator, modulator and demodulator are provided with the
built in supplies, no supply connections are to be given externally.



2

IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

















3
V. PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the trainer kit and check the O/P of the carrier generator on oscilloscope.
2. Connect around 1KHz with 2Volts .A.F signal at A.F I/P to the modulator circuit.
3. Connect the carrier signal at carrier I/P of the modulator circuit.
4. Observe the modulator output signal at AM O/p Spring by making necessary
changes in A.F signal
5. Vary the modulating frequency and amplitude and observe the effects on the
modulated waveform.
6. The depth of modulation can be varied using the variable knob provided at A.F
input.
7. The percentage modulation can be calculated using the formula.

Vmax-Vmin
Percentage modulation = ---------------- 100
Vmax +Vmin


Vmax-Vmin
Modulation factor = ----------------
Vmax +Vmin
8. Connect the output of the modulator to the input of the demodulator circuit and
observe the output.




VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:







4














5

VII. RESULT:


VIII. APPLICATIONS:

1. Tele communications.
2. TV Transmitters.


IX. QUESTIONS:

1. Define AM and draw its spectrum?
2. Draw the phase representation of an amplitude modulated wave?
3. Give the significance of modulation index?
4. What is the different degree of modulation?
5 What are the limitations of square law modulator?
6. Compare linear and nonlinear modulators?
7. Compare base modulation and emitter modulation?
8 Explain how AM wave is detected?
9 Define detection process?
10. What are the different types of distortions that occur in an envelop detector?
How can they be eliminated?
Tm
6
Experiment No. 2
DSB-SC Modulator and Demodulator (Balanced)
I. AIM:

To perform the characteristics of the Balanced Modulator as a
1. Frequency Doubler
2. DSB-SC Generator.
II. APPARATUS:
1. Balanced modulator trainer kit
2. C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Connecting chords and probes
4. Function generator (1MHz)
III. THEORY:
1. RF Generator:
Colpitts oscillator using FET is used here to generate RF signal of approximately
100 KHz Frequency to use as carrier signal in this experiment. Adjustments for
Amplitude and Frequency are provided in panel for ease of operation.

2. AF Generator:
Low Frequency signal of approximately 5KHz is generated using OP-AMP based
wein bridge oscillator. IC TL 084 is used as an active component; TL 084 is FET
input general purpose quad OP-AMP integrated circuit. One of the OP-AMP has
been used as amplifier to improve signal level. Facility is provided to change
output voltage.

3. Regulated Power Supply:
This consists of bridge rectifier, capacitor filters and three terminal regulators to
provide required dc voltage in the circuit i.e. +12v, -8v @ 150 ma each.

4. Modulator:
The IC MC 1496 is used as Modulator in this experiment. MC 1496 is a monolithic
integrated circuit balanced modulator/Demodulator, is versatile and can be used up
to 200 MHz.

Multiplier:
A balanced modulator is essentially a multiplier. The output of the MC 1496
balanced modulator is proportional to the product of the two input signals. If you
apply the same sinusoidal signal to both inputs of a ballooned modulator, the
output will be the square of the input signal AM-DSB/SC: If you use two
sinusoidal signals with deferent frequencies at the two inputs of a balanced
modulator (multiplier) you can produce AM-DSB/SC modulation. This is generally
accomplished using a high- frequency carrier sinusoid and a lower frequency
modulation waveform (such as an audio signal from microphone). The figure 1.1
is a plot of a DSB-SC waveform, this figure is the graph of a 100 KHz and a 5 KHz
sinusoid multiplied together. Figure 1.2 shows the circuit that you will use for this
experiment using MC 1496-balanced modulator/demodulator.
7

IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

V. PROCEDURE:
(i)-Frequency Doubler
1. Connect the circuit as per the given circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power to the trainer kit.
3. Apply a 5 KHz signal to both RF and AF inputs of 0.1V
P-P
.
4. Measure the output signal frequency and amplitude by connecting the output
to CRO.
5. Repeat the steps 3 and 4 by changing the applied input signal frequency to
100KHZ and 500 KHz. And note down the output signals.
NOTE:- Amplitude decreases with increase in the applied input frequency.
(ii)-Generation of DSB-SC
1. For the same circuit apply the modulating signal(AF) frequency in between
1Khz to 5Khz having 0.4 V
P-P
and a carrier signal(RF) of 100KHz having
a 0.1 V
P-P
.
2. Adjust the RF carrier null potentiometer to observe a DSB-SC waveform at
the output terminal on CRO and plot the same.
3. Repeat the above process by varying the amplitude and frequency of AF but
RF maintained constant.
NOTE:- Note down all the waveforms for the applied inputs and their
respective outputs.

VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
8



Note: In frequency doubling If the input time period is T after frequency
doubling the time period should be halfed.i.e,T/2.

VII. RESULT:

VIII. APPLICATIONS:
1. Tele communications.
2. TV Transmitters.
IX . QUESTIONS:
1. What are the two ways of generating DSB_SC.
2. What are the applications of balanced modulator?
3. What are the advantages of suppressing the carrier?
4. What are the advantages of balanced modulator?
5. What are the advantages of Ring modulator?
6. Write the expression for the output voltage of a balanced modulator?
9
Experiment No. 3

SSB-SC Modulator and Detector (Phase Shift Method)

I. AIM :
To perform the Single side band modulation
II. APPARATUS:
1. SSB trainer kit
2. C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Function Generator (1MHz).


III. THEORY:
This experiment consists of
1. R.F generator.
2. A.F generator.
3. Two balanced modulators.
4. Synchronous detector
5. Summer
6. Subtractor

1.RF generator:
Colpitts oscillator using FET is used here to generate RF signal of
approximately 100KHz frequency to use as carrier signal in this experiment. Phase
shift network is included in the same block to produce another carrier signal of
same frequency with 90
0
out of phase. An individual controls are provided to vary
the output voltage. Facility is provided to adjust phase of the output signal.

2.AF generator:
This is a sine cosine generator using OP-OMP. IC TL 084 is used as an
active component; TL 084 is a FET input general purpose quad op-amp integrated
circuit. A three-position switch is provided to select output frequency. An
individual controls are provided to vary the output voltage. AGC control is
provided to adjust the signal shape.

3.Balanced Modulator:
This has been developed using MC 1496 IC, is a monolithic integrated
circuit Balanced modulator/demodulator, is versatile and can be used up to
200MHz. These modulators are used in this experiment to produce DSB_SC
signals. Control is provided to balance the output.
10

5. Summer and Subtractor:
These circuits are simple summing and subtracting amplifiers using OP-
AMP. IC TL084 is used as an active component; TL 084 is a FET input
General-purpose quad OP-AMP integrated circuit.

The phase shift method makes use of two balanced modulators and two
phase shift networks as shown in figure. One of the modulators receives the carrier
signal shifted by 90
0
and the modulating signal with 0
0
(sine ) phase shift, where as
the other receives modulating signal shifted by 90
0
( cosine ) and the carrier ( RF)
signal with 0
0
phase shift voltage.

Both modulators produce an output consisting only of sidebands. It will be
shown that both upper sidebands lead the reference voltage by 90
0
, and the other
lags it by 90
0
. The two lower side bands are thus out of phase and when combined
in the adder, they cancel each other. The upper side bands are in phase at the adder
and therefore they add together and give SSB upper side band signal. When they
combined in the subtractor, the upper side bands are cancel because in phase and
lower side bands add together and gives SSB lower side band signal.

IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


V. PROCEDURE:

SSB MODULATION
1. Connect the circuit as per the given circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the kit and measure the output of regulated power supplies
positive and negative voltages.

3. Observe the outputs of RF generators using CRO .Where one output is
0
0
phase the another is 90
0
phase shifted(or) is a sine wave and shifted w.r.t
other (or) is a cosine wave.
11
4. Adjust the RF output frequency as 100 KHz and amplitude as > 0.2 V
p-p

(Potentiometers are provided to vary the output amplitude & frequency).
5. Observe the two outputs of AF generator using CRO.
6. Select the required frequency (2 kHz, 4 kHz, 6 kHz) form the switch
positions for A.F.
7. Adjust the gain of the oscillator by varying the AGC potentiometer and
keep the amplitude of 10Vp-p.
8. Measure and record the above seen signals & their frequencies on CRO.
9. Set the amplitude of R.F signal to 0. 2Vp-p and A.F signal amplitude to
8Vp-p and connect AF-0
0
and RF-90
0
to inputs of balanced modulator A
and observe DSB-SC(A) output on CRO. Connect AF-90
0
and RF-0
0
to
inputs of balanced modulator B and observe the DSB-SC (B)out put on
CRO and plot the same on graph.
10. To get SSB lower side band signal connect balanced modulator outputs
(DSB-SC) to subtractor and observe the output wave form on CRO and plot
the same on graph.
11. To get SSB upper side band signal, connect the output of balanced
modulator outputs to summer circuit and observe the output waveform on
CRO and plot the same on graph.
12. Calculate theoretical frequency of SSB (LSB & USB) and compare it with
practical value.
USB = RF frequency + AF frequency.
LSB = RF frequency AF frequency.
13. The SSB output connected to synchronous detector input and obtain the
demodulated signal.


VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

12




VII. RESULT:


VIII. APPLICATIONS:
1. Communication Systems.
2. Tele Communications.

IX. QUESTIONS:

1. What are the two ways of generation of SSB wave?
2. What are the features of filter method generation of SSB?
3. What are the advantages of phase shift method of SSB generation?
4. What are the disadvantages of phase shift method of SSB generation?
5. What are the advantages of SSB-SC AM?
6. What are the disadvantages of SSB-SC AM?
7. What are the applications of SSB-SC AM?

13

Experiment No. 4

FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION


I. AIM:
To perform the functioning of Frequency modulation & demodulation and also
calculate the modulation index.

II. APPARATUS:

1. Frequency modulation & demodulation trainer kit.
2. C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Function generator (1MHz).
4. Connecting chords & probes.


III. THEORY:

FM is a system in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is kept
constant, while its frequency and the rate of changes are varied by the baseband
signal.
By definition the amount by which the carrier is varied from its unmodulated signal
is called the frequency deviation., is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
The rate at which this frequency variation changes or takes place is equal to the
modulating frequency.
Fm is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous frequency f(t) is
varied with the message signal m(t), as
F
i
(t)=f
c
+K
f
m(t)
The term f
c
represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, the constant K
f
represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator expressed in Hertz per volt.

Generation of FM signal:

There are essentially two basic methods of generating frequency-modulated
signal, namely direct FM and indirect FM.
In direct FM the carrier signal is varied directly in accordance with the input base
band signal, which is readily accomplished using a voltage-controlled oscillator.
In the indirect method the modulating signal is first use to produce a narrow band
FM signal, and frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency
deviation to desired level. The indirect method is preferred choice for FM when the
stability of the carrier is of major concern as in commercial radio broadcasting.


Modulation index = firequency deviation / modulating signal frequency

14

15

Indirect FM:


Baseband signal

FM signals
INTEGRATOR







Fig (i): Indirect method of generating a wide band FM signal

The message signal m(t) is first integrated and then used to phase modulate a crystal
controlled oscillator; the use of crystal control provides frequency stability. To
minimize the distortion inherent in the phase modulator, the maximum phase
deviation or modulation index is kept small, there by resulting in an narrow band
FM signal.
This signal is next multiplied in frequency in frequency by means of a frequency
multiplier so as to produce the desired wide band FM signal.

FM signal

FM signal



Fig(ii): Frequency Multiplier



Demodulation of FM signals:

Frequency demodulation is the process that enables us to recover the original
modulating signal from a frequency-demodulated signal.
Here we describe a direct method of frequency discriminator, whose instantaneous output
amplitude is directly proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal.



NARROW BAND
PHASE
MODULATOR
CRYSTAL
CONTROLLED
OSCILLATOR

Memoryless
nonlinear
device
Band pass filter with mid
band frequency
16
SLOPE
DETECTOR


m(t)
Baseband signal

SLOPE
CIRCUIT


Fig(iii): Frequency Discriminator


IV.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FREQUENCY MODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:




ENVELOPE
DETECTOR
ENVELOPE
DETECTOR

17
FREQUENCY DEMODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:








V. PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply of the kit (without making any connections).
2. Connect Oscilloscope to the FM O/P and observe that the carrier frequency at
that point without any A.F input.
3. Connect around 1KHz with 2 volts sine wave to the input of frequency
modulator.
4. Now observe the frequency modulation output on the 1
st
channel of CRO and
adjust the amplitude of the A.F signal to get clear frequency modulated
waveform.
5. Vary the modulating frequency and amplitude and observe the effects on the
modulated waveform.
6. Connect the FM o/p to FM i/p of demodulator.
7. Vary the potentiometer provided in the demodulator section.
8. Observe the demodulation output on second channel of CRO.

18
VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:








19


Note: Note down all the input and output wave forms of the signals applied and
obtained respectively.

VII. RESULT:

VIII. APPLICATIONS:
1. Mobile Communications.
2. Satellite Communications.
IX. QUESTIONS:
1 Define frequency modulation?
2. Mention the advantages of indirect method of FM generation?
3. Define modulation index and frequency deviation of FM?
4 What are the advantages of FM?
5. What is narrow band FM?
6. Compare narrow band FM and wide band FM?
7. Differentiate FM and AM?
8. How FM wave can be converted into PM wave?
9, State the principle of reactance tube modulator?
10. Draw the circuit of varactor diode modulator?
11. What is the bandwidth of FM system?
12. Want is the function of FM discriminator?
13. How does ratio detector differ from Fosterseely discriminator?
14 What is meant by linear detector?
15. What are the drawbacks of slope detector?
20

Experiment No. 6
PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS

I. AIM: To perform the characteristics of Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis circuits.

II. APPARATUS:
1. Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis trainer kits.
2. C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Function generator (1MHz).
4. Patch chords and Probes.

III. THEORY:
Frequency modulation is much immune to noise than amplitude
modulation and significantly more immune than phase modulation. A single noise
frequency will affect the output of the receiver only if it falls with in its pass band.

The noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on
lower ones. Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the
transmitter and correspondingly cut at the receiver, improvement in noise immunity
could be expected. This boosting of the higher frequencies, in accordance with a
pre-arranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and the compensation at the receiver is
called de-emphasis.
If the two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude, and one of
them is pre-emphasized to (say) twice this amplitude, whereas the other is
unaffected (being at a much lower frequency) then the receiver will naturally have
to de-emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2, to ensure that both signals have the
same amplitude in the output of the receiver. Before demodulation, I.e. while
susceptible to noise interference the emphasized signal had twice the deviation it
would have had without pre-emphasis, and was thus more immune to noise.
Alternatively, it is seen that when this signal is de-emphasized any noise sideband
voltages are de-emphasized with it, and therefore have a correspondingly lower
amplitude than they would have had without emphasis again their effect on the
output is reduced.
The amount of pre-emphasis in U.S FM broadcasting, and in the sound
transmissions accompanying television, has been standardized at 75 microseconds,
whereas a number of other services, notably CCIR and Australian TV sound
transmission, use 50micro second. The usage of microseconds for defining
emphasis is standard. 75 microseconds de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency
response curve that is 3 db down at the frequency whose time constant is RC is 75
microseconds. This frequency is given by f=1/2HRC and it is therefore 2120 Hz;
with 50-microseconds de-emphasis it would have been 3180 Hz. Figure I shows
pre emphasis and de-emphasis curves for a 7 microseconds emphasis, as used in
the united states.

21
If emphasis is applied to amplitude modulation, some improvement will
also result, but it is not as great as in FM because the highest modulating
frequencies in AM are no more affected by noise than any others.
Apart from that, it would be difficult to introduce pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis in existing AM services since extensive modifications would be needed,
particularly in view of the huge numbers is receivers in use.

IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:



V. PROCEDURE:
I-PRE-EMPHASIS
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Apply a sine wave to the input terminals of 2 V
P-P (Vi)

3. By varying the input frequency with fixed amplitude, note down the output
amplitude (Vo) with respect to the input frequency.
4. Calculate the gain using the formula
Gain = 20 log (V
O
/ V
I
) db
Where V
O
= output voltage in volts.
V
I
= Input voltage in volts.
And plot the frequency response.

22
II-DE-EMPHASIS
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Repeat steps 2,3 & 4 of Pre-Emphasis to de-emphasis also.
VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:





Gain Gain
(-db) (-db)


Frequency(Hz-KHz) Frequency(Hz-KHz)

Fig: Pre-emphasis Fig: De-emphasis


VII. TABULAR COLUMN:

V
I
=2v
S. No Input Frequency
(50Hz to 20KHz)
Out put voltage (Vo)
(volts)
GAIN
20 log (V
O
/ V
I
) db





VIII. RESULT:


IX. APPLICATIONS:
1.FM transmitters.
2.FM Receivers.
3.FM Stereo systems.

X. QUESTIONS:
1. What is the need for pre-emphasis?
2. Explain the operation of pre-emphasis circuit?
3. Explain how Pre-emphasis operation is similar to high pass filter?
4. De-emphasis operation is similar to low pass filter justify?
5. What is de-emphasis?
6. Draw the frequency response of a pre-emphasis circuit?
7. Draw the frequency response of a de-emphasis circuit?
8. Give the formula for the cutoff frequency of the pre-emphasis circuit?
9. What is the significance of the 3db down frequency?
23
Experiment No. 7
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

I. AIM:
To perform time division multiplexing of Four signals

II. EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS

(i) Apparatus:
1. TDM Trainer
2. Function generator
3. CRO
4. Bread Board
5. Power supply

(ii) Description of Apparatus:
1. CRO: The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light
weight instrument. It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both
vertical amplifiers offering a bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of
2mv/cm.

The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.
- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter

The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

2. This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms
SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms where frequency can be
selected from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to
20 volts peak to peak independently.

The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The
amplitude switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p).
The function is a interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the
desired waveform for output.

3. Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a
rectangular board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on
which any circuit can be constructed by interconnecting components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc., for testing the circuit.

24
(iii). Components
1. 100KO - resistor 2 No.
2. 4.7KO - resistor 2 No.
3. 5.6KO - resistor 1 No.
4. 1KO - resistor 2 No.
5. 10KO - resistor 1 No.
6. 0.01 F capacitor 1 No.
7. 0.1 F capacitor 1 No.
8. BC 107 transistor 1 No.

(iv) Description of Components:

a. 100KO - resistor
Most circuits need contrast resistances. There are different types of resistors available for
different applications. Typical specifications of resistor are
Rating : 10O to 10MO
Wattage : W to 2 W
Tolerance : Normally 5% and above.

b. 4.7KO - resistor
Same as above

c. 5.6KO - resistor
Same as above

d. 1KO - resistor
Same as above

e. 10KO - resistor
Same as above

f. 0.01 F capacitor and 0.1 F capacitor
Capacitors are made by sandwiching an insulating material between two conductors which
form the electrodes. There are rated by their maximum working voltage. The breakdown
voltage depends upon temperature and hence upon the losses in the dielectric.
The factors to be considered in the choice of capacitors are
1. Required capacity
2. Working voltage
3. Tolerances

The specifications of 0.01F capacitor are
1. capacity 0.01 F
25
2. voltage range 16v to 3kv
3. tolerance 10%

g. BC 107 transistor
A bipolar junction transistor has two junctions. The conduction through the device
involving two types of charge carriers holes and elements.

BJTs are available in two varieties: PNP and NPN. Either type can be treated as
equivalent to two diodes connected back to back with three terminals leads, emitter,
base and collector. Width of the base region is smaller than that of emitter or
collector layers.
III. THEORY:-
Time division multiplexing enables the joint utilization of a common transmission
channel by a plurality of independent message sources without mutual inference.
The circuit has 555 timer which generates a square wave which is then fed to the
transistors to provide the bias current. Two message signals are square wave and
some wave generated from frequency generator and they are time division
multiplexed when square wave has ON and OFF Cycles. The multiplexed output is
viewed on the CRO.

26

IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-





27
V. PROCEDURE-
i. connections can be made as per circuit diagram
ii. Switch on the trainer kit and observe the multiplexed signal at transmitter
data work output.
iii. Transmitter data output is connected to receiver data input of receiver TDM
section.
iv. Observe the demultiplexed signal on individual channels Ch0, Ch1, Ch2,
Ch3
v. Draw the graph for input signals, multiplexed signal , and demultiplexed
signals.


VI. OBSERVATIONS:
Input signals = ________________
Frequency = ________________
Amplitude = ________________
Multiplexed Output signal = ________________

VII. GRAPHS:


28
VIII RESULT:
Thus the time division multiplexing of a square wave and sine wave is generated and
observed.

IX. INFERENCES:
From the above observation, we can infer that it is possible to covey different signals
in different time slots using a single channel.

X. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting R
L
.
2. Contact wires must be checked before use.
3. Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.
4. Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

XI. APPLICATIONS:
Telephone Channels.

XII. EXTENSION:
Observe the Time Division Multiplexed output of the four signals.

XIII. TROUBLE SHOOTING:

Sl.No. Fault Diagnosis
1 Overlapping of square and
sinusoidal signal results
Synchronization of T
x
and R
x
is
poor.
2 Output appears and
suddenly disappear
Check the contact wires whether
they are placed properly.

XIV. QUESTIONS:
1. Draw the 2 message signals that are time multiplexed.
2. What are the different band pass signalling schemes?
3. What is the sampling rate used in case of Fm=10 KHz?
4. Why flat top sampling must be preferred compared to natural sampling?
5. Highlight drawbacks of TDM.
6. Mention differences between FDM and TDM.
7. TDM is used in analog or digital transmission system.
8. Mention the applications of TDM.
9. Draw the block diagram for FDM systems.
10. Where is FDM used?
29

Experiment No. 9
SAMPLING THEOREM - VERIFICATION

1. AIM:
To perform and verify the sampling theorem reconstruction of sampled waveform

2 EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS
I. Apparatus:
1. Sampling theorem trainer kit
2. Function generator
3. CRO
4. Patch Cards

II. Description of Apparatus:
1. CRO: The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light
weight instrument. It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both
vertical amplifiers offering a bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of
2mv/cm.
The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.
- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter
The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

2. This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms
SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms where frequency can be
selected from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to
20 volts peak to peak independently.
The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The
amplitude switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p).
The function is a interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the
desired waveform for output.
3. Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a
rectangular board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on
which any circuit can be constructed by interconnecting components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc., for testing the circuit.

3. THEORY:
When an analog signal message is conveyed over an analog communication system, the
full message is typically used at all times. To send the same analog signal over a digicom
system requires that only its samples are transmitted at periodic intervals. Because the
receiver can therefore receive only samples of the message, it must attempt to reconstruct
the original message at all times from only its samples. Methods exist whereby this desired
end can be accomplished which include the sampling theorem.
30
Sampling theorem can be stated as follows: A signal f(t) , band limited such that it has no
frequency components above f
m
, can be uniquely determined and reconstructed by its
values at regularly spaced intervals of Ts if and only if Ts < Tm .
4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


31
5. PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the 2 KHz 5 V p-p signal generator on board to the analog signal input
,by means of the patch chords provided.
2. Connect the sampling frequency signal in the internal mode, by means of shorting
pin provided.
3. Connect the S/H output to the input of the 2/4
th
order LPF.
4. If the external sampling frequency signal is used ,then connect the signal generator
output to the sampling contrl input.


6. OBSERVATIONS:

Message signal voltage = __________________
Message signal frequency = __________________

Sampling signal voltage = ___________________
Sampling signal frequency = ___________________

7. GRAPHS:



32
8. RESULT:
A signal is naturally sampled and the reconstructed signal is observed and plotted.

9. INFERENCES:
We infer that the use of sample and hold logic compensates for the poor
amplitude at the input of the low pass filter resulting in faithful reconstruction.
Pulse amplitude modulated signal and demodulated signals are observed.

10. PRECAUTIONS:
1.Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting R
L
.
2.Contact wires must be checked before use.
3.Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.
4.Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

11. Applications:
Broad Casting, Digital communication.

12. EXTENSION:
We find the signal is reconstructed more faith fully in the case of sample-and-
hold waveform rather in case of natural sampled waveform where the re-
constructed signal suffers an amplitude distortion.

13. Trouble Shooting:
S.No. Fault Diagnosis
1 Output signal is same as
input signal
Absence of carrier signal
2 Output appears and
suddenly disappear
Check the contact wires whether
they are placed properly.

14. QUESTIONS:
1 Define Sampling Theorem for Low pass signals.
2. What are the different base band signalling schemes?
3. What is the sampling rate used in case of voice signal transmission
through telephone lines?
4. Compare natural sampling and flat top sampling.
5. Define sampling theorem for Band pass signals.
6. How to obtain flat top sampled signal?
7. Sampling Theorem is used in analog or digital transmission system. Give
reasons.
8. When does aperture effect result and how to over come that?
9. Explain with waveform, the need of sampling theorem?
10. What is Nyquist Criterion?
33
Experiment No. 10
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION


1. AIM:
To generate pulse amplitude modulated signal and demodulate it.

2. EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS:

I. Apparatus:

1. PAM trainer kit
2. Function generator
3. CRO
4. Bread Board
5. Power supply

II. Description of Apparatus:
1. CRO: The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light
weight instrument. It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both
vertical amplifiers offering a bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of
2mv/cm.
The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.
- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter
The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

2. This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms
SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms where frequency can be
selected from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to
20 volts peak to peak independently.
The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The
amplitude switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p).
The function is a interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the
desired waveform for output.

3. Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a
rectangular board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on
which any circuit can be constructed by interconnecting components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc., for testing the circuit.
34

III. Components
1. 100KO - resistor 1 No.
2. 4.7KO - resistor 1 No.
3. 5.6KO - resistor 1 No.
4. 1KO - resistor 1 No.
5. 22 KO - resistor 1 No.
6. 0.01 F capacitor 2 No.
7. BC 547 transistor 1 No.
8. 555 Timer 1 No

IV. DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS:
a. 100KO - resistor
Most circuits need contrast resistances. There are different types of resistors available for
different applications. Typical specifications of resistor are
Rating : 10O to 10MO
Wattage : W to 2 W
Tolerance : Normally 5% and above.

b. 4.7KO - resistor
Same as above

c. 5.6KO - resistor
Same as above

d. 1KO - resistor
Same as above

e. 0.01 F capacitor
Capacitors are made by sandwiching an insulating material between two conductors which
form the electrodes. They are rated by their maximum working voltage. The breakdown
voltage depends upon temperature and hence upon the losses in the dielectric.

The factors to be considered in the choice of capacitors are
1. Required capacity
2. Working voltage
3. Tolerances

The specifications of 0.01F capacitor are
35
1. capacity 0.01 F
2. voltage range 16v to 3kv
3. tolerance 10%

f. BC 547 transistor 1 No.
A bipolar junction transistor has two junctions. The conduction through the device
involving two types of charge carriers holes and elements.

BJTs are available in two varieties: PNP and NPN. Either type can be treated as
equivalent to two diodes connected back to back with three terminal leads, emitter,
base and collector. Width of the base region is smaller than that of emitter or
collector layer.

g. 555 IC 1 No
The NE/SE 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of
producing accurate time delays, or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for
triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is
precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as
an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately
controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered
and reset on falling waveforms and the output structure can source or sink large
currents or drive TTL circuits.

3. THEORY:-
In PAM the amplitude of regularly spaced rectangular pulse vary with Instantaneous
sampled values of a continuous message signal.

A PAM wave, s(t) = E [ 1 + Ka m(nTs) ] * g(t nTs)
Where summation is from to +
M(nTs)= nth sample of the message signal
Ts = sampling method
Ka = is a constant called amplitude sensitivity
g(t) = denotes the pulse.
PAM signals can be easily demodulated by a Low Pass Filter with cut-off frequency
large enough to accommodate the highest frequency component of the message
signal m(t).

4.. CALCULATIONS
F2 = 1 / 2t RC
Since C = 0.01tF find the value of R.

36
5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Modulation and demodulation circuit

PIN Diagram of IC 4016



CONNECTION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PAM

6. PROCEDURE:

1) Switch ON the experimental kit.
2) Observe the modulating signal and the carrier clock generators outputs
3) Adjust the modulating signal generator O/P to 1 Vp-p amplitude .
4) Apply the modulating signal generator output and the clock generator output to
the PAM modulator.
5) Following Fig . shows the Testing procedure.
37


CH1 of CRO
CH2 of CRO
Modulating signal
generator








6) By varying the amplitude of the modulating signal, depth of modulation
changes.
7) During the demodulation ,connect PAM output to the input of PAM
demodulator and observe the output of PAM demodulator.
8) Following Fig shows the testing procedure.


CH1 of CRO
CH2 of CRO
modulating signal
generator










7. OBSERVATIONS:
Message signal voltage = _____________________
Message signal frequency = _____________________

Carrier signal voltage = _____________________
Carrier signal frequency = _____________________


PAM Modulator

Clock generator

PAM Modulator
PAM
demodulator

Clock generator
38
8. GRAPH:



9. RESULT:
Thus the Pulse amplitude modulated signal is generated and detected. The
corresponding graphs are drawn

10. INFERENCES:
Pulse amplitude modulated signal and demodulated signals are observed.

11. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting R
L
.
2. Contact wires must be checked before use.
3. Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.
4. Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

12. APPLICATIONS:
Base band transmission.

13. EXTENSION:
Generate flat top sampled signal by using sample hold circuit
39

14. TROUBLE SHOOTING:

S.No. Fault Diagnosis
1 Output signal is same as
input signal after
modulator circuit.
Absence of carrier signal
2 Output appears and
suddenly disappear
Check the contact wires
whether they are placed
properly.


15. QUESTIONS:
1. Compare flat top sampling and natural sampling.
2. Discuss the advantages of PAM.
3. What is sampling theorem?
4. Explain about TDM and FDM.
5. What is the purpose of sample and hold circuit?
6. What is Nyquist sampling rate?
7. What are the foremost common methods for pulse modules?
8. What is aperture effect?
9. When does aliasing error occur?
10. Disadvantages of PAM.

40
Experiment No.11
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION


1. AIM:
To generate pulse width modulated signal and demodulate it.


2. EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS:

I. Apparatus:
a. PWM modulation Demodulation Trainer
b. Function generator
c. CRO
d. Bread Board
e. Power supply

II. Description of Apparatus:
1. CRO: The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light
weight instrument. It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both
vertical amplifiers offering a bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of
2mv/cm.
The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.
- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter

The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

2. This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms
SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms where frequency can be
selected from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to
20 volts peak to peak independently.
The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The
amplitude switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p).
The function is a interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the
desired waveform for output.

3. Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a
rectangular board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on
which any circuit can be constructed by interconnecting components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc., for testing the circuit.

41
III. Components
1. 10KO - resistor 1 No.
2. 5.6KO - resistor 1 No.
3. 0.01 F capacitor 1 No.
4. 555 IC

IV. Description of Components:

a. 10KO - resistor
Most circuits need contrast resistances. There are different types of resistors available for
different applications. Typical specifications of resistor are
Rating : 10O to 10MO
Wattage : W to 2 W
Tolerance : Normally 5% and above.

b. 5.6KO - resistor
Same as above

c. 0.01 F capacitor
Capacitors are made by sandwiching an insulating material between two conductors which
form the electrodes. There are rated by their maximum working voltage. The breakdown
voltage depends upon temperature and hence upon the losses in the dielectric.
The factors to be considered in the choice of capacitors are
1. Required capacity
2. Working voltage
3. Tolerances

The specifications of 0.01F capacitor are
1. capacity 0.01 F
2. voltage range 16v to 3kv
3. tolerance 10%

d. 555 IC
The NE/SE 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of
producing accurate time delays, or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for
triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is
precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as
an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately
controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered
and reset on falling waveforms and the output structure can source or sink large
currents or drive TTL circuits.
42

3. THEORY:-
Pulse width modulation is also referred as pulse duration modulation or less often
pulse length modulation. In this system we have a fixed amplitude and starting time
of each pulse. But the width of each pulse is made properly proportional to the
amplitude of the signal at that instant.


4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MODULATOR CIRCUIT



DE MODULATOR CIRCUIT :

43

5. PROCEDURE:

1. Switch ON the trainer kit.
2. Connect the clock O/P to the I/P of clock terminal of PWM modulation.
3. Connect the AF O/P to the I/P of AF terminal of PWM modulation.
4. Observe the PWM output at pin 3 of 555 IC on CRO.
5. During the demodulation ,connect the PWM O/P of PWM modulation to the PWM
I/P of PWM demodulation
6. Observe the demodulation output at AF O/P of PWM demodulation on CRO.


6. OBSERVATIONS:
Message signal voltage = __________________
Message signal frequency = __________________
Carrier signal voltage =_______________________
Carrier signal frequency =_______________________


7. GRAPHS





44
8. RESULT:
Thus the Pulse width modulated signal is generated and detected. The corresponding
graphs are drawn

9. INFERENCES:
Pulse width modulated signal and demodulated signals are observed.

10. PRECAUTIONS:

1. Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting
R
L
.
2. Contact wires must be checked before use.
3. Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.
4. Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

11. APPLICATIONS:
Base band transmission.

12. EXTENSION:
Generate PWM signal using PAM by using another method (using triangular
waveforms).
13. TROUBLE SHOOTING:
S.No. Fault Diagnosis
1. Output signal is same as input
signal after modulator
Absence of carrier signal
2 Output appears and suddenly
disappear
Check the contact wires whether
they are placed properly.

14. QUESTIONS:

1. What are the differences between PAM and PWM?
2. Highlight drawbacks of PWM.
3. Mention power consumption of PWM compared to PAM.
4. How PWM is advantageous than PAM.
5. PWM is analog or digital transmission system. Give reasons.
6. How we derive PWM from PAM.
7. Explain with wave form, the difference between PAM and PWM.
8. Explain the difference between PWM and PPM.
9. Which consumes more power PWM or PPM. Give reasons.
10. Define PWM.

45
Experiment No.12
PULSE POSITION MODULATION AND DEMODULATION


1. AIM:
To generate pulse position modulated signal and demodulate it.

2 EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS:

I. Apparatus:
1. PPM modulation and demodulation trainer
2. Function generator
3. CRO
4. Bread Board
5. Power supply

II. Description of Apparatus:
1. CRO: The 20 MHz dual channel oscilloscope 201 is a compact, low line and light
weight instrument. It is a general purpose Dual Trace Oscilloscope having both
vertical amplifiers offering a bandwidth of DC- 20 MHz and maximum sensitivity of
2mv/cm.
The 201 offers five separate add-on modules.
- frequency counter
- Curve tracer
- Power supply
- Function generator
- Digital voltmeter

The add-on modules enhance measuring capabilities of instrument at low cost.

2. This instrument is meant for giving three types of periodic waveforms
SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE and TRIANGULAR waveforms where frequency can be
selected from 0.1 Hz to 1 MHz and whose amplitude also can be selected from 0 to
20 volts peak to peak independently.
The power on switch in pressed position will connect supply to the instrument. The
amplitude switch varies the amplitude of output waveforms from 20 mv to 20 v(p-p).
The function is a interlocked 3 station push button which switches to select the
desired waveform for output.

3. Wire Connections are usually carried out using a system called Bread Board. It is a
rectangular board divided into a number of nodes. This component has a provision on
which any circuit can be constructed by interconnecting components such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc., for testing the circuit.

III. Components
1. 10KO - resistor 2 No.
2. 5.6KO - resistor 1 No.
46
3. 1KO - resistor 2 No.
4. 2KO - resistor 1 No.
5. 0.01 F capacitor 2 No.
6. 555 IC 2 Nos.
IV. Description of Components:

a. 10KO - resistor
Most circuits need contrast resistances. There are different types of resistors available for
different applications. Typical specifications of resistor are
Rating : 10O to 10MO
Wattage : W to 2 W
Tolerance : Normally 5% and above.

b. 5.6KO - resistor
Same as above

c. 1KO - resistor
Same as above

d. 2KO - resistor
Same as above

e. 0.01 F capacitor
Capacitors are made by sandwiching an insulating material between two conductors which
form the electrodes. There are rated by their maximum working voltage. The breakdown
voltage depends upon temperature and hence upon the losses in the dielectric.
The factors to be considered in the choice of capacitors are
1. Required capacity
2. Working voltage
3. Tolerances

The specifications of 0.01F capacitor are
1. capacity 0.01 F
2. voltage range 16v to 3kv
3. tolerance 10%

f. 555 IC
The NE/SE 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of
producing accurate time delays, or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for
triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is
precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as
an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately
47
controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered
and reset on falling waveforms and the output structure can source or sink large
currents or drive TTL circuits.

3. THEORY:-
Pulse position modulation the position of the pulse is changed in accordance with the
amplitude of the modulating signal. Width of the pulse is kept constant in this
system, while the position of each pulse is changed in relation to the position of
reference. Compare to PWM, PPM has the advantage of requiring constant
transmitter output.

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-





5. PROCEDURE

1. Switch On the trainer kit.
2. Connect the Clk output to the Pin 2 Of 555 IC
3. Connect the AF O/P to the Pin 5 of the 555 IC.
4. Observe the PPM O/P at Pin 3 of second IC 555 on CRO.
5. Connect the PPM O/P to the PPM I/P of PPM demodulation.
6. Observe the demodulated O/P on CRO.
48
6. OBSERVATIONS :
Message signal voltage = __________________
Message signal frequency = __________________

Carrier signal voltage = __________________
Carrier signal frequency = __________________


7. GRAPHS


8. RESULT:
Thus the Pulse position modulated signal is generated and observed. The
corresponding graphs are drawn

9. INFERENCES:
Pulse position modulated signal and demodulated signals are observed.
49

10. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power handling capacity of resistor should be kept in mind while selecting R
L
.
2. Contact wires must be checked before use.
3. Maximum forward current should not exceed value given in data sheet.
4. Reverse voltage across diode should not exceed peak inverse voltage (PIV).

11. APPLICATIONS:
Base band transmission.

12. EXTENSION:
Generate PPM signal by using another technique (By applying PWM to differentiator
and clipper circuit)

13. TROUBLE SHOOTING:

S.No. Fault Diagnosis
1. Output signal is same as
input signal after
modulation
Absence of carrier signal
2 Output appears and
suddenly disappear
Check the contact wires
whether they are placed
properly.

14. QUESTIONS:
1.What are the differences between PPM and PWM?
2. Highlight drawbacks of PPM.
3. Mention power consumption of PPM compared to PAM.
4. How PPM is advantageous than PAM.
5. PPM is analog or digital transmission system. Give reasons.
6. How we derive PPM from PWM.
7. Explain with wave form, the difference between PAM, PPM and PWM.
8. How to demodulate PPM signals?
9. Which circuit must be used to convert PPM to PWM?
10. Define PPM.
50

Experiment No. 13

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER


I. AIM: To perform the characteristics of frequency synthesizer using PLL

II. APPARATUS:
1. Frequency synthesizer trainer AET -26A
2. Dual trace C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Digital frequency counter or multimeter
4. Patch chords

III. THEORY:
Phase locked loop:
PLL stands for Phase locked loop and it is basically a closed loop
frequency control system, which functioning is based on phase sensitive detection
of phase difference between the input and output signals of controlled oscillator
.
Before the input is applied the PLL is in free running state. Once the input
frequency is applied the VCO frequency starts change and phase locked loop is
said to be in captured mode. The VCO frequency continues to change until it
equals the input frequency and PLL is then in the phase locked state. When phase
locked the loop tracks any change in the input frequency through its repetitive
action.

Frequency synthesizer:
The frequency divider is inserted between the VCO and the phase
comparator. Since the output of the divider is locked to the input frequency f
in
,
VCO is running at multiple of the input frequency. The desired amount of
multiplication can be obtained by selecting a proper divide by N network. Where N
is an integer. For example f
out
= 5 f
in
a divide by N=10, 2 network is needed as
shown in block diagram. This function performed by a 4 bit binary counter 7490
configured as a divide by 10, 2 circuit. In this circuit transistor Q
1
used as a driver
stage to increase the driving capability of LM565 as shown in fig.b.

To verify the operation of the circuit, we must determine the input
frequency range and then adjust the free running frequency F
out
of VCO by means
of R
1
(between 10
th
and 8
th
pin) and C1 (9
th
pin), so that the output frequency of the
7490 driver is midway within the predetermined input frequency range. The output
of the VCO now should be 5F
in.


Free running frequency (f
0
):
Where there is no input signal applied, it is in free running mode.
F
0
= 0.3 / (R
t
C
t
) where R
t
is the timing resistor
C
t
is the timing capacitor.
51

Lock range of PLL (f
L
)
F
L
= 8f
0
/V
CC
where f
0
is the free running frequency
= 2V
CC

Capture range (f
C
)
F
C
=
C
L
XC X
f
3
10 6 . 3
2
2
1 t
t

IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
(fig.a)








Phase
Comparator
Amplifier Low pass
filter

V C O
Div. N Network
frequency
divider
F
in
= f
out

N
f
in
F
out
=N.f
in
52

V. PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the trainer ad verify the output of the regulated power supply i.e.
5V. These supplies are internally connected to the circuit so no extra
connections are required.

2. Observe output of the square wave generator using oscilloscope and measure
the range with the help of frequency counter, frequency range should be around
1KHz to 10KHz.

3. Calculate the free running frequency range of the circuit (VCO output between
4
th
pin and ground). For different values of timing resistor R
1
( to measure R
t

switch off the trainer and measure R
t
value using digital multimeter between
given test points). And record the frequency values in tabular 1. F
out
= 0.3 /
(R
t
C
t
) where R
t
is the timing resistor and Ct is the timing capacitor = 0.01 f.

4. Connect 4
th
pin of LM 565 (F
out
) to the driver stage and 5
th
pin (Phase
comparator) connected to 11
th
pin of 7490. Output can be taken at the 11
th
pin
of the 7490. It should be divided by the 10, 2 times of the f
out
.

VI. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
Input waveforms

Output waveforms
53

VII. OBSERRVATION TABLE:

F
in
KHz F
out
= N f
in
KHz Divided by 10, 2












VIII. RESULT:


IX. APPLICATIONS:

1. Commercial SSB Transmitters.
2. Military multichannel SSB equipment.

X. QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of PLL?
2. What is PLL?
3. Define Lock range of a PLL.
4. What is a VCO?
5. What are the applications of frequency synthesizer?
6. What is meant by the free running frequency of PLL?
7 What is the operation of a frequency synthesizer?
8. Which block is mainly used in frequency synthesizer?



54
Experiment No.14
AGC CHARACTERISTICS
I. AIM: To perform the AGC characteristics.

II. APPARATUS:

1. AGC trainer kit.
2. Dual trace C.R.O (20MHz)
3. Digital frequency counter or multimeter
4. Patch chords

III. THEORY:
A Simple AGC is a system by means of which the overall gain of a radio
receiver is varied automatically with the changing strength of the received signal,
to keep the output substantially constant. A dc bias voltage, derived from the
detector. The devices used in those stages are ones whose trans conductance and
hence gain depends on the applied bias voltage or current. It may be noted in
passing that, for correct AGC operation, this relationship between applied bias and
transconductance need not to be strictly linear, as long as transconductance drops
significantly with increased bias. All modern receivers are furnished with AGC,
which enables tuning to stations of varying signal strengths without appreciable
change in the size of the output signal thus AGC irons out input signal amplitude
variations, and the gain control dose not have to be re adjusted every time the
receiver is tuned from one station to another, except when the change in signal
strengths is enormous. In addition, AGC helps to smooth out the rapid fading
which may occur with long-distance short-wave reception and prevents the
overloading of the last IF amplifier which might otherwise have occurred.

This kit consists of wired circuitry of:
1. RF Generator
2. AF Generator
3. Regulated power supply
4. AM Modulator
5. Demodulator (simple diode detector and AGC Circuit)
55

IV. DEVICE DESCRIPTION:

1. RF Generator:
Colpitts oscillator using FET is used here to generate RF signal of 455 KHz
frequency to use as carrier signal in this Experiment. Adjustments for amplitude
and frequency are provided on panel for ease of operation.

2. AF Generator:
Low frequency signal of approximately 1 KHz is generated using OP-AMP
based wein bridge oscillator, required amplification and adjustable attenuation are
provided.

3. Regulated power supply:
This consists of bridge rectifier, capacitor filters and three terminal
regulators to provide required DC voltages in the circuit i.e. +12v, _12v, +6v @150
mA each.

4. AM Modulator:
Modulator section illustrates the circuit of modulating amplifier employing
a transistor (BC 107) as an active device in common emitter amplifier mode.R1
and R2 establishes a quiescent forward bias for the transistor .The modulating
signal is fed at the emitter section causes the bias to increase or decrease in
accordance with the modulating signal.R4 is emitter resistance and C3 is by pass
capacitor for carrier.Thus the carrier signal applied at the base gets amplified more
when the amplitude of the modulating signal is at its maximum and less when the
signal by the modulating signal output is amplitude-modulated signal. C2 couples
the modulated signal to output of the Modulator.

5. Detector And AGC Stage:
This circuit incorporates two-stage amplifier, diode detector and AGC circuit.
a. 1st IF Amplifier:
Q2 (BF 495C) acts as 1
st
IF Amplifier. The base of Q2 is connected
through R5 (68K0 to the detector output. R6 (100E) and C4 (47n) is decoupling
filter for +B line. The base potential depends on R4 (220k) base biasing resistor
and the detector current supplied by R5. The detector current is proportional to
the signal strength received. This controls the bias of Q2 (BF 495C)
automatically to the signal received. This is called A.G.C. C6 (4.7/16) is used
as base bias and AGC decoupling capacitor. The output of Q2 is available
across the secondary of L8 (IF T2), the primary of which is tuned to IF by the
capacitor C18 (2n7). This output is given to the base of Q3 (BF 495D).

56
b. 2nd IF Amplifier:
Q3 (BF 195C) acts as 2
nd
IF amplifier. The base bias for Q3 is
provided by R7 (180k), C7 (47n) is used to keep the end 4 of L8 (IFT2) at
ground potential for IF signal. The collector of Q3 is connected to the L9
(IFT3). L9 contains 200pf capacitor inside across the primary. The output of
Q3 is available across the secondary of L9, the primary of which is tuned by the
internal 200pf capacitor. R8 (220E), C8 (47n) consists the decoupling circuit
for the collector supply of Q3. The output of Q3 is coupled to detector diode
D1 (OA 79).

c. Detector:
Modulated IF signal from the secondary of L9 (IFT3) is fed to the
detector diode D1. D1 rectifies the modulated IF signal & IF component of
modulated signal is filtered by C8 (22n), R9 (680E0 & C14 (22n). R9 is the
detector load resistor. The detected signal (AF signal) is given to the volume
control P2 (10k Log) though maximum audio output-limiting resistor r21 (10k).
It is also given to AGC circuit made of R5 (68k) and C6 (a.7/16).

d. AGC
The sound received from the LS will depend on the strength of the
signals received at the antenna. The strength of the received signals can vary
widely due to fading. This will cause variations in sound which can be
annoying. Moreover, the strength of signals can also be too large in close
vicinity of MW transmitters causing overloading of the 2
nd
IF amplifier.

Automatic gain control (AGC) is used to minimize the variations in
sound with changes in signal strength & to prevent overloading. The operation
of AGC depends on the fact that the gain obtained from any transistor depend
on its collector current & becomes less when the collector current is reduced to
cut off (or increased to saturation

For AGC, DC voltage obtained from the detection of IF signals is
applied to the 1
st
amplifier transistor base in such a way that an increase in this
voltages reduces the gain of the transistor. The result is that when the strength
of the incoming signal increases, the DC voltage also increase and this tends to
reduce the gain of the amplifier thus not permitting the output to change much.
Here R5 (68k) & C6 (4.7/16) performs this function. C6 (4.7/16) is the AGC
decoupling capacitor to by pass any AF signals and keep the bias steady

57
V.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


VI. PROCEDURE:
1. As the circuit is already wired you just have to trace the circuit according to the
circuit diagram given above.
2. Connect the trainer to the mains and switch on the power supply.
3. Measures the output voltages of the regulated power supply circuit i.e. +12v
and -12v, +6@150ma.
4. Observe outputs of RF and AF signal generator using CRO, note that RF
voltage is approximately 50mVpp of 455KHz frequency and AF voltage is
5Vpp of KHz frequency.
5. Now vary the amplitude of AFsignal and observe the AM wave at output, note
the percentage of modulation for different values of AF signal.
% Modulation= (B A) / (B + A) X 100
6. Now adjust the modulation index to 30% by varying the amplitudes of RF &
AF signals simultaneously.
7. Connect AM output to the input of AGC and also to the CRO channel 1.
8. Connect AGC link to the feedback network through OA79 diode
9. Now connect CRO channel 2 at output. The detected audio signal of 1KHz
will be observed.
10. Calculate the voltage gain by measuring the amplitude of output signal (Vo)
waveform, using formula A = Vo/Vi.
58
11. Now vary input level of 455KHz IF signal and observe detected 1KHz audio
signal with and without AGC link. The output will be distorted when AGC link
removed i.e. there is no AGC action.
12. This explains AGC effect in Radio circuit.

VII. EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

VIII. RESULT:

IX. APPLICATIONS:
1. AM receivers.
2. Communication Systems.

X. QUESTIONS:
1. What do you mean by AGC ?
2. Explain how the gain is varied automatically in the radio receiver?
3. How the AGC helps in making the smooth waveform?
4. What is the main purpose of using the AGC .
5. What are the advantages received by employing AGC circuit in the
receiver.
6. Write a short note on AGC.
7. What is AGC? Explain the circuit diagram of AGC.
8. What is the difference between delayed AGC and the simple AGC?


**********
59
Experiment No. 15
PLL as FM Demodulator

I. AIM:

To perform the characteristics of PLL, and calculating its capture range, lock range
and free running VCO frequency theoretically.

II. APPARATUS:

1. PLL Trainer Kit
2. C R O (20MHz)
3. Connecting wires


III. THEORY:

Phase Locked Loop is a versatile electronic servo system that compares the phase
and frequency of a given signal with an internally generated reference signal. It is
used in various applications like frequency multiplication, FM detector, AM
modulator & De modulator and FSK etc.,

Free running frequency (f
0
):

When there is no input signal applied to pin no:2 of PLL, it is in free
running mode and the free running frequency is determined by the circuit elements
R
t
and C
t
and is given by
F
0
= 0.3/(R
t
C
t
) where R
t
is the timing resistor
C
t
is the timing capacitor
Lock range of PLL (f
L
):

Lock range of PLL is in the range of frequencies in which PLL will remain lock,
and this is given by

f
L
= 8f
0
/V
CC
Where f
0
is the free running frequency
V
CC
= V
CC
(- V
CC
)

= 2 V
CC

Capture range (f
C
):

The capture range of PLL is the range of frequencies over which PLL
acquires the lock. This is given by

f
C
=
H 2
1
C
L
xC x
f
3
10 6 . 3
2H
Where f
L
is the lock range and
C
C
is filter capacitor
R = 3.6 X 10
3

60

IV.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:






61

V. PROCEDURE:


1. Connect +5V to pin 10 of LM 565.
2. Connect +5V to pin 1.
3. Connect 10k resistor from pin 8 to +5V.
4. Connect 0.01f capacitor from pin 9 to -5V.
5. Short pin 4 to pin 5.
6. Without giving input measure (f
o
) free running frequency.
7. Connect pin 2 to oscillator or function generator through a 1uf capacitor,
adjust the amplitude around 2Vpp.
8. Connect 0.1f capacitor between pin 7 to +5V(C
2
).
9. Connect the input signal to the Channel 1 of CRO.
10. Connect the output to the second Channel of CRO.
11. By varying the frequency in different steps observe that at one frequency ,
the wave form will be Phase locked.
12. Change R-C components to shift VCO center frequency and see how lock
range of the input varies.
13. Compare the theoretical values and practical values.

VI. TABULAR COLOUMN:

Lock range:

Theoretical Value
(frequency in KHz)
Practical Value
(frequency in KHz)



Capture range:

Filter Capacitor Theoretical Value
(frequency in KHz)
Practical Value
(frequency in KHz )
0.1F
0.2F






62

VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF PLL:







F
1
F
3
f
o
F
4
F
2
Capture range
Lock range



VII. RESULT:



VIII. APPLICATIONS:
1. Communication receivers.
2. FM demodulator.


X. QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of PLL?
2. What is a PLL?
3. What is a VCO?
4. Define the lock range of a PLL?
5. Define the capture range of PLL?
6. Give the expression for free running frequency f
0
of a PLL?
7. What is meant by the free running frequency of a PLL?
8. Give the formulae for the lock range and capture range of the PLL?