GEOGRAPHY

EARTHQUAKES

An earthquake is a result of a sudden release of energy in the earths crust that creates seismic waves.

Earthquakes are short-lived episodes of ground shaking produced when blocks of Earth suddenly shift.

They typically last for a few seconds (small earthquakes) to several minutes (largest earthquakes) and
produce several types of seismic waves that propagate through the Earth.

The shaking caused by earthquakes can result in landslides, volcanic activity and even Tsunami. When a
large earthquake occurs in the oceans, the ocean floor can suffer sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami
(e.g. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami).

Earthquakes are usually caused by rupture of geological faults, but can also be caused by volcanic activity,
landslides, mine blasts and nuclear experiments.

The point of initial rupture of an earthquake is called its hypocentre, while the point on the surface
directly above it is called the epicentre.

Mechanism of action

Earthquakes can occur anywhere within the earth where there is stored elastic energy sufficient enough to
drive fault propagation along a fault plane. Most earthquakes are caused indirectly by plate tectonics.

Almost all earthquakes occur along plate boundaries because plate boundaries are the loci of horizontal
forces that push and stretch rocks, causing them to break and produce earthquakes. Earthquakes are
produced at all three types of plate boundaries. Locations far from plate boundaries experience few
earthquakes.

Tectonic plates move past each other smoothly only if there are no irregularities and asperities. Most plate
boundaries do have asperities and this leads to stick-
slip behaviour.

Once the boundary has locked into a relative stable

position, continued relative motion between the
plates leads to increased stress and stored strain
energy.

This continues until the stress rises sufficiently to

break through the relative stable position, suddenly
sliding over the locked position of the fault and
thereby releasing the stored energy.

The energy is released as a combination of elastic

seismic waves, frictional heating of the surface and
cracking of rock, thereby causing an earthquake.

This process of gradual build up of stress and sudden release of energy in the form of earthquakes is called
elastic-rebound theory.
 It is estimated that less than 10 % of the total energy of an earthquake is radiated as seismic energy. Most
of the earthquakes energy is used to power fracture growth or is converted as heat generated by friction.

SEISMIC WAVES

All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere. Earthquake waves are basically of two types body waves
and surface waves.

Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling
through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. The body waves interact with the surface rocks
and generate new set of waves called surface waves. These waves move along the surface. The velocity of
waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities. The denser the material, the higher
is the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with
different densities.

There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.

P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called primary waves. The P-
waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid and solid materials.

S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves. An important fact
about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials. This characteristic of the S-waves is
quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth. Reflection
causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different directions. The variations in
the direction of waves are inferred with the help of their record on seismograph.

The surface waves are the last to report on seismograph. These waves are more destructive. They cause
displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.

PROPAGATION OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES

Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners. As they move or propagate, they cause vibration in
the body of the rocks through which they pass. P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts
pressure on the material in the direction of the propagation.
As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the material. Other
three waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The direction of vibrations of S-waves is
perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material
through which they pass. Surface waves are considered to be the most damaging waves.

EMERGENCE OF SHADOW ZONE

Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations. However, there exist some specific
areas where the waves are not reported. Such a zone is called the shadow zone. The study of different events
reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether different shadow zone. It was observed that seismographs
located at any distance within 105 from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves. However, the
seismographs located beyond 145 from epicentre; record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. Thus, a
zone between 105 and 145 from epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for both the types of waves. The
entire zone beyond 105 does not receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that of the P-
waves. The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 105 and 145 away from the
epicentre. The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent but it is also a little over 40 per cent of the earth
surface.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES

(i). The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes. These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault
plane.

(ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake. However, these are
confined to areas of active volcanoes.

(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse causing minor
tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.

(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such tremors are called
explosion earthquakes.

(v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir induced earthquakes.

EFFECTS OFEARTHQUAKE

Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of earthquake:

Ground Shaking

Differential ground settlement

Land and mud slides

Soil liquefaction

Ground lurching

Avalanches

Ground displacement

Floods from dam and levee failures

Fires

Structural collapse

Falling objects

Tsunami

The first six listed above have some bearings upon landforms, while others may be considered the effects causing
immediate concern to the life and properties of people in the region. The effect of tsunami would occur only if the
epicentre of the tremor is below oceanic waters and the magnitude is sufficiently high. Tsunamis are waves
generated by the tremors and not an earthquake in itself. Though the actual quake activity lasts for a few seconds, its
effects are devastating provided the magnitude of the quake is more than 5 on the Richter scale

MEASURING EARTHQUAKES

The absolute magnitude of a quake is reported on the Moment Magnitude scale (MMS), while perceived
magnitude is reported on the Modified Mercalli (MM) scale. The Richter scale is another scale that measures the
absolute magnitude it is no longer used in academic circles but is still used in popular parlance.

As a rule of thumb, the distance to the earthquake epicentre is the number of seconds between the P and S
waves multiplied by 8.

Induced seismicity

While most earthquakes occur due to natural movement of the earths tectonic plates, human activity can
produce earthquakes as well

Four main human activities that contribute to earthquakes include.

Large dams

Drilling and injecting liquids into wells

Coal mining

Oil drilling

For instance, the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China is believed to have been caused by the Zipingpu dam
which caused the pressure of a nearby fault to fluctuate, increasing the movement of the fault and the
magnitude of the earthquake

Earthquakes and volcanic activity

Earthquakes often occur in volcanic areas

They are caused both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes
 Such earthquakes can serve as early warning of impending volcanic eruptions. Eg: Mount St Helens
eruption of 1980 (USA)

Measurement: Mercalli Scale vs Richter Scale

Earthquakes are recorded with a seismograph and are reported on a magnitude of the Richter scale. The
Richter scale describes the earthquake's magnitude by measuring the seismic waves that cause the
earthquake.

In general, earthquakes of magnitude less than 3 are imperceptible, and more than 7 can cause
serious damage. The most powerful earthquake ever recorded is the Valdivia earthquake in Chile in
1960. It measured 9.5 on the Richter scale.

The intensity of an earthquake can also be measured on the Modified Mercalli (MM) scale. The MM scale
quantifies the effect an earthquake has on humans, natural objects and man-made structures based
on observation.

The two scales have different applications and measurement techniques. The Mercalli scale is linear and
the Richter scale is logarithmic. i.e. a magnitude 5 earthquake is ten times as intense as a magnitude 4
earthquake.

Parameters Mercalli Scale Richter Scale

Measures: The effects caused by earthquake The energy released by the earthquake
Measuring
Observation Seismograph
Tool:
Quantified from observation of effect on earths
Base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating
Calculation: surface, human, objects and man-made
logarithm of the amplitude of waves.
structures
From 2.0 to 10.0+ (never recorded). A 3.0
Scale: I (not felt) to XII (total destruction) earthquake is 10 times stronger than a 2.0
earthquake.
Varies at different distances from the epicenter,
Consistency: Varies at different distances from the epicenter but one value is given for the earthquake as a
whole.
The MedvedevSponheuerKarnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, is a macroseismic
intensity scale used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in an area of
the earthquake occurrence.

Distribution of Earthquakes

In general, earthquakes can occur almost anywhere (even away from plate boundaries).

The relationship between frequency and intensity of earthquakes is roughly exponential i.e. for instance,
there are roughly 10 times as many earthquakes of magnitude 4 as of magnitude 5

Most of the worlds earthquakes occur in Pacific Ring of Fire seismic belt. Massive earthquakes occur
along other plate boundaries too, such as the Himalayas.
 According to a moderate estimate about 30,000 earthquakes occur every year. But most of these are so
slight that we cannot feel them. There is no visible damage from them. But every year there are some
earthquakes of great intensity and magnitude.

Every year hundreds of earthquakes pass unnoticed because they occur in areas where there is no
possibility of any loss of human life and damage to property.

Earthquakes have a definite distribution pattern. There are three major belts in the world which are
frequented by earthquakes of varying intensities. These belts are as under:

1. The Circum-Pacific Belt

2. The Mid-Atlantic Belt

3. The Mid-Continental Belt

1. THE CIRCUM-PACIFIC BELT: This belt is located around the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In this belt the
earthquakes originate mostly beneath the ocean floor near the coast. The Circum- Pacific Belt represents the
convergent plate boundaries where the most widespread and intense earthquakes occur.

This belt has about 66 percent of the total earthquake that are recorded in the world. Most of the earthquakes
occurring in this belt are shallow ones with their focus about 25 km deep.

It may be pointed out that these belts being the zones of convergent plate boundaries (the subduction zones) are
isostatically very unstable. Japan alone experiences about 1500 earthquakes per year.

2. THE MID-ATLANTIC BELT:

This belt is characterised by the sea floor spreading which is the main cause of the occurrence of earthquakes in it.
This earthquake belt runs along the mid- oceanic ridges and the other ridges in the Atlantic Ocean.

In this belt most of the earthquakes are of moderate to mild intensity. Their foci are generally less than 70 km deep.
Since the divergent plates in this belt move in opposite directions and there is splitting as well, transform faults and
fractures are created.

3. THE MID-CONTINENTAL BELT:

This belt extends along the young folded Alpine mountain system of Europe, North Africa, through Asia
Minor, Caucasia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the Himalayan mountain system. This belt continues
further to include Tibet, the Pamirs and the mountains of Tien Shan etc. The young folded mountain
systems of Myanmar, China and eastern Siberia fall in this belt.

This belt happens to be the subduction zone of continental plates. It is in this belt that the African as well as
Indian plates sub-duct below the Eurasian plate.

It experiences about 20 per cent of the earthquakes in the world having shallow and intermediate origin.
However, sometimes earthquakes of great violence occur in this belt.
It may be pointed out that more than 50 percent of all earthquakes are associated with the young folded mountains
which are said to be still growing.

The Andes, Himalayas and Coast Ranges of the United States are the specific examples. It is worthwhile to
remember that this girdle of young fold mountains has no correspondence with the line of active volcanoes like the
Circum-Pacific earthquake zone.

There are some regions on the earth's surface which are relatively immune from violent and vigorous earthquakes.
This is so because diastrophism and volcanism are either absent or only moderately active. But the infrequent
occurrence of minor shocks in such regions is not ruled out. Such shocks may occur due to local causes like the
subterranean movement of imprisoned gases or liquids.

The most glaring example of the occurrence of minor earthquakes in quite unexpected places is the Koyna
earthquake which shook Koynanagar on September 13 and 14, 1967.

Major earthquakes.

S. No. Date Location Magnitude

1. 1960 Valdivia, Chile 9.5

2. Dec 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia 9.3

3. 1964 Alaska, USA 9.2

4. 1952 Kamchatka, Russia 9.0

5. 1700 Cascadia Subduction Zone (Pacific Ocean rim) 9.0

Earthquake Zoning in India:

Effects of an earthquake is measured by descriptive scale namely Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale.
 Based on the likelihood of occurrence of damaging earthquakes, a seismic zone map has been prepared to
spot the critical regions in India .
The seismic zone map has been subdivided India into 5 zones I, II, III, IV and V. The seismic shaking
intensity is expected maximum in zones marked as V and higher.
The seismic zone maps are updated regularly with strict reference to geology, the seismotectonics and the
seismic activity in the country.

Zone 5

Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity. It is referred to as
the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state of Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, the North-
East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic rock
are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4

This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country
(Delhi), Jammu and Kashmir fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra the Patan area (Koyananager) is also in zone 4.

Zone 3

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is
classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone.

Zone 2

This region is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone.

Zone 1

Rest of the country. Very low damage risk zone.

Condensation and it various forms
May 16, 2015

Condensation is the process of a substance in a gaseous state transforming into a liquid or solid state. The change in
state is caused by a change in pressure and temperature of the substance. Condensation generally occurs in the
atmosphere when warm air rises, cools and looses its capacity to hold water vapor. As a result, excess water vapor
condenses to form cloud droplets.

Objects near the ground cool rapidly at night through emission of infrared radiation. The ground and objects near the
ground are often much cooler than the surrounding air. Air in contact with these objects cools by conduction,
eventually reaching the dew point. As water vapor condenses on these surfaces deal) begins to accumulate. Dew
evaporates rapidly in dry climates or windy conditions. Dew is most likely to form on calm clear nights where
infrared radiation is at a maximum and movement of chilled air away from the ground is at a minimum.

Frost forms when the dew point temperature is below freezing (a.k.a. frost point). When the air temperature cools
to the frost point, and further cooling occurs, water vapor can change directly to ice without becoming a liquid first
in a process known as deposition.

Just as dew and frost need a surface upon which to condense, there must be airborne particles upon which water
vapor can condense to produce cloud droplets. Particles known as condensation nuclei or hygroscopic nuclei
fulfill this role. Condensation nuclei provide surfaces upon which water vapor can condense to create cloud droplets.
Condensation nuclei are very small (about 0.2 - 10.0 microns) particles light enough to remain suspended in the air.
Condensation nuclei are formed from a variety of sources including dust, pollen, smoke, salt from ocean spray and
sulfates.

There are broadly two types of condensation nuclei: hygroscopic and hydrophobic. Hygroscopic nuclei are "water
seeking" nuclei. Water vapor condenses on hygroscopic surfaces readily even when the relative humidity is
considerably lower than 100 percent. Salt is an example of a hygroscopic particle. Hydrophobic nuclei are water
repelling. Water vapor will condense on hydrophobic surfaces only at relative humidities greater than 100 percent,
and even then with great difficulty. Examples of hydrophobic nuclei are oil, gasoline, and paraffin wax. Since air
usually has a mixture of both hygroscopic and hydrophobic nuclei, condensation usually occurs at relative
humidities of less than 100 percent.

Haze forms when a layer of dust or salt particles is suspended in the air. In areas where haze regularly forms,
visibility is enhanced when relative humidity is low because less condensation occurs on the haze particles. This
keeps the particles relatively small even as the number of haze particulates remains constant. As air cools the
relative humidity increases. In such an environment, when the relative humidity reaches about 75 percent,
condensation begins producing a wet haze. As water collects on the available nuclei, their size increases to the point
that they become effective scatterers of light, thus producing haze.

When relative humidity nears 100 percent, haze particles grow larger and condensation occurs on less active nuclei.
When visibility diminishes to < 1 km, fog occurs. As fog droplets increase in size they begin to settle toward the
ground. This process is fairly rapid (approx. 5 cm/sec). How then, is fog maintained? Fog forms when air is either
cooled (cooled below its saturation or dew point) or by evaporation and mixing (water vapor enters the air by
evaporation and the moist air mixes with relatively dry air). Once fog forms it is maintained by the continuous
formation of new fog droplets on fresh condensation nuclei that replace those settling to the ground, as long as the
cooling/mixing mechanism is also maintained.

Radiation or Ground Fog is a fog produced by the earth's radiational cooling. It forms best on :
cold, clear nights where a relatively thin layer of moist air close to the ground is overlain by drier air.
The moist, shallow layer does not absorb much of the outgoing infrared radiation.
 The ground and the air directly above it cool rapidly, creating a surface inversion.
The moist, lower layer quickly becomes saturated by this rapid cooling and fog forms. Radiation fogs
A light breeze of less than five knots enhances the formation of radiation fog. This occurs because the slight
breeze brings more moist air in contact with the cool ground, thus cooling the moist air layer more efficiently. A
strong breeze squelches this process by mixing the moist surface air with the drier air above.

Fog tends to dissipate or "burn off" after the sun has been up for a short while. This occurs because some sunlight
penetrates the fog and begins to warm the ground thus disrupting the fog creating cycle.

Advection fogs form as the result of wind moving moist air from above a warmer surface to a region above a cooler
surface. The moist air cools to its dew point after coming in contact with the cooler surface producing fog.
Advection fogs are typical in most coastal regions. During summer months, moist air is carried by the wind from
warmer waters (near the surface) offshore. When this warm air reaches cooler surface waters near the coasts the air
cools and condenses creating a fog. Advection fogs often provide an important moisture source for surrounding
biological systems in coastal regions.

Upslope fogs form when moist air flows upslope in mountainous regions. With this upward movement the air cools
to it's dew point causing condensation and fog formation. Upslope fog is common on the eastern side of the Rocky
Mountains. Upslope fogs can persist for many days in some regions.

Evaporation or mixing fog is the mixing of two unsaturated air masses to produce a fog. If moist air meets and
mixes with cooler air resulting in saturation, a fog forms. Mixing fogs are common in ski areas during times of
rainfall. As rain falls onto the snow it begins to melt. The melting process extracts heat from the surrounding
environment, including the air close to the ground. For readily forms in the cool, rain-saturated air. When you
breathe condenses in front of your face on a cold morning you are staring at another example of a mixing fog.

In the U.S., heavy fog is more prevalent in coastal regions than in the center of the continent. Three major regions
stand out as having the most days with heavy fog:

1. Pacific Coast region

2. Appalachian Highlands.

3. New England region.

Fog often causes poor visibility. Driving from a clear area into fog on a major freeway can be extremely dangerous.
This problem is exacerbated when driving at night with high-beam lights on. This is because the light from lamps is
reflected backward by the fog droplets. It is much better to use low beams in this situation to change the angle of the
reflected light away from the level of the driver's eyes. People who frequently drive in foggy areas often install fog
lamps. Fog lamps direct light downward toward the road surface. In addition to solving the reflection problem, fog
lamps illuminate a
drier layer of air that
typically exists within
a foot or so of the road
providing better
visibility.

Clouds: These are also

form of condensation.
Clouds form when
water vapor rises into
the atmosphere and
condenses onto
microscopic particles,
such as dust, dirt and
sea salt. Based on
heights clouds can be classified as:

1. High Cloud

a. Cirrus

b. Cirrostratus

c. cirrocumulus

2.Mid clouds

a. Altostratus

b. Altocumulus

c. Nimbostratus

3. Low clouds

a. Cumulus

b. Stratus

c. Cumulonimbus

Cirrus Cloud: Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, mostly white patches or narrow bands.
They may have a fibrous (hair-like) and/or silky sheen appearance.

Cirrus clouds are always composed

of ice crystals, and their transparent
character depends upon the degree
of separation of the crystals.

As a rule when these clouds cross

the sun's disk they hardly diminish
its brightness. Before sunrise and
after sunset, cirrus is often colored
bright yellow or red. These clouds
are lit up long before other clouds
and fade out much later.
Cirrostratus: Transparent, whitish
veil clouds with a fibrous (hair-like)
or smooth appearance. A sheet of
cirrostratus which is very extensive, nearly always ends by covering the whole sky.

A milky veil of fog (or thin Stratus ) is distinguished from a veil of Cirrostratus of a similar appearance by the halo
phenomena which the sun or the moon nearly always produces in a layer of cirrostratus.
Cirrocumulus: Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered of clouds without shading. They are composed of very small
elements in the form of more or less regularly arranged grains or ripples.

In general Cirrocumulus represents a degraded state of cirrus and cirrostratus both of which may change into it and
is an uncommon cloud. There will be a connection with cirrus or cirrostratus and will show some characteristics of
ice crystal clouds.

Altostratus: Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers of striated or fibrous clouds that totally or partially covers the sky.
They are thin enough to regularly reveal the sun as if seen through ground glass.

Altostratus clouds do not produce a halo phenomenon nor are the shadows of objects on the ground visible.

Sometime virga is seen hanging from Altostratus, and at times may even reach the ground causing very light
precipitation.

Altocumulus: White and/or gray patch, sheet or layered clouds, generally composed of laminae (plates), rounded
masses or rolls. They may be partly fibrous or diffuse.
When the edge or a thin sem itransparent patch of altocumulus passes in front of the sun or moon a corona appears.
This colored ring has red on the outside and blue inside and occurs within a few degrees of the sun or moon.

The most common mid cloud, more than one layer of Altocumulus often appears at different levels at the same time.
Many times Altocumulus will appear with other cloud types.

Nimbotratus: The continuous rain cloud. Resulting from thickening Altostratus, This is a dark gray cloud layer
diffused by falling rain or snow. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the sun. The cloud base lowers into the
low level of clouds as precipitation continues.

Also, low, ragged clouds frequently occur beneath this cloud which sometimes merges with its base.

Cumulus: Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp outlines that develop vertically in the form of rising
mounds, domes or towers with bulging upper parts often resembling a cauliflower.

The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while their bases are relatively dark and horizontal.
Over land cumulus develops on days of clear skies, and is due diurnal convection; it appears in the morning, grows,
and then more or less dissolves again toward evening.

Stratus: A generally gray clou d layer with a uniform base which may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms,
or snow grains. When the sun is visible through this cloud, its outline is clearly discernible.

Often when a layer of Stratus breaks up and dissipates blue sky is seen.

Cumulonimbus: The thunderstorm cloud, this is a heavy and dense cloud in the form of a mountain or huge tower.
The upper portion is usually smoothed, fibrous or striated and nearly always flattened in the shape of an anvil or vast
plume.

Under the base of this cloud which is often very dark, there are often low ragged clouds that may or may not merge
with the base. They produce precipitation, which sometimes is in the form of virga. Cumulonimbus clouds also
produce hail and tornadoes.
Stratocumulus: Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or layered clouds which almost always have dark tessellations
(honeycomb appearance), rounded masses or rolls. Except for virga they are non-fibrous and may or may not be
merged.

They also have regularly arranged small elements with an apparent width of more than five degrees (three fingers -
at arm's length).

Ocean Currents of The word and their effect on Weather

May 08, 2015
Ocean currents are large masses of surface water that circulate in regular patterns around the oceans.
Those that flow from equatorial regions polewards have a higher surface temperature and are warm currents.
Those that flow from polar regions equator wards have a lower surface temperature and are cold currents.

Ocean current are generated by wind, Coriolis force, temperature and salinity gradients, and tides.

Ocean currents greatly affect earths climate by transferring heat from the tropics to polar regions,
and transferring precipitation to coastal regions.

The most famous example of ocean currents is the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more
temperate than any other region at that latitude.
 Surface ocean currents are generally driven by wind, and circulate in clockwise direction in the
northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere (due to prevailing winds). Surface
currents make up about 10% of all ocean currents.

Deep ocean currents, called thermohaline circulation, are driven by water density and temperature
gradients. Also known as the worlds conveyor belts, these deep ocean currents supply heat to polar
regions and thereby regulate sea ice formation.

Deep ocean currents make up about 90% of all ocean currents.

Ocean currents are measured in Sverdrup (Sv), with 1 Sv being equivalent to a flow rate of 1 million cu.
m per second.

For more details on currents refer to chapter 2 of climatology.

The underlying factors determining the direction of currents are explained below.

A.The Planetary Winds: Trade Winds which move equatorial waters polewards and westwards and warm the
eastern coasts of continents. While westerlies result in a north-easterly flow of water in the northern hemisphere.
The planetary winds are probably the dominant influence on the flow of ocean currents. The strongest evidence is in
the North Indian Ocean. Here the direction of the currents changes completely with the direction of the monsoon
winds which come from the north-east in winter and south-west in summer.

B. Temperatures: As warm water is lighter and rises, and cold water is denser and sinks, warm equatorial waters
move slowly along the surface polewards, while the heavier cold waters of the Polar Regions creep slowly along the
bottom of the sea equatorwards.

C. Salinity: Water of high salinity are denser than waters of low salinity. Hence waters of low salinity flow on the
surface of waters of high salinity while waters of high salinity flow at the bottom towards waters of low salinity.

D. The earths rotation: The earths rotation deflects freely moving objects, including ocean currents, to the right.
In the northern hemisphere this is a clockwise direction (e.g. the circulation of the Gulf Stream Drift and the
Canaries Current). In the southern hemisphere it is an anti-clockwise direction (e.g. the Brazilian Current and the
West Wind Drift).

E. Land: A land mass always obstructs and diverts a current. For instance, the tip of southern Chile diverts part of
the West Wind Drift northwards as the Peruvian Current. Similarly the shoulder of Brazil at Cape Sao Roque,
divides the west- flowing equatorial currents into the Cayenne Current which flows north-westwards and the
Brazilian Current which flows south-westwards.

Types of Ocean Currents

The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep water currents :

(i) Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper 400 m of
the ocean;

(ii) Deep water currents or Thermohaline Currents make up the other 90per cent of the ocean water. These
waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity. Deep waters sink into the deep
ocean basins at high latitudes, where the temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.

Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature : as cold currents and warm currents:
(i) Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the west coast of
them continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the eastcoast in the higher
latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;

Latitude/Side of Continent West coast of Continent East coast of Continent

High Warm Current Cold Current
Low Cold Current

(ii) Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the east coast of continents
in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere they are found on the west
coasts of continents in high latitudes.

Atlantic Ocean Currents:

The trade winds set up a system of equatorial currents which at times extends over as much as 50 of latitude or
more. There are two westerly flowing currents conforming generally with the areas of trade winds, separated by a
weaker, easterly flowing countercurrent.

The North Equatorial Current originates to the northward of the Cape Verde Islands and flows almost due west .

The South Equatorial Current is more extensive. It starts off the west coast of Africa, south of the Gulf of
Guinea, and flows in a generally westerly direction. As the current approaches Cabo de Sao Roque, the eastern
extremity of South Ame hat effect do ocean currents have on the Earth's weather? rica, it divides, the southern part
curving toward the south along the coast of Brazil, and the northern part being deflected northward by the continent
of South America.

Between the North and South Equatorial Currents, the weaker North Equatorial Countercurrent sets toward the
east in the general vicinity of the doldrums. This is fed by water from the two westerly flowing equatorial currents,
particularly the South Equatorial Current. The extent and strength of the Equatorial Countercurrent changes with the
seasonal variations of the wind. It reaches a maximum during July and August, when it extends from about 50 west
longitude to the Gulf of Guinea. During its minimum, in December and January, it is of very limited extent, the
western portion disappearing altogether.
Within the Straits of Florida, the North equatorial feeds the beginnings of the most remarkable of American ocean
currents, the Gulf Stream. Off the southeast coast of Florida this current is augmented by the Antilles Current
which flows along the northern coasts of Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Cuba. Another current flowing eastward of
the Bahamas joins the stream north of these islands. The Gulf Stream follows generally along the east coast of North
America, flowing around Florida, northward and then northeastward toward Cape Hatteras, and then curving toward
the east and becoming broader and slower. After passing the Grand Banks, it turns more toward the north and
becomes a broad drift current flowing across the North Atlantic. The part in the Straits of Florida is sometimes
called the Florida Current.

As the Gulf Stream continues eastward and northeastward beyond the Grand Banks, it gradually widens and
decreases speed until it becomes a vast, slowmoving current known as the North Atlantic Current, in the general
vicinity of the prevailing westerlies. In the eastern part of the Atlantic it divides into the Northeast Drift Current and
the Southeast Drift Current.

The Northeast Drift Current continues in a generally northeasterly direction toward the Norwegian Sea. As it does
so, it continues to widen and decrease speed. South of Iceland it branches to form the Irminger Current and the
Norway Current.

In Baffin Bay the West Greenland Current generally follows the coast, curving westward off Kap York to form the
southerly flowing Labrador Current. This cold current flows southward off the coast of Baffin Island, through
Davis Strait, along the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, to the Grand Banks, carrying with it large quantities of
ice. Here it encounters the warm water of the Gulf Stream, creating the cold wall. Some of the cold water flows
southward along the east coast of North America, inshore of the Gulf Stream, as far as Cape Hatteras. The remainder
curves toward the east and flows along the northern edge of the North Atlantic and Northeast Drift Currents,
gradually merging with them.

The Southeast Drift Current curves toward the east, southeast, and then south as it is deflected by the coast of
Europe. It flows past the Bay of Biscay, toward southeastern Europe and the Canary Islands, where it continues as
the Canary Current. In the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands, this current divides, part of it curving toward the
west to help form the North Equatorial Current, and part of it curving toward the east to follow the coast of Africa
into the Gulf of Guinea, where it is known as the Guinea Current. This current is augmented by the North
Equatorial Countercurrent and, in summer, it is strengthened by monsoon winds. It flows in close proximity to the
South Equatorial Current, but in the opposite direction. As it curves toward the south, still following the African
coast, it merges with the South Equatorial Current.

The clockwise circulation of the North Atlantic leaves a large central area between the recirculation region and the
Canary Current which has no well-defined currents. This area is known as the Sargasso Sea, from the large
quantities of sargasso or gulfweed encountered there.

That branch of the South Equatorial Current which curves toward the south off the east coast of South America,
follows the coast as the warm, highly-saline Brazil Current, which in some respects resembles a weak Gulf Stream.
Off Uruguay it encounters the colder, less-salty Falkland or Malvinas Current forming a sharp meandering front
in which eddies may form. The two currents curve toward the east to form the broad, slowmoving, South Atlantic
Current in the general vicinity of the prevailing westerlies and the front dissipates somewhat. This current flows
eastward to a point west of the Cape of Good Hope, where it curves northward to follow the west coast of Africa as
the strong Benguela Current, augmented somewhat by part of the Agulhas Current flowing around the southern
part of Africa from the Indian Ocean.

Pacific Ocean Currents

Pacific Ocean currents follow the general pattern of those in the Atlantic. The North Equatorial Current flows
westward in the general area of the northeast trades, and the South Equatorial Current follows a similar path in
the region of the southeast trades. Between these two, the weaker North Equatorial Counter current sets toward
the east, just north of the equator.

After passing the Mariana Islands, the major part of the North Equatorial Current curves somewhat toward the
northwest, past the Philippines and Taiwan. Here it is deflected further toward the north, where it becomes known as
the Kuroshio current, and then toward the northeast past the Nansei Shoto and Japan, and on in a more easterly
direction. Part of the Kuroshio, called the Tsushima Current, flows through Tsushima Strait, between Japan and
Korea, and the Sea of Japan, following generally the northwest coast of Japan. North of Japan it curves eastward and
then southeastward to rejoin the main part of the Kuroshio. The limits and volume of the Kuroshio are influenced by
the monsoons, being augmented during the season of southwesterly winds, and diminished when the northeasterly
winds are prevalent.

As this current approaches the North American continent, most of it is deflected toward the right to form a
clockwise circulation between the west coast of North America and the Hawaiian Islands called the California
Current. This part of the current has become so broad that the circulation is generally weak.

As in the Atlantic, there is in the Pacific a counterclockwise circulation to the north of the clockwise circulation.
Cold water flowing southward through the western part of Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia, is joined by
water circulating counterclockwise in the Bering Sea to form the Oyashio. As the current leaves the strait, it curves
toward the right and flows southwesterly along the coast of Siberia and the Kuril Islands. This current brings
quantities of sea ice, but no icebergs. When it encounters the Kuroshio, the Oyashio curves southward and then
eastward, the greater portion joining the Kuroshio and North Pacific Current.

The northern branch of the North Pacific Current curves in a counterclockwise direction to form the Alaska Current,
which generally follows the coast of Canada and Alaska. When the Alaska Current turns to the southwest and flows
along the Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula, its character changes to that of a western boundary current and it
is called the Alaska Stream. When this westward flow arrives off the Aleutian Islands, it is less intense and becomes
known as the Aleutian Current. Part of it flows along the southern side of these islands to about the 180th
meridian, where it curves in a counterclockwise direction and becomes an easterly flowing current, being augmented
by the northern part of the Oyashio.
The South Equatorial Current, extending in width between about 4N latitude and 10S, flows westward from South
America to the western Pacific. After this current crosses the 180th meridian, the major part curves in a
counterclockwise direction, entering the Coral Sea, and then curving more sharply toward the south along the east
coast of Australia, where it is known as the East Australian Current. The East Australian Current is the weakest of
the subtropical western boundary currents and separates from the Australian coast near 34S. The path of the current
from Australia to New Zealand is known as the Tasman Front, which marks the boundary between the warm water
of the Coral Sea and the colder water of the Tasman Sea. The continuation of the East Australian Current east of
New Zealand is the East Auckland Current. The East Auckland Current varies seasonally: in winter, it separates
from the shelf and flows eastward, merging with the West Wind Drift, while in winter it follows the New Zealand
shelf southward as the East Cape Current until it reaches Chatham Rise where it turns eastward, thence merging with
the West Wind Drift.

Near the southern extremity of South America, most of this current flows eastward into the Atlantic, but part of it
curves toward the left and flows generally northward along the west coast of South America as the Peru Current or
Humboldt Current.

INDIAN OCEAN CURENTS

Being only half an ocean, completely landlocked in the north, the characteristic current circulation of the Indian
Ocean is different from that of Atlantic or the Pacific Ocean. The currents in the northern portion of the Indian
Ocean differ entirely from the general pattern of circulation. They change their direction from season to season in
response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons. The effect of winds is comparatively more pronounced in the
Indian Ocean.Indian.
During the northern hemisphere winter, the North Equatorial Current and South Equatorial Current flow
toward the west, with the weaker, eastward Equatorial Countercurrent flowing between them, as in the Atlantic
and Pacific (but somewhat south of the equator). But during the northern hemisphere summer, both the North
Equatorial Current and the Equatorial Countercurrent are replaced by the Southwest Monsoon Current, which
flows eastward and southeastward across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Near Sumatra, this current curves
in a clockwise direction and flows westward, augmenting the South Equatorial Current, and setting up a clockwise
circulation in the northern part of the Indian Ocean. Off the coast of Somalia, the Somali Current reverses direction
during the northern hemisphere summer with northward currents reaching speeds of 5 knots or more. Twice a year,
around May and November, westerly winds along the equator result in an eastward Equatorial Jet which feeds warm
water towards Sumatra.

As the South Equatorial Current approaches the coast of Africa, it curves toward the southwest, part of it flowing
through the Mozambique Channel between Madagascar and the mainland, and part flowing along the east coast of
Madagascar. At the southern end of this island the two join to form the strong Agulhas Current, which is analogous
to the Gulf Stream. This current, when opposed by strong winds from Southern Ocean storms, creates dangerously
large seas.

South of South Africa, the Agulhas Current retroflects, and most of the flow curves sharply southward and then
eastward to join the West Wind Drift; this junction is often marked by a broken and confused sea, made much worse
by westerly storms. A small part of the Agulhas Current rounds the southern end of Africa and helps form the
Benguela Current; occasionally, strong eddies are formed in the retroflection region and these too move into the
Southeastern Atlantic.

What effect do ocean currents have on the Earth's weather?

Ocean water and currents affect the climate. Because it takes far more energy to change the temperature of water
than land or air, water warms up and cools off much more slowly than either. As a result, inland climates are subject
to more extreme temperature ranges than coastal climates, which are insulated by nearby water. Over half the heat
that reaches the earth from the sun is absorbed by the ocean's surface layer, so surface currents move a lot of heat.
Currents that originate near the equator are warm; currents that flow from the poles are cold.

The climate in Northwestern Europe (the UK especially) is much more mild than it is directly across the Atlantic in
Canada and the Northeastern US. There can be up to a 30-40 degree (Fahrenheit) air temperature difference in
January between these two areas. The Atlantic Ocean near Canada is locked in ice in winter but the Atlantic Ocean
near England is not. It is thought that the huge temperature difference is due to the Gulf Stream, one of the strongest
currents in the ocean. The Gulf Stream brings warm water from the Carribean and Florida north, along the coast of
the US, and then east across the Atlantic to Europe. Because it takes a right-hand turn somewhere around North
Carolina, the warming effect of its waters misses the Northeast US and Canada, but does reach England and Ireland.

CLIMATOLOGY-PART 4
Apr 27, 2015
4. Atmospheric Pressure belts and Wind Circulation

The air, that is a mixture of several gases, exerts pressure through its weight. Air pressure or atmospheric pressure is
defined as total weight of a mass of column of air above per unit area at sea level.

1. Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure

Vertical distribution: The density, of air and the atmospheric pressure is high at the lower layer of the atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height. Though there is no direct relation between the increasing
height and the rate of decrease in atmospheric pressures, yet in the troposphere the rate of decrease in air pressure is
34 mb for every 300 m of height.

Horizontal Distribution and Pressure Belts

i. Equatorial low pressure belt (10N-10S) : This is a belt of very low atmospheric pressure. The equatorial low
pressure belt is thermally induced, because the ground surface is intensely heated during the day due to almost
vertical sun rays and thus the lower most layers of air, coming in contact with the heated land, also gets warmed. In
this zone, there is almost no horizontal movement of air. The air in this belt rises up. This belt represents the zone of
convergence of N-E and S-E Trade winds. Because of frequent calm conditions, this belt is called a 'Belt of calm' or
'doldrums'.
ii. Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt (231/2 - 35 in both the hemispheres) : This belt owes its origin to the
rotation of the earth and sinking and settling down of winds. It is, thus, mainly dynamically induced. The air rising
at the equatorial belt starts blowing poleward. But, these winds get deflected towards east due to rotation of the
earth. This phenomenon was first discovered by the French scientist Coriolis, hence this force exerted by the
rotation of the earth is called coriolis force.
The quantity of the force keeps increasing with increasing distances from the equatorial belt. This zone of high
pressure is called 'Horse Latitude' because of prevalence of frequent calms. In ancient times, the merchants carrying
horses in their ships had to throw out some of the horses while passing through this zone of calm in order to lighten
their ships. This is why this zone is called 'Horse Latitude'.
iii. Sub-Polar Law Pressure Belt (45 - 661/2 in the hemispheres): This belt is also dynamically induced. In fact,
the surface wind speads outward from this zone due to rotation of the earth and low pressure is caused. In this zone,
the air coming from the subtropical and polar high-pressure zones converge and rise up, creating a zone of low
pressure. This zone is characterized cyclonic storms.
iv. Polar High Pressure Belt (Near the North and the South' Poles) : High pressure persists at the poles
throughout the year because of prevalence of very low temperature all the year. The air subsides in this zone due to
intensive cooling and results into high density.

Ferrels Law of Deflection

Within this pattern of permanent pressure belt on the globe, winds tend to blow from the high pressure belts to the
low pressure belts as the planetary winds. Instead of blowing directly from one pressure belt to another, however,
the effect of the rotation of the earth (Coriolis Force) tends to deflect the direction of the winds. In the northern
hemisphere, winds are deflected to their right, and in the southern hemisphere to their left. This is known as Ferrels
Law of Deflection. The Coriolis force is absent along the equator but increased progressively towards the poles.
For this reason, winds blowing out from the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt in the northern hemisphere towards the
Equatorial Low become North-East Trade Winds and those in the southern hemisphere become the South-East
Trade winds.
2. Wind Circulation

The wind belts girdling the planet are organised into three cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the
Polar cell.
Contrary to the impression given in the simplified diagram, the vast bulk of the vertical motion occurs in
the Hadley cell;
the explanations of the other two cells are complex.
Note that there is one discrete Hadley cell that may split, shift and merge in a complicated process over
time. Low and high pressures on earth's surface are balanced by opposite relative pressures in the upper
troposphere.

Hadley cell

It is the strongest of the three cells of circulation and is formed as warm air rises above the Equator and
starts to flow northward.
The northward flow deflects to the right, due to coriolis, becoming an upper-level westerly flow. As this air
moves northeastward toward the pole, it cools and a portion of it sinks at about 30N.
This sinking air spreads northward and southward as it nears the surface. The southward moving air again
deflects to the right, becoming the northeasterly trade winds.
Because of the circulation in the Hadley cell, two pressure belts are created.
The first is a belt of semipermanent high pressure that results from the sinking air at 30. This belt of high
pressure is called the subtropical ridge. The second pressure belt is a trough of low pressure near the
Equator. It is called the near equatorial trough.

Polar cell

This is the northernmost cell of circulation and its mean position is between 60N and the North Pole.
At the pole, cold, dense air descends, causing an area of subsidence and high pressure. As the air sinks, it
begins spreading southward.
 Since the coriolis force is strongest at the poles, the southward moving air deflects sharply to the right. This
wind regime is called the surface polar easterlies, although the upper winds are still predominantly from the
southwest.
Near 60N, the southeasterly moving air moving along the surface collides with the weak, northwesterly
surface flow that resulted from spreading air at 30N.
This colliding air rises, creating a belt of low pressure near 60N.

Figure 1Simplified global three-cell upper air circulation patterns. Ferrel cell

The mid-latitude circulation cell between the Polar cell and the Hadley cell is called the Ferrel cell.
The Ferrel cell circulation is not as easily explained as the Hadley and Polar cells.
Unlike the other two cells, where the upper and low-level flows are reversed, a generally westerly flow
dominates the Ferrel cell at the surface and aloft.
It is believed the cell is a forced phenomena, induced by interaction between the other two cells.
The stronger downward vertical motion and surface convergence at 30N coupled with surface
convergence and net upward vertical motion at 60N induces the circulation of the Ferrel cell.
This net circulation pattern is greatly upset by the exchange of polar air moving southward and tropical air
moving northward. This best explains why the mid-latitudes experience the widest range of weather types.

The global circulation patterns of wind on Earth

Winds that blow predominantly from a single direction over a particular point on the Earths surface are
called Prevailing Winds
The general trends in wind direction are called dominant winds
Prevailing winds greatly influence climate patterns such as rainfall gradients, where the windward
side of mountains have high rainfall while leeward side experience desert conditions.
 Wind Rose is a graphic plotting tool that is used to describe the speed and direction of wind at a
particular location.
Insects drift along prevailing winds, while birds are able to fly independent of them
In general regional winds can be divided into two groups
Global winds like easterlies, westerlies
Local winds like land breeze, sea breeze
In general, easterly winds flow at low and high altitudes i.e. near the tropics and the poles

A. The Planetary or Prevailing Winds 1. Trade Winds

Trade winds are the prevailing easterly winds that blow across the tropics
They blow from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern
hemisphere
Trade winds act as the steering for tropical storms that form in the Atlantic, Pacific and south Indian
Oceans. These storms make landfall in North America, Southeast Asia and India, respectively.
Directly under the subtropical ridge i.e. close to the equator, winds are lighter in intensity. These
subtropical regions are called the doldrums, or horse latitudes.
Most of the earths deserts are found near the subtropical ridge, with high pressure leading to low
humidity.
Trade winds steer African desert dust across the Atlantic Ocean towards North America (esp. the
Caribbean and Florida).
The weaker a trade wind becomes, the more rainfall it brings
Trade winds are stronger in winter than summer
The one region of the Earth where trade winds are absent is the north Indian Ocean.

These trade winds are the most regular of all the planetary winds. They blow with great force and in a constant
direction. They were thus helpful to early traders who depended on the wind when sailing the high seas; hence the
name trade winds. Since they blow from the cooler sub-tropical latitudes to the warmer tropics, they have great
capacity for holding moisture. In their passage across the open oceans, they gather more moisture and bring heavy
rainfall to the east coasts of continents within the tropics. As they are off-shore on the west coast, these regions
suffer from great aridity and form the Trade Wind Hot Deserts of the world, e.g. the Sahara, Kalahari Atacama and
Great Australian Deserts.
2. Westerlies

Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the mid-latitudes i.e. between 35 and 65 degrees latitude.
The strongest winds are usually in the mid-latitudes, where cold air from the Artic meets warm air from
the tropics.
 They blow from high pressure areas in the horse latitudes towards the poles.
Westerlies blow from the southwest in the northern hemisphere and from the northwest in the southern
hemisphere.
Westerlies are instrumental in carrying warm equatorial winds towards the western coasts of
continents.
They are responsible for carrying desert dust from the Gobi Desert into North America.
They are stronger in winter than in summer, and over regions that have less land to interrupt their flow.
They are stronger in the Southern Hemisphere because of the vast ocean expanses uninterrupted by land
mass.
It must be pointed out that not all the western coasts of the temperate zone receive Westerlies throughout
the year.
Some of them like California, Iberia, central Chile, southern Africa and south Western Australia receive
Westerlies only in winter.
This is caused by the shifting of the wind belts of such regions which lie approximately between the
latitudes 30 and 40 N and S. Due to the earths inclination, the sun is overhead at midday in different
parts of the earth at different seasons.
The entire system of pressure and wind belts follows the movement of the midday. In June when the
overhead sun is over the Tropic of Cancer, all the belts move about 5-10 south of their average position.
The Mediterranean parts of Europe and California then come under the influence of the Westerlies and
receive rain in December (winter in the northern hemisphere).

From the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts, winds blow towards the Temperate Low Pressure Belts as the variable
Westerlies. Under the effect of the Coriolis force, they become the South-Westerlies in the northern hemisphere and
the North-Westerlies in the southern hemisphere. They are more variable in the northern hemisphere, but they play a
valuable role in carrying warm equatorial waters and winds to western coasts of temperate lands.
This warming effect and other local pressure differences have resulted in a very variable climate in the temperate
zones, dominated by the movements of cyclones and anticyclones. In the southern hemisphere where there is a large
expanse of ocean, from 40 S to 60 S., Westerlies blow with much greater force and regularity throughout the year.
They bring much precipitation to the western coasts of continents. The weather is damp and cloudy and the seas are
violent and stormy. It is thus usual for seafarers to refer to the Westerlies as the Roaring Forties, Furious
Fifties and Shrieking or Stormy Sixties, according to the varying degree of storminess in the latitudes in
which they blow.
3. Polar Easterlies

Polar easterlies are the prevailing winds which blow out from the Polar High Pressure Belts towards the
Temperate (mid-latitude) Low Pressure Belts.

These are extremely cold and dry winds as they come from the tundra and ice-cap regions.
They blow from high pressure areas near the poles towards low pressure areas within the mid-
latitudes
They blow from the east to the west.
Polar easterlies are often weak and irregular. They are more regular in the south than in the north.
They are also called Polar Hadley Cells, named after George Hadley who discovered them in 1753
B. Seasonal Winds1. Monsoon Winds

Monsoons are defined as seasonal reversal of winds accompanied by seasonal changes in

precipitation.
The major monsoon systems of the world are the West African and Asia-Australian monsoon systems
The origin of monsoons about 15-20 million years ago has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan
Plateau after the collision of India and Asia 50 million years ago.
Cause of monsoons.
In essence, monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes, except that they occur on a much larger scale.
Rapid heating in the hot summer over most parts of India induces heated air to rise.
The South-West Monsoon from the surrounding ocean is attracted by the low pressure over the land and
blows in, bringing torrential rain to the sub-continent.
In winter the land cools off quickly creating a high pressure that blows wind from land to sea
Thus similarly, in winter when the land is cold, the surrounding seas remain comparatively warm. High
pressure is created over Indo-Pakistan and the North- East Monsoon blows out from the continent into the
Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal.

The Southwest Monsoon

The Southwest monsoon in India brings about 80% of India's annual rainfall
The southwest monsoon occurs from June to September
The southwest monsoon is caused by rapid heating of the Thar desert and north-central India in summer,
creating a low pressure that is filled by moisture laden winds from the Indian Ocean.
The Himalayas prevent the wind from blowing towards Central Asia and redirect them inwards to cause
rainfall.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon brings rainfall to the Malabar coast and central India.
The Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon picks up additional moisture in the Bay of Bengal and
arrives at the eastern Himalayas, and then turns west towards the Indo-Gangetic plains.
Mawsynram in Shillong is the wettest place on Earth with about 12,000 mm of rainfall annually.
The traditional start date of the southwest monsoon is June 01.

The southwest monsoon accounts for 80% of rainfall in India

The Northeast Monsoon

The northeast monsoon occurs October to December in India.

Around September, northern India begins to cool rapidly creating a high pressure zone.
This brings dry cold winds from the Himalayas towards the Deccan and into the Indian Ocean.
While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the wind picks up moisture in the Bay of Bengal and pours it
over southern peninsular India.
The northeast monsoon accounts for 50-60% of rainfall in Tamil Nadu.

2. Sea and land Breeze

1. Land and sea breezes are, in fact, monsoons on a smaller scale. Both are basically caused by differential heating
of land and sea, the former in a diurnal rhythm and the latter in a seasonal rhythm.
2. Sea breeze occurs during the day while land breeze occurs at night.
3. During the day, the land gets heated up much faster than the sea. Warm air rises forming a region of local low
pressure. The sea remains comparatively cool with a higher pressure so a sea breeze blows in from sea to land.
4. Its speed or strength is between 5-20m.p.h and it is generally stronger in tropical than temperate regions. Its
influence does not normally exceed 15miles from the coast. It is most deeply felt when one stands facing the sea in a
coastal resort.

5. At night the reverse takes place. As the land cools down much faster than the sea, the cold and heavy air produces
a region of local high pressure. The sea conserves its heat and remains quite warm. Its pressure is comparatively
low. A land breeze thus blows out from land to sea.

6. Fishermen in the tropics often take advantage of the out-going land breeze and sail out with it. They return the
next morning with the in-coming sea breeze, complete with their catch.

3. Mountain and Valley Breeze

1. The slope:, and valley floors in the mountainous regions are more heated through insolation during daytime.

2. Consequently, the warm air moves upslope. This upward moving breeze during daytime is called Valley Breeze.
Valley breezes reach mountain peaks and many a time yield precipitation.

3. In the night, the upper part of the mountain cools quickly and starts falling down along the slope of the mountain.
This is called Mountain Breeze.

4. Hills and valleys significantly distort airflow by acting as physical barriers. This is known as barrier jet.
5. Jagged terrain results in unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence

6. Passes in the mountain range experience lower pressure resulting in high wind speeds and erratic and turbulent air
currents
7. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes.

Few Noteworthy Local Winds

Brickfielder Very hot north-east summer wind that blows dust and sand across Australia.
Warm, dry wind of the Rocky Mountains, USA. Welcomed by cattlemen because it can remove
Chincook
snow cover very quickly. Named after a local Indian tribe.
Foehn Warm, dry European wind that flows down the side of mountains.
Haboob The Arabic name for a violent wind which raises sandstorms, especially in North Africa.
Levanter Pleasant, moist east wind that brings mild weather to the Mediterranean.
Mistral Violent, dry, cold, north-west wind that blows along the coasts of Spain and France.
Hot, dry South wind that blows across North Africa from the Sahara. Becomes very hot and sticky
Sirocco
as it reaches the sea.
Elephanta Malabar coast; South easterly wind; Marks end of southwest monsoon
Noreaster North east USA; Strong storm winds from the northeast
Norwester East coast of New Zealand; Warm dry winds
Santa Ana
Southern California Strong, extremely dry winds; Responsible for frequent wildfires
winds
Shamal Persian Gulf; Strong Northwesterly wind; Causes large sandstorms in Iraq
Calima Sahara to Canary Islands (west African coast); Carries dust from the Sahara

Sirroco, Foehn and Chinook winds needs elaboration as they have a deep impact on the human activities in the
region. Foehn and Chinook are dry winds experienced on the leeward side of mountains when descending air
becomes compressed with increased pressure.

Foehn
The Foehn wind is experienced in the valleys of the northern Alps, particularly in Switzerland in spring.
Air ascending the southern slopes of the Alps expands and cools. Condensation takes place when the air is
saturated. Rain and even snow fall on the higher slopes.
In descending the northern slope, the wind experiences an increase in pressure and temperature. The air is
compressed and warmed. Most of its moisture is lost and the wind reaches the valley bottom as a dry, hot
wind the Fohn. It may raise the temperature by 15-30 deg F., within an hour!
It melts snow and causes avalanches.

Chinook
In North America it is called Chinook, meaning the snow-eater. Chinook winds are experienced on the
eastern slopes on the eastern slopes of the Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada in winter.
But it has its blessings too, it hastens the growth of crops and fruits and thaws the snow-covered pastures.
In the Rockies, the Chinook has been known to raise temperature 35 deg F. Within 15 minutes! The
occurrence of frequent Chinooks means winter is mild.

Sirroco
A warm, dry and dusty wind which blows in northerly direction from the Sahara Desert and after crossing
over the Mediterranean Sea reaches Italy, Spain etc., where it is also known as Blood rain because of its
redish sand brought alongwith it from Sahara desert.
There are different local names for Sirocco in Africa e.g. 'Khamsin' in Egypt, 'Gibli' in Libya and "Chilli' in
Tunisia, ijn Spain and Canary, and Madeira islands, it is known as 'Leveche' and 'Leste' respectively.

C. Jet Streams
Jet streams are fast, narrow air currents in the atmosphere
Jet streams are usually located near the tropopause (transition between troposphere and stratosphere)
The main jet streams are westerly winds, flowing from the west to the east
Jet streams are used for weather forecasting and aviation. It is hypothesised that they could be used as an
energy source as well.
Jet streams have been observed in the atmosphere of Jupiter as well.

Cause of jet streams

Jet streams are caused by a combination of atmospheric heating and the rotation of the earth.
They form near boundaries of adjacent air masses with significant differences in temperature.

Occurrence of jet streams

The strongest jet streams are the polar jets (23,000-39,000 ft) and the somewhat weaker subtropical
jets (33,000-52,000 ft).
Other weaker jets also exist, especially over central USA.
There is one polar jet stream and one subtropical jet stream each in the northern and southern hemispheres.
The northern hemisphere polar jet is situated over the northern latitudes of North America, Europe and
Asia, while the southern polar jet always circles Antarctica.
 The northern and southern hemisphere jet streams have been found to be drifting towards the poles at a rate
of 2.1 km per year.
Jet streams are typically a few hundred miles wide and about 3 miles thick vertically.
Wind speeds usually exceed 92 km/h, although speeds of over 398 km/h have been observe.

Jet streams and aviation

Jet streams are often preferred as flight plans for commercial airliners
Flying with the jet streams decreases travel time and reduced fuel consumption.
Conversely, flying against jet streams can add to travel time and increase fuel consumption. For this reason,
flight plans use circuitous routes to avoid flying against jet streams
Commercial use of jet streams began in 1952 on the Tokyo-Honolulu route cutting travel time from 18
hours to 11.5 hours

D. Atmospheric Electricity

Aurora Borealis seen over Canada

The Earths surface, the atmosphere and the ionosphere combine to form a global atmospheric electrical
circuit.
Free electricity is always present in the atmosphere. It is usually positive
The intensity of atmospheric electricity is usually greater in the middle of the day than in the
morning or at night. Also, it is greater in winter than in summer.
Atmospheric electricity increases with altitude.
The Earths surface is negatively charged, while the atmosphere is positively charged.
Benjamin Franklin was the first to prove electrical phenomena of the atmosphere in 1752.
Variation of atmospheric electricity.
The primary cause of variation in atmospheric electricity is the thermodynamics of radiation.
Atmospheric electricity is maximum in January and minimum in June.
Humidity increases atmospheric electricity in the cold months but decreases it in hot months.
1. Auroras

Auroras are natural light displays observed in the night sky, especially in polar regions
Auroras occur when the Earths magnetic field traps solar wind in the atmosphere resulting in a collision
between the solar wind and atmospheric molecules leading to release of energy.
They are most prominent closer to the magnetic poles because of longer periods of darkness and strength of
the Earths magnetic field.
The Aurora Borealis refers to auroras in the northern hemisphere. The corresponding auroras in the
southern hemisphere are called Aurora Australis.
Auroras occur most often near the seasonal equinoxes: from September to October and from March to
April.
Auroras have maximum intensity during the intense phase of solar cycle when coronal mass ejections
increase the intensity of solar wind.

2. St. Elmos Fire

St. Elmos Fire is a bright blue or violet glow appearing from tall, pointed objects
It is a phenomenon in which plasma is created when the electric field around the object causes ionization of
air molecules.
Sharp objects tend to create more plasma because electrical fields are more concentrated in areas of high
curvature.

3. Lightning

Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of electricity

Occurs during thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions and dust storms.
The average lightning bolt can reach temperatures of 30,000 C (about 3 times the temperature of the sun)
and carry around 100 million V of electricity.
This extreme temperature compresses surrounding air and creates a supersonic shock wave called thunder.
In addition to light, lightning has been shown to emit radio waves, X-rays and gamma rays.
Lightning strikes most frequently in the Congo.

3.1 Lightning conductor

It is a metal rod or conductor used to protect a building from lightning

It is mounted on the top of the building and connected to the ground using a wire.
When strikes, it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducted harmlessly to the ground.
Lightning rods are usually made from good conductors of electricity such as aluminium or copper.

3.2 Lightning protection on aircraft

On aircraft, an electrical circuit is established on the aircrafts outer surface

Aircraft made from aluminium naturally act as good conductors of electricity. When the aircraft is made of
carbon composites, a layer of conductive fibre is embedded to ensure conductivity
When the aircraft is struck by lightning, current travels on the outer surface of the aircraft, with the
interior remaining unaffected.
Aircraft also use static dischargers to prevent buildup of static electricity.

3.3 Trees and lightning

Trees are natural conductors of lightning. They provide connection for lightning to reach the ground.
However, the outer layer of trees (bark) is not a good conductor
 Trees get burnt from lightning because lightning travels on the outer surface of the tree, burning
away the bark.
Usually, trees can recover from damage to the bark. However, sometimes the damage is too severe for
recovery.
Oak and elm are two trees most frequently struck by lightning. Teak provides the best conducting
connection for lightning
By attracting lightning towards them, trees prevent damage to nearby buildings. However, for the same
reason, it is not safe to seek shelter under trees during lightning.

3.4 Shelter from lightning

To get shelter from lightning, there needs to be an electrical connection through the exterior surface on to
the ground. The connection must ensure that people do not get in contact with the electricity.
Best lightning shelters: houses, buildings, closed-roof cars, closed-cabin boats etc.
Worst lightning shelters: trees, tents, open barns, open-roof cars, open boats etc
It is unsafe to use radios, cellphones etc during lightning strikes

4. Measurement of Atmospheric Electricity can be done by Electrometer,

Weather balloons or Lightning rocket .

ROCKS
Apr 25, 2015
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements like oxygen (47%) ,
silicon(28%), aluminum(8%), iron(5%), calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium.

Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of minerals or mineraloids (a mineral-like substance that
does not exhibit crystallinity)
The Earths outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rocks
Rocks are generally classified into three types
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
The structure and composition of rocks change over time, causing one type of rock to be reclassified as
another.
The study of rocks is called petrology. Diagram below shows the rock cycle.
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are rocks which form from the cooling and solidification of magma.
Crystallization of magma and lava leads to formation of igneous rocks.
They are the results of volcanic processes.
The magma can be derived from melts of pre-existing rocks in either the crust or mantle. Typically, rocks
melt under conditions of extremely high temperatures, low pressures or changes in composition.
Igneous rocks can be of two types:
Intrusive (plutonic) rocks
Extrusive (volcanic) rocks
Igneous rocks make up about 90% of the Earths crust. However, they are hidden from the surface by a
thin layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks can be seen at mid oceanic ridges, areas of volcanism and intra-plate hotspots .
They are crystalline and impervious.
They are resistant to erosion and weathering.
Since igneous rocks come from the mantle, the minerals and chemistry of igneous rocks give
information about the composition of the mantle.
Their features are characteristic of a particular tectonic environment, allowing reconstitution of tectonic
conditions.
They host important mineral deposits such as uranium, tungsten, tin, chromium, platinum

1.1 Mineralogical composition of igneous rocks

Felsic rock: highest content of silicon with predominance of quartz and feldspar. These rocks are usually
light coloured and have low density.
Mafic rock: lesser content of silicon, predominance of mafic minerals (manganese and iron). These rocks
are usually dark coloured and have higher density than felsic rocks.
Ultramafic rocks: lowest silicon content, with more than 90% of mafic minerals

Felsic Mafic Ultramafic

Intrusive Granite Gabbro Peridotite
Extrusive Rhyolite Basalt Komatite
1.2 Intrusive igneous rocks (plutonic rocks)

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust
These rocks are coarse-grained. Mineral grains in these rocks can be identified by the naked eye.
 The central cores of most mountain ranges are made of intrusive rocks (usually granite). These large
formations of intrusive rocks are called batholiths.
Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite and diorite

1.3 Extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic rocks)

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the surface, from magma released into the surface from volcanic
eruptions.
Extrusive rocks cool and solidify quicker than intrusive.
Extrusive rocks are fine grained in nature.
Examples of extrusive rocks include basalt and rhyolite.

1.4 Large Igneous Province (LIP)

Large Igneous Provinces are extremely large

accumulations of igneous rocks (both intrusive
and extrusive)
They refer to igneous rocks extending over
100,000 sq km, that formed in a short
geological time scale of a few million years or
less
LIPs usually consist of basalt and rhyolite rocks
When created, LIPs often have an area of few
million sq km and volume on the order of a
million cubic km. Majority of the LIPs volume is
emplaced in less than a million years.

LIPs are postulated to arise from hotspots of linear chains of volcanoes

LIPs are often linked to mass extinction events. This is said to arise from the enormous quantities of
sulphuric acid released into the atmosphere, the subsequent global cooling and absorption of oceanic
oxygen.
The Deccan Traps (in fig), one of the largest volcanic features on Earth, is an example of a Large
Igneous Province. The Traps consist of multiple layers of basalt, more than 2 km thick and cover an area
over 500,000 sq km, and were formed as a result of volcanic eruptions in the Western Ghats about 66
million years ago. It is believed that the enormous volcanic eruptions led to global cooling of around 2C,
and were instrumental in the mass extinction of non-avian dinosaurs.

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rock is the type of rock formed sedimentation of material. This sedimentation can occur
on the Earths surface or within bodies of water
Sedimentary rocks form the thin outermost layer of the earths crust, making up about 5% of the
total volume of the crust
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in strata called bedding
Coal is a sedimentary rock
Examples of sedimentary rocks include shale, sandstone, limestone
 Study of sedimentary rocks provides information about subsurface, which is important in civil engineering
for construction of roads, bridges etc.
Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like fossil fuels, water, ores etc.
The study of sedimentary rock strata serves as the main source of scientific knowledge about the Earths
geological history.
Sedimentary rocks are the only rocks that contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks contains fossils because,
unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossils.

2.1 Composition of sedimentary rocks

Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz or calcite.

Unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks do not contain multiple major minerals.
Carbonate rocks contain carbonate minerals like calcite, aragonite or dolomite.
Siliclastic rocks contain silica-bearing minerals like quartz.

Clastic sedimentary rocks

Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, called clasts, of pre-existing rocks.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are those that are formed from rocks that have been broken down due to
weathering, which are then transported and deposited elsewhere.
Clastic sedimentary rocks come in various grain sizes. They range from fine clay in shales, to sand in
sandstone and gravel, cobbles and boulder size fragments in conglomerates and breccias.
Conglomerates are clastic sedimentary rocks with rounded fragments, while breccias consist of clasts with
angular fragments. Both conglomerates and breccias contain clasts larger than sand (> 2 mm).
Examples include shale, sandstone, siltstone.

Organic sedimentary rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks contain materials generated by living organisms.

They usually contain carbonate minerals generated by these organisms.
Examples include corals, chalk, coal and oil shale

Chemical sedimentary rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from minerals in solution that become oversaturated.
They usually occur as a result of evaporation.
Examples include limestone, barite, gypsum.

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks form as a result of transformation of an existing rock undergoing

recrystallization, in a process called metamorphism. The existing rock is called protolith.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when the protoliths are subject to extreme temperatures, pressures and
Volume changes (PVT Changes).
They form from tectonic process, intrusion of magma, or simply by being deep beneath the earths
surface (being subject to high temperatures and pressures of rock layers above).
Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic.
Examples of metamorphic rocks include gneiss, slate, marble.

In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an
arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation. Sometimes minerals or
materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers appearing in light and dark shades.
Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is called banding and rocks displaying banding are called banded rocks.
3.1 Composition of metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are composed of metamorphic minerals.

Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at high temperatures and pressures. These include
sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite, staurolite and garnet (all of which are silicates).
Metamorphic rocks also contain smaller amounts of micas, feldspars and quartz. However, these are not
products of metamorphism, and are instead leftovers from the protoliths

Contact metamorphic rocks

Contact metamorphic rocks are those that form when magma is injected into surrounding rock
The cooling magma leads to igneous rocks, and around this is a zone called contact metamorphism aureole
where metamorphic rocks are formed.
The extreme temperatures cause sandstones to metamorphise into quartz, limestone into marble and shale
into cordierite.
Igneous rocks are harder to transform than sedimentary rocks since they form at even greater temperatures

Regional metamorphic rocks

Regional metamorphic rocks are those that form due to metamorphism over a wide area.
Regional metamorphism tends to make rocks foliated.
Regional metamorphic rocks tend to form at great depths simply under the temperature and pressures of
upper layers of rock.
Continental crusts are examples of regional metamorphic rocks

Feldspar: Silicon and oxygen are common elements in all types of feldspar and sodium, potassium,
calcium, aluminium etc. are found in specific feldspar variety. Half of the earths crust is composed of
feldspar. It has light cream to salmon pink colour. It is used in ceramics and glass making.
Quartz: It is one of the most important components of sand and granite. It consists of silica. It is a hard
mineral virtually insoluble in water. It is white or colourless and used in radio and radar.
Pyroxene: Pyroxene consists of calcium, aluminum, magnesium, iron and silica. - forms 10 per cent of the
earths crust. It is commonly found in meteorites. It is in green or black colour.
Amphibole: Aluminium, calcium, silica, iron, magnesium are the major elements of amphiboles. They
form 7 per cent of the earths crust. It is in green or black colour and is used in asbestos industry.
Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.
Mica: It comprises of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica etc. It forms 4 per cent of the earths
crust. It is commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is used in electrical instruments.
Olivine: Magnesium, iron and silica are major elements of olivine. It is used in jewellery. It is usually a
greenish crystal, often found in basaltic rocks. Besides these main minerals, other minerals like chlorite,
calcite, magnetite, haematite, bauxite and barite are also present in some quantities in the rocks.

3.2 Important Rock Types

Rock Classification Composition Notes

Present on moon, Mars, Venus
Igneous extrusive
Basalt Feldspar, pyroxene Basalt rocks sustain microbial life
volcanic
Fine texture.
 Coarse texture
Igneous (intrusive,
Granite Quartz, feldspar Massive,hard and tough
felsic)
Exhibit radioactivity (uranium)
Contain organic matter
Shale Sedimentary (clastic) Clay
Contains multiple thin layers
Used in quicklime, mortar, cement, concrete
Calcite (calcium
Limestone Sedimentary Soluble in water
carbonate)
Host of most cave systems
Common building material
Sandstone Sedimentary Quartz, feldspar Porous, allows water percolation
Host of water aquifers and petroleum reservoirs
Used to make roofing, flooring
Slate Metamorphic Clay, volcanic ash It is an electrical insulator, used for switchboards
Can host even microscopic amounts of fossils

Gneiss Metamorphic Garnet, biotite

Comes from metamorphism of limestone
Pure white marble comes from pure limestone
Calcite (calcium Colours, swirls, veins come from mineral
Marble Metamorphic
carbonate) impurities
Important source of calcium carbonate, used in
toothpaste, paint.
Comes from metamorphism of sandstone
Quartzite Metamorphic Quartz Used as a decorative stone
Used for railway ballast

CLIMATOLOGY-PART 3
Apr 25, 2015
3.Wind

1. Causes

Wind is caused by differences in pressure.

It always flows from high pressure to low pressure.

The two major driving factors of large scale atmospheric circulation are Heating difference between the
equator and the poles.

Rotation of the planet, which leads to air being deflected according to the Coriolis effect. Coriolis effect is
the apparent deflection of moving objects when viewed from a rotating reference frame.

Near the Earths surface, friction causes wind to be slower than it otherwise would be Away from the
surface, large scale winds tend to approach a state of equilibrium called Geostropic Balance.

2. Measurement of wind
Wind direction is reported based on the direction from which it originates. Eg: a northerly wind blows from the
north to the south

Wind direction is observed using weather vanes (atop buildings) and windsocks (at airports)

Wind speed is measured using anemometers

Weather balloons and RADAR/LIDAR can also be used for measuring wind speed and direction

Sustained winds are usually observed 10 m from the surface of the Earth

Globally, wind speeds are reported over a 10 minute average. India reports winds over a 3 minute average.

Wind categorization on the Beaufort scale.

Terminology of IMD
Wind speed
Beaufort scale General term
(1Knot=1.852KMPH)
(covers north Indian Ocean)
06 0 27 Breeze Depression
7 28-33 Gale Deep depression
89 34 47 Strong gale Cyclonic storm
10 11 48 63 Storm Severe cyclonic storm
12 16 64 120 Hurricane Very severe cyclonic storm
17 > 120 Hurricane Super cyclonic storm

3. Aeolian Processes
Aeolian process refers to the action of wind in shaping the surface of the Earth.

Wind erosion
Wind erodes the earth by deflation and abrasion. Deflation is the removal of fine, loosely grained
particles while abrasion is the wearing down of surfaces by grinding action.

Regions that experience intense and sustained erosion are called deflation zones.

Desert rocks that have been exposed to wind for long periods of time exhibit a dark shiny stain called
desert varnish.

Blowouts are hollows formed by the removal of particles by wind.

Wind transport
Particles are transported by wind through the processes of suspension, saltation and creep.

Suspension is the holding of small particles in the atmosphere due to upward currents in air. Dust and
haze are examples of suspension.

Saltation is the movement of particles in jumps and skips by lifting up slightly from the surface.
Examples of saltation include sand drift over deserts, soil blowing over fields.
 Creep is the slow downward progression of rock and soil down a low grade slope. Creep is responsible
for the rounded shape of hillsides.

Other wind transport phenomena include dust storms and dust devils. Covered in detail below.

Wind deposition
Wind-deposited bodes occur as sand sheets, ripples and dunes.

Sand sheets are flat, gently undulating surfaces of sand. They form about 40% of Aeolian deposition
surfaces.

Wind blowing on a sand surface also causes ripples, which form into crests and troughs. In ripples, the
coarsest materials collect on the crests.

Sand dunes are hills of sand similar to ripples, except that they are larger and have the coarsest materials
on the troughs.

4. Geological Phenomena Caused By Wind

4.1 Sand dunes
Sand dunes are hills of sand built by wind.

Dunes are usually longer on the windward side and shorter on the leeward side.

Sand dunes can form in dry inland regions and also in coastal areas and underwater as well.

Dunes can move over tens of metres due to the consistent action of strong wind. Through saltation,
wind picks up particles from the windward side and deposits it on the leeward side, gradually moving the
dune.
The tallest sand dunes in the world are found in the Namib Desert.

4.2 Erg
An Erg is a large area of desert covered with wind-swept sand with little or no vegetative cover.

In essence, ergs are large dune fields.

Ergs are mainly found in Africa, central and western Asia and central Australia.
 Ergs have been found on Venus, Mars and Titan as well

4.3 Loess

Loess is a sediment formed by the accumulation of wind-blown silt, sand and clay, loosely cemented
by calcium carbonate.

Loess deposits often occur in very thick layers, sometimes more than 100 m thick. It occurs as a
blanket deposit covering areas of hundreds of square km.
 Loess is highly prone to erosion.

Loess can occur from glacial or non-glacial soils. Example of glacial loess: Mississippi Valley, USA.
Example of non-glacial loess: Shanxi, China.

Loess tend to develop into highly fertile soils.

The rich fertile soil of the Loess plateau has been the mainstay of Chinese agriculture for centuries.

5. Geographical Features Shaped By Wind

Feature Location Wind effect Notes

Mississippi River Alluvial
South-central USA Glacial loess
Valley
Thickest loess in the world (335 m)
Non-glacial
Loess plateau Shanxi, Northern China
loess
Most erodible soil on earth
Wind
Selima sand sheet Egypt, Sudan Largest sand sheet
deposition
Wind Oldest desert in the world (55 million
Namib desert sand dunes Namibia, Angola
deposition years)
Paha Iowa, USA Sand dunes
Inner Mongolia (China, Tallest stationary sand dunes in the
Badain Jaran desert Sand dunes
Mongolia) world (500 m)
Great dune of Pilat France Sand dunes Largest sand dune in Europe
Merheb UAE Sand dunes Used for motor sports
Kelso dunes USA Sand dunes
Cerro Blanco Sechura Desert, Peru Sand dunes Highest sand dune in the world
Ocean Relief
Apr 25, 2015
The ocean basins are in many ways similar to the land surface. There are submarine ridges, plateaux, canyons, plains
and trenches. A section drawn across an ocean illustrates the typical submarine relief features.

1. The Continental Shelf A continental shelf is the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean. This is, in fact, the
seaward extension of the continent from the shoreline to the continental edge marked, approximately, by the 100
fathom (600 feet) isobaths.

Isobaths are contours marking depths below sea level.

The continental shelf is a shallow platform whose width varies greatly, from a few miles in the North
Pacific off the continent of North America, to over 100 miles off north-west Europe.

Continental shelves extend on average about 80 km from the coast. The largest shelf, the Siberian Shelf
in the Arctic Ocean, stretches to about 1500 km, while certain areas have no shelves at all such as the coast
of Chile and the west coast of Sumatra (Indonesia).
 Plants and algae make continental shelves rich feeding grounds for sea creatures. The shelves make up less
than 10 percent of the total area of the oceans. Yet all of the oceans plants and many types of algae live in
the sunny waters.

In some places where the coasts are extremely mountainous, such as the Rocky Mountain and Andean
coasts, the continental shelf may be entirely absent.

The angle of the slope is also variable, and is normally least where the continental shelf is widest. A
gradient of 1 in 500 is common to most continental shelves.

Most continental shelves are broad, gently sloping plains covered by relatively shallow water. Water depth
over the continental shelves averages about 60 meters (200 feet). Sunlight penetrates the shallow waters,
and many kinds of organisms flourishfrom microscopic shrimp to giant seaweed called kelp. Ocean
currents and runoff from rivers bring nutrients to organisms that live on continental shelves.

Many regard the continental shelf as part of the continent submerged due to a rise in sea level, e.g. at the
close of the Ice Age, when the ice in the temperate latitudes melted and raised the sea level by several
hundred feet.

Some smaller continental shelves could have been caused by wave erosion where the land is being eroded
by the sea.

Conversely such shelves could also have been formed by the deposition of land-derived or river borne
materials on the off-shore terrace.

Geographical Significance of Continental Shelves

Their shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through the water, which encourages the growth of minute
plants and other microscopic organisms.

They are thus rich in plankton on which millions of surface and bottom-feeding fishes thrive. continental
shelves teem with life, compared to the biotic deserts in the deep ocean abyssal plains The continental
shelves are therefore the richest fishing grounds in the world, e.g. the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, the
North Sea and the Sunda Shelf.

Their limited depth and gentle slope keep out cold under-currents and increase the height of tides.
However, this sometimes hinders shipping and other marine activities since ships can only enter and leave
port on the tide.

Most of the worlds greatest seaports including Southampton, London, Hamburg, Rotterdam, HongKong
and Singapore are located on continental shelves.
2. The Continental Slope.

The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the oceanic crust. It begins at the continental shelf
break, or where the bottom sharply drops off into a steep slope. It usually begins at 430 feet (130 meters)
depth and can be up to 20 km wide. The continental slope, which is still considered part of the continent,
together with the continental shelf is called the continental margin.

The continental shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope, called the shelf break. The sea floor below
the shelf break is called the continental slope. Below the slope is the continental rise, which merges into
the deep ocean floor (called abyssal plain).
3. The Deep-Sea Abyssal Plain.

This is the undulating plain lying two to three miles below sea level, and covering two-thirds of the ocean floor,
generally termed the abyssal plain.

It was once thought to be featureless, but modern sounding devices reveal that the abyssal plain is far from being
level.

These flat abyssal plains occur at depths of over 6,500 ft (1,980 m) below sea level. They are underlain by the
oceanic crust, which is predominantly basalta dark, fine-grained volcanic rock. Typically, the basalt is covered by
layers of sediments, much of which is deposited by deep ocean turbidity currents (caused by the greater density of
sediment-laden water), or biological materials, such as minute shells of marine plants and animals, that have
"rained" down from the ocean's upper levels, or a mixture of both.

It has extensive submarine plateaux, ridges, trenches, basins, and oceanic islands that rise above sea level in the
midst of oceans, e.g. the Azores, Ascension Island.

Although these are more common and widespread in the Atlantic and Indian ocean basins than in the Pacific,
abyssal plains are found in all major ocean basins. Approximately 40% of our planet's ocean floor is covered by
abyssal plains. The remainder of the ocean floor topography consists of hills, cone-shaped or flat-topped mountains,
deep trenches, and mountain chains such as the mid-oceanic ridge systems.

4. The Ocean Deeps

These are the long, narrow trenches that plunge as great ocean deeps to a depth of 5,000 fathoms or 30,000 feet!
Contrary to our expectations, most of the deepest trenches are not located in the midst.of oceans. They are more
often found close to the continents, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, where several deep trenches have been
sounded.

Trenches are found at convergent plate boundaries, where one plate subducts (descends) beneath another. On
average, oceanic crust moves into trenches at a rate of about 0.1 sq m per second.

They are usually located parallel to volcanic arcs at a distance of about 200 km.

The greatest known ocean deep is the challenger point of Mariana Trench near Guam Island, which is more than
36,000 (10,911 m) feet deep.

Thus ocean trenches are greater in magnitude than the highest mountains on land, for the highest peak Mt.Everest
is only 29,028 feet.

Other notable ocean deeps include the Mindanao Deep (35,000 feet). The Tonga Trench (31,000 feet) and the
Japanese Trench (28,000 feet), all in the Pacific Ocean.

Ocean trenches typically extend about 3-4 km below the level of the surrounding sea floor. Some of the deepest
trenches on earth are given in table:

Trench Location Depth Notes

Deepest known part of the ocean Lowest elevation on the
Western
surface of the earths crust Maximum depth is recorded
Pacific Ocean
10,911 at Challenger Deep, a small valley at its southern
Mariana Trench (near
m end Formed by the subduction of Pacific plate under
Philippines and
Mariana plate
Japan)
 Formed by subduction of Pacific plate under Tonga plate
Southern Pacific 10,882 and Indo-Australian plate
Tonga Trench
(near New Zealand) m
Fastest plate velocity recorded on earth (24 cm per year)
Kuril- 10,542
Northern Pacific
Kamchatka Trench m
Philippines 10,540
Philippine Trench
(Pacific Ocean) m
New Zealand 10,047
Kermadec Trench
(Pacific Ocean) m

5. Oceanic basins

Oceanic basins are large geologic basins (large scale rock strata) that are below sea level.

In a sense, oceanic basins are the complement to continents Ocean basins serve as sedimentary basins that collect
sediments eroded from continents.

Ocean basins can be actively changing or inactive depending on plate tectonics. The Atlantic and Antarctic Ocean
basins are actively growing while the Mediterranean is shrinking. Inactive ocean basins include the Gulf of Mexico,
the Sea of Japan and the Bering Sea.

6. Mid Ocean Ridges

A mid ocean ridge is an underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics

Mid ocean ridges are caused by seafloor spreading i.e. magma rising through the crust and emerging as lava
which then cools to form new oceanic crust .

A mid ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and is called a divergent plate
boundary.

The various mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single global mid ocean ridge system
which covers every ocean. Thus, the mid ocean ridge system is the longest mountain range in the world
(over 65,000 km)

Mid ocean ridges are geologically active, with new magma constantly emerging onto the ocean floor.
Fig : Oceanic Ridges
Hot Springs and Geysers
Apr 24, 2015
Hot Spring

Hot springs are springs that are produced by geothermally heated groundwater.

The distinctive colour of the hot springs is due to thermophile - microorganims that thrive in high
temperatures e.g. The Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park (USA).

Hot springs range from tiny seeps to veritable rivers of hot water.

Hot springs are present all over the world, on all continents and even under the ocean.

The Dalhousie Springs in southern Australia are the largest hot springs in the world in terms of
volume of water.

Water from hot springs has high mineral content, containing everything from calcium to lithium and
even radium. For their high mineral content, hot spring are widely sought after spa destinations.

Thermophiles organisms that thrive in temperatures 45-80 C are found in hot springs and
geysers.

Sources of heat

Hot springs are heated by geothermal heat.

Geothermal heat is the heat from the interior of the earth.

Geothermal heat can be produced by two natural phenomena: geothermal gradient and volcanic activity.
 Geothermal gradient is the increase of temperature with depth inside the earth. Water that
percolates deep inside the crust comes into contact with hot rocks and gets heated.

In areas of volcanic activity, water can also be heated by coming into contact with magma. The high
temperature gradient near magma causes water to boil and even become superheated.

Hot springs in volcanic areas are almost always at or near the boiling point.

Country Hot Spring

USA Glenwood Springs
Chile Chihuo
Ecuador Baos de San Vicente
Tengchong Hot Spring Zone
China
Taiwai (Beitou Hot Spring, Yangmingshan Hot Spring)
Indonesia Maribaya Hot Spring
Japan Kusatsu Onsen, Arima Onsen, Gero Onsen
Iceland Blue Lagoon Spring, Geysir Hot Springs
Italy Bormio, Sondrio Province, Lombardy (geothermal spa)
New Zealand Rotorua Volcanic Hot Spring
GEYSERS

A geyser is a spring characterised by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently. The water
discharge is accompanied by vapour (or steam) as well.
 The word geyser comes from a spring in Haukadalur, Iceland called Geysir.

Geysers are temporary geological phenomena. The lifespan of geysers is a few thousand years at most.

Generally all geyser sites are located close to active volcanic areas.

There are about a thousand known geysers in the world. Half of the worlds geysers are in the
Yellowstone National Park, USA.

Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can die. Many geysers have been
destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them, others have ceased due to dewatering by
Geothermal power plants.

Geysers have been observed on the moons of other planets as well.

Sources of activityz

Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas, as the geyser effect is due to proximity of
magma.

Surface water works its way down to a depth of about 2000 m, where it meets hot rocks of magma.

The resultant boiling of the pressurised water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying
out of the surface vent.

Geysers are relatively rare phenomena. They require a combination of three geological conditions.

Intense heat: geysers need intense heat, which is provided by magma. The high pressures deep inside the
earth raises the boiling point of water resulting in superheated water.

Water: for geysers to exist, water must be available in the area. The water must be able to travel underground
through deep pressurised fissure. Plumbing system: this includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being
heated and a vent on the surface for ejecting it. The plumbing system is made of a system of fissures, fractures,
porous spaces that are essential for building up pressure before an eruption. The geyser produces a material called
geyserite that deposits onto the walls of the plumbing system making it pressure-tight. Geyserite is produced
by rocks in the vicinity of the geyser, and consists mainly of silicon dioxide. Types of geysers Fountain geysers:
erupt from pools of water in a series of intense violent bursts. Eg: Grand Geyser in Yellowstone National Park
(USA). Cone geysers: erupt from cones or mounds of geyserite in steady jets that last from a few seconds to
several minutes. Eg: Old Faithful Geyser in Yellowstone National Park (USA) Cold Water Geyser

Cold water geysers are similar to hot water geysers, except that carbon dioxide bubbles drive the
eruption instead of steam.

In cold water geysers, carbon dioxide laden water lies in a confined aquifer trapped by less permeable
overlying strata.

The column of water exerts enough pressure on the CO2 such that it remains in water in small bubbles.

When the pressure decreases due to formation of fissures, the CO2 bubbles expand and cause eruption.

CO2 laden water in cold water geysers are more white and frothy than hot water geysers.

E.g.: Crystal Geyser in northwest USA, Geysir Andernach (Germany).

Important Geysers of world
Geyser Location Key Points

Home to half the worlds geysers

Worlds tallest predictable geyser: Grand geyser
Yellowstone National
Northwest USA Worlds tallest geyser: Steamboat geyser (300 ft)
Park
One of the most predictable geysers: Old Faithful

Second largest concentration of geysers in the world

Kamchatka Peninsula,
Valley of Geysers Only geyser field in Eurasia
Russia

El Tatio Chile Very low height of eruptions (max 6 meter)

Was home to the worlds largest geyser: Waimangu

North Island, Geyser (500 m)
Taupo Volcanic
Newzeland

Geysers are distributed all over Iceland.

Haukadalur Iceland Famous geysers include Great Geysir and Stokkur.

Geysers in the solar system

Geysers have been observed elsewhere in the solar system.

Unlike eruptions on earth, these geysers mainly consist of gas, dust and ice particles, without liquid.
Geysers have been observed on Saturns moon Enceladus, Neptunes moon Triton and in the south
pole of Mars.

Elements of climate and Factors affecting them

Apr 23, 2015
Of the various climatic elements, temperature, precipitation, pressure and winds are the most important because of
their far reaching global influences. These elements and their distribution, whether horizontal from equatorial to
polar regions, or vertical from ground to atmosphere, are in one way or another affected by some or all of the
climatic factors: latitude, altitude, continentality, ocean currents, insolation, prevailing winds, slope and aspect,
natural vegetation and soil.

A. Temperature

Importance of temperature

1. Temperature influences the actual amount of water vapour present in the air and thus decides the moisture-
carrying capacity of the air.2. It decides the rate of evaporation and condensation, and therefore governs the degree
of stability of the atmosphere.3. As relative humidity is directly related to the temperature of the air, it affects the
nature and types of cloud formation and precipitation.

Factors Influencing Temperature

The six broad factors affecting temperature of regions are viz. Latitude; Altitude; Continentality; Ocean currents
and Wind; Slope, shelter and aspect; and Natural Vegetation and Soil.
1.Latitude

The mid-day sun is almost overhead within the tropics; but outside the tropics the suns rays reach the earth
at an angle.
Temperature thus diminishes from equatorial regions to the poles. Two bands of rays coming from the sun
to two different latitudes on the earths surface.
Band b falls vertically over the equatorial latitudes on equatorial surface E. Band a falls obliquely over the
temperate latitudes on surface T.

b travels through a shorter distance and its concentrated solar insolation heats up a smaller surface areal
temperature in thus high.
a travels through a longer distance and much of its heat is absorbed by clouds, water vapour and dust
particles. Its oblique ray has to heat up a large are; temperature is therefore low.

2.Altitude.

Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by conduction from the earth, it can be expected that places nearer to
the earths surface are warmer than those higher up.

Thus temperature decreases with increasing height above sea level. This rate of decrease with altitude
(lapse rate) is never constant, varying from place to place and from season to season.

But for all practical purposes, it may be reckoned that a fall of 1deg F occurs with an ascent of 300 feet or
0.6 deg C. per 100 metres. It is usually more in summer than in winter.

For example in temperate latitudes, in summer, an ascent of only 280 feet will cause the temperature to
drop by 1 degree F., whereas in winter it requires 400 feet.

Similarly, the lapse rate is greater by day than at night, greater on elevated highlands than on level plain.

In tropical countries where the sea level is 80 deg F., a town that is located at a height of 4,500 feet will
record a mean temperature of 65 deg F.

3.Continentality

Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces, because of the higher specific heat of water.
In other words, it requires only one-third as much energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of land
by 1 deg F, as it does for an equal volume of water.
 This accounts for the warmer summers, colder winters and greater range of temperature of continental
interiors as compared with maritime districts.

4. Ocean Currents and Wind

Both ocean currents and winds affect temperature by transporting their heat or coldness into adjacent
regions.

Ocean currents like the Gulf Stream or the North Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of Western
Europe keeping their ports ice- free.

Ports located in the same latitude but washed by cold currents, such as the cold currents, such as the cold
Labrador Current off north-east Canada, are frozen for several months.

Cold currents also lower the summer temperature, particularly when they are carried landwards by on-shore
winds. On the other hand on-shore Westerlies, convey much tropical warm air to temperate coasts,
especially in winter.

The Westerlies that come to Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in summer and warm winds in
winter and are most valuable in moderating the climate.
 Local winds, e.g. Foehn, Chinook, Sirocco, Mistral, also produce marked changes in temperature.

Within each ocean left light arrow shows indicate warm currents, while right light indicates cold currents5.
Slope, shelter and aspect.

A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one.

Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-
facing sunny slope than the north facing sheltered slope.

The greater insolation of the southern slope is better suited for vine cultivation and has a more flourishing
vegetative cover. Consequently, there are more settlements and it is better utilized than the shady slope.

In hilly areas a hot day followed by calm, cloudless night during which the air cools more rapidly over the
higher slope may induce cold, heavy air to blow down the slope and accumulate at the valley bottom
pushing the warmer air upwards.

The temperature may then be lower in the valley than higher up as the slopes. A reversal of the lapse
rate has taken place. This is called a temperature inversion.

6. Natural vegetation and soil

There is a definite difference in temperature between forested regions and open ground.
 The thick foliage of the Amazon jungle cuts off much of the in- coming insolation and in many places
sunlight never reaches the ground. It is, in fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees
lower than that of open spaces in corresponding latitudes.

During the day trees lose water by evapo - transpiration so that the air above is cooled.

Relative humidity increases and mist and fog may form.

Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers. Such soil differences may give
rise to slight variations in the temperature of the region.

As a whole, dry soils like sands are very sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay,
retain much moisture and warm up or cool down more slowly.

B. Precipitation

Types of Precipitation.

If air is sufficiently cooled below dew-point, tiny drops of water vapour will condense around dust
particles.

When they float about as masses of minute water droplets or ice crystals at a considerable height above sea
level, they form clouds- cirrus, cumulus or stratus.

When condensation occurs at ground level haze, mist or fogs are formed.

In higher latitudes or altitudes, where condensation of water vapour may take place in the atmosphere at
temperatures below freezing-point, snow falls, either as feathery flakes or individual ice crystals.

If the moist air ascends rapidly to the cooler layers of the atmosphere, the water droplets freeze into ice
pellets and fall to the earth as hail or hailstones.

As more and more super-cooled water drops accumulate around a hailstone, it increases steadily in size;
some of them weigh as much as two pounds.

In a severe hail-storm the hailstones do great damage to crops and buildings.

Very often, the ice-pellets exist as frozen rain-drops, melting and re-freezing on their way down; this forms
sleet. only when droplets coalesce into 0.2mm-6mm size.

C. RainfallThere are three major types of rainfall.1. Convectional rainfall.

This type of rainfall is most common in regions that are intensely heated, either during the day, as in the
tropics, or in the summer, as in temperate interiors.

When the earths surface is heated by conduction, moisture-laden vapour rises because heated air always
expands, and becomes lighter.

Air rises in a convection current after a prolonged period of intense heating.

While ascending, its water vapour condenses into cumulonimbus clouds with a great vertical extent.
 Hot, rising air has great capacity for holding moisture, which is abundant in regions of high relative
humidity.

As the air rises it cools and when saturation point is reached torrential downpours occur, often accompanied
by thunder and lightning.

The summer showers in temperate regions are equally heavy with occasional thunderstorms.

These downpours may not be entirely useful for agriculture because the rain is so intense that is does not
sink into the soil but is drained off almost immediately.

2. Orographic or Relief rain.

Unlike convectional rain which is caused by convection currents, Orographic rain is formed wherever moist
air is forced to ascend a mountain barrier.

It is best developed on the windward slopes of mountains where the prevailing moisture-laden winds come
from the sea.

The air is compelled to rise, and is thereby cooled by expansion in the higher altitudes and the subsequent
decrease in atmospheric pressure.

Further ascent cools the air until the air is completely saturated (relative humidity is 100 percent).
Condensation takes place forming clouds and eventually rain.

Since it is caused by the relief of the land, it is also known as relief rain.

Much of the precipitation experienced on the windward slopes of the north-east of West Malaysia, western
New Zealand, western New Zealand, western Scotland and Wales and the Assam hills of the Indian sub-
continent, is relief rain.
 On descending the leeward slope, a decrease in altitude increases both the pressure and the temperature; the
air is compressed and warmed.

Consequently, the relative humidity will drop. There is evaporation and little or no precipitation. The area
in the lee of the hills is termed the rain shadow area.

The effects of rain shadow are felt on the Canterbury Plain of South Island, New Zealand and the western
slopes of the Northern and Central Andes and in many other areas.

3. Cyclonic or frontal rain.

 This type of rainfall is independent of relief or convection.
It is purely associated with cyclonic activity whether in the temperate regions (depressions) or tropical
regions (cyclones).
Basically it is due to the convergence (meeting) of two different air masses with different temperatures and
other physical properties.
As cold air is denser, it tends to remain close to the ground. The warm air is lighter and tends to rise over
the cold air.
In ascent pressure decreases, the air expands and cools, condensation takes place and light showers called
cyclonic or frontal rain occur.

The heavier and colder air masses eventually push up the warmer and lighter air and the sky is clear again.

Deserts of the world

Apr 23, 2015
A desert is a region that receives almost no rainfall. In general deserts are areas with a moisture deficit i.e. lose more
moisture than receive. They are areas of average precipitation less than 250 mm per year or where more water is lost
by evaporation and transpiration than falls by precipitation. Deserts are located where vegetation is sparse or
nonexistent. Deserts constitute about one third (33%) of the Earths land surface. The largest desert on Earth is
Antarctica.

Classification of deserts

Hot deserts

This is the most common form of desert.

They have large diurnal (daily) and seasonal temperature variation, with daytime temperatures reaching
more than 45 C in the summer and dipping to 0 C at night in the winter.

Water acts to trap IR radiation from both the sun and the ground, and dry desert air is incapable of
blocking sunlight during the day or trapping heat at night.

The largest hot desert is the Sahara Desert

Cold deserts
Occur in extremely cold regions. In cold deserts, the mean temperature during the warmest month is less than
10 C.

Form due to extreme lack of precipitation (in the form)Covered in snow and ice. Due to lack of liquid water,
cold deserts cannot support life.

Instead of sand dunes, polar deserts have snow dunes (in areas where precipitation is locally available).

The largest cold desert is the continent of Antarctica

Montane deserts
Occur at very high altitudes Example: Ladakh, Tibet

These places are profoundly arid (low humidity) due to their large distance from the nearest available source of
moisture

Rain shadow deserts

Rain shadow deserts form when tall mountain ranges block clouds from reaching areas in the direction of
the wind.

As air moves over the mountains, air cools and moisture condenses, causing precipitation on the windward side of
the mountain. When the air reaches the leeward side, it is dry since it has already lost all its moisture, resulting in a
desert o Example: Tirunelveli area in southern Tamil Nadu.

Flora and Fauna in deserts

Although deserts are generally thought to support little life, in reality deserts do have high biodiversity.
 Animals in the desert include kangaroo rat, coyote, jackal, jack rabbit and lizards.

Most desert animals remain hidden during the daytime to control body temperature and limit moisture
needs.

Animals that have adapted to live in deserts are called xerocoles. A particularly well-studied adaptation is
the specialisation of mammalian kidneys shown by desert-inhabiting species.

Deserts typically have plant cover that is sparse but diverse.

Most desert plants are salt and drought tolerant, such as xerophytes.

Some desert plants store water in their leaves, stems and roots. Others have long taproots that penetrate
deep into the ground to reach the water table, or have roots that spread over a wider area in order absorb
moisture from the ground.

Another desert adaptation is the development of long spiny needle-like leaves that lose less moisture to
transpiration.

The giant Saguaro cacti, which grow to about 15 m height, are commonly found in the Sonora desert in
Arizona (USA). The Saguaro cacti grow slowly but live up to 200 years, provide nests for desert birds and
serve as desert trees

Water in deserts
Rain does fall occasionally on deserts, and when they do, desert storms are often violent.

Large storms in the Sahara deliver up to 1mm of rain per minute. Normally dry streams, called arroyos or
wadis, can quickly fill up following rain and cause dangerous flash floods A few deserts are also crossed by
exotic rivers rivers that originate elsewhere but run through desert areas. These rivers lose enormous
quantities of water to evaporation while journeying through the desert, but have sufficient volume to ensure
continuous flow. Examples: Nile, Colorado and Yellow rivers.

Desert lakes can form where rainwater or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are
usually salty, shallow and temporary.

Since they are shallow, wind stress can make the lake waters move over several sq km.

When desert lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or hardpan. This flat area of clay, silt and sand encrusted by sand
is called a playa or sink. The flat terrains of playas and hardpans makes them excellent speedways and natural
runways for aircraft.

Examples of desert lakes: Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA).

The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest place on Earth. Blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes and
the Chilean coastal range, the Atacama is virtually sterile and devoid of all life. The average rainfall in the region is
1 mm per year. Some weather stations in the desert have never received rain.

Mineral resources in deserts

The red colour of many sand deserts is due to the occurrence of laterite. Laterite, rich in iron and
aluminium, is commonly used in making bricks.

Evaporation enriches mineral accumulation in desert lakes, including gypsum, sodium salts and borates.
 The Great Basin Desert (USA) has been extensively used to mine borates, which are used in the
manufacture of glass.

The Atacama Desert (Chile) is abundant in saline minerals. Sodium nitrate for fertilisers and explosives
has been mined from the Atacama since the middle of the 19th century.

Significant petroleum deposits are found. These oil fields were originally formed when the areas were
shallow marine environments.

Deserts are also increasingly seen as sources of solar energy.

Oasis

An oasis is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, usually surrounding a spring or similar water source.
Oases provide natural habitats for animals, plants and even humans Oases are formed from underground
rivers or aquifers, where water reaches the surface by natural pressure.

Home Geography of India and The World

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Earthquake zones of India
Apr 22, 2015
An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. Stresses in the earth's outer layer push the sides of the fault
together. Stress builds up and the rocks slips suddenly, releasing energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust
and cause the shaking. An Earthquake occurs when plates grind and scrape against each other.

India lies at the northwestern end of the IndoAustralian Plate, which encompasses India, Australia, a major portion
of the Indian Ocean and other smaller countries. This plate is colliding against the huge Eurasian Plate and going
under the Eurasian Plate; this process of one tectonic plate getting under another is responsible for making India a
earthquake prone country. A number of significant earthquakes occurred in and around India over the past century.
Some of these occurred in populated and urbanized areas and hence caused great damage. Many went unnoticed, as
they occurred deep under the Earths surface or in relatively un-inhabited places The varying geology at different
locations in the country implies that the likelihood of damaging earthquakes taking place at different locations is
different. Thus, a seismic zone map is required to identify these regions.
Bureau of Indian Standards, based on the past seismic history, grouped the country into four seismic zones, viz.
Zone-II, -III, -IV and V. Of these, Zone V is the most seismically active region, while zone II is the least. The
Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity, which measures the impact of the earthquakes on the surface of the earth,
broadly associated with various zones, is as follows:

Seismic Zone Intensity on MM scale:

Seismic Zone Intensity on MMI scale % of total area

II (Low intensity zone) VI (or less) 43%
III (Moderate intensity zone) VII 27%
IV (Severe intensity zone) VIII 18%
V (Very severe intensity zone) IX (and above) 12%
Broadly, Zone-V comprises of entire northeastern India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, parts of North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Zone-IV covers
remaining parts of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, Union Territory of Delhi, Sikkim, northern parts of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of Gujarat and small portions of Maharashtra near the west coast and
Rajasthan. Zone-III comprises of Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep islands, and remaining parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat
and West Bengal, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Zone-II covers remaining parts of the country.

Factors Influencing Temperature on Earth

Apr 21, 2015
The six broad factors affecting temperature of regions are viz. Latitude; Altitude; Continentality; Ocean currents and
Wind; Slope, shelter and aspect; and Natural Vegetation and Soil.

1.Latitude

The mid-day sun is almost overhead within the tropics; but outside the tropics the suns rays reach the earth at an
angle. Temperature thus diminishes from equatorial regions to the poles. The reason for this is:

At the Equator, the incoming solar radiation strikes the Earth at a right angle. Hence the heat from the Sun is
concentrated and more intense, and is spread over a small area. Also, at this latitude, the Sun's rays travel a short
distance through the atmosphere. Because of the shorter distance travelled, Less heat is lost to the atmosphere, and
therefore more of the Sun's rays reach the Earth's surface.
 While at high latitudes, the incoming solar radiation strikes the Earth at an acute angle. The Sun's rays also have to
pass through a longer distance in the atmosphere before reaching the Earth's surface. Hence more heat is lost to the
atmosphere. Even though the rays which strike the polar regions carry the same amount of heat as the rays which
strike the tropical regions, this heat is diffused and dispersed over a large area.

2.Atitude.

Since the atmosphere is mainly heated by conduction from the earth, so places nearer to the earths surface are
warmer than those higher up. Thus temperature decreases with increasing height above sea level. This rate of
decrease with altitude (lapse rate) is never constant, varying from place to place and from season to season. But for
all practical purposes, it may be reckoned that a fall of 1deg F occurs with an ascent of 300 feet or 0.6 deg C. per
100 metres. It is usually more in summer than in winter. In the earths atmosphere, pressure, which is related to the
number of molecules per unit volume, decreases exponentially with altitude. Thus, if a parcel of air from the surface
rises, it undergoes an expansion, from higher to lower pressure. When air expand, it cools. Also when one move
farther away from the earth, the thinner the atmosphere gets. The total heat content of a system is directly related to
the amount of matter present, so it is cooler at higher elevations.

3.Continentality

Land surfaces are heated more quickly than water surfaces, as specific heat of water is more .In other words, it
requires only one-third as much energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of land by 1 deg F, as it does for
an equal volume of water. This accounts for the warmer summers, colder winters and greater range of temperature
of continental interiors as compared with maritime districts.
Source: University of Colorado

4. Ocean Currents and Wind

Both ocean currents and winds affect temperature by transporting their heat or coldness into adjacent regions. Ocean
currents like the Gulf Stream or the North Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of Western Europe keeping their
ports ice- free. Ports located in the same latitude but washed by cold currents, such as the cold currents, such as the
cold Labrador Current off north-east Canada, are frozen for several months. Cold currents also lower the summer
temperature, particularly when they are carried landwards by on-shore winds for example due to Kuriel current
Northen Japan faces heavy snow fall. On the other hand on-shore Westerlies, convey much tropical warm air to
temperate coasts, especially in winter. The Westerlies that come to Britain and Norway tend to be cool winds in
summer and warm winds in winter and are most valuable in moderating the climate. Local winds, e.g. Foehn,
Chinook, Sirocco, Mistral, also produce marked changes in temperature.

5. Topography.

A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one.

Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-facing
sunny slope than the north facing sheltered slope.

In hilly areas a hot day followed by calm, cloudless night during which the air cools more rapidly over the higher
slope may induce cold, heavy air to blow down the slope and accumulate at the valley bottom pushing the warmer
air upwards.

6. Natural vegetation and soil

There is a definite difference in temperature between forested regions and open ground. The thick foliage of the
Amazon jungle cuts off much of the in- coming insolation and in many places sunlight never reaches the ground. It
is, in fact, cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees lower than that of open spaces in
corresponding latitudes. During the day trees lose water by evapo - transpiration so that the air above is cooled.
Relative humidity increases and mist and fog may form.

CLOUD BURST
Feb 14, 2015
A cloudburst is a sudden rainfall which can be quite unexpected, very abrupt, and rather drenching. In some
cloudbursts, up to 5 inches (almost 13 centimeters) of rain can fall in an hour, often in the form of extremely large
droplets. Cloudbursts are especially common in the tropics, although they can occur anywhere, and they are often
accompanied with thunder. They are also highly unpredictable. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) labels
rainfall over 100 mm per hour as cloudburst. Usually small areas anywhere between 20-80 square kilometres are
affected.

They occur most often in desert, mountainous regions and interiors of continents. Various researches suggest that
they are manifestations of intense vortices on small scale that generate strong convection currents, which lift the
moisture laden air with sufficient rapidity to form cumulonimbus clouds shedding water load with great strength and
ferocity. The uprushing air currents of a thunderstorm support a large amount of water in the form of raindrops.

The term "cloudburst" is the result of the fanciful idea that clouds are filled with water. Historically, some people
believed that clouds were essentially like balloons, with solid membranes filled with liquid. In a cloudburst, these
balloons would literally burst, pouring torrents of rain out. Although this theory has since been disproved, the term
has stuck.

There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts because of their small scale. A
cloudburst can occur anytime and at any place which is affected by convective weather systems. Surrounded by
oceans on three sides, peninsular India is a favoured location for the genesis of convective weather systems. In a
short span of time, if the right combinations of atmospheric conditions like instability, moisture content and
triggering mechanisms are available, cloudbursts are possible. It is not necessary that cloudbursts happen only in the
mountains or high altitudes as the weather systems have compatibility and criticality in space and time. This implies
that the smaller scale weather structures like tempest, tornado, cloudburst, etc. have shorter life span whereas large
scale systems like tropical cyclones have a longer life span.

In the Indian subcontinent, a cloudburst usually occurs when a pregnant monsoon cloud drifts northwards, from the
Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea across the plains, then onto the Himalaya and bursts, bringing rainfall as high as 75
millimeters per hour. Few disastrous cloudburst accident are as follows:

In July, 1970 Cloudburst in the upper catchment area led to a 15 metre rise in the Alaknanda river in
Uttarakhand. Entire river basin, from Hanumanchatti near the pilgrimage town of Badrinath to Haridwar
was affected. An entire village was swept away.
On August 15, 1997, 115 people were killed when a cloud burst came bustling and trail of death are all that
is left behind in Chirgaon in Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh.
On August 17, 1998 A massive landslide following heavy rain and a cloudburst at Malpa village killed
250 people including 60 Kailash Mansarovar pilgrims in Kali valley of the Kumaon division, Uttarakhand.
Among the dead was Odissi dancer Protima Bedi.
On July 16, 2003, About 40 persons were killed in flash floods caused by a cloudburst at Shilagarh in
Gursa area of Kullu, Himachal Pradesh.
On July 6, 2004, At least 17 people were killed and 28 injured when three vehicles were swept into the
Alaknanda river by heavy landslides triggered by a cloudburst that left nearly 5,000 pilgrims stranded near
Badrinath shrine area in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.
On 26 July 2005, A cloudburst caused approximately 950 millimetres (37 in) of rainfall in Mumbai. over a
span of eight to ten hours; the deluge completely paralysed India's largest city and financial centre.
On August 16, 2007, 52 people were confirmed dead when a severe cloud burst occurred in Bhavi village
in Ghanvi, Himachal Pradesh.
On August 7, 2009, 38 people were killed in a landslide resulting from a cloudburst in Nachni area near
Munsiyari in Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand.
On August 6, 2010, in Leh, a series of cloudbursts left 179 persons dead and over 400 injured in the frontier
Leh town of Ladakh region in Jammu and Kashmir.
On June 9, 2011, near Jammu, a cloudbursts left 4 persons dead and over several injured in Doda-Batote
highway, 135kms from Jammu.Two restaurants and many shops were washed away
On September 6, 2014 there was a cloudburst in Kashmir valley killing more than 200 people. Center for
Science and Environment (CSE) mentioned heavy and unchecked development aggravated the
 development in the region. Over 1,84,000 people were rescued after heavy rains have large part of the State
submerged. Indian Army and Central government provided necessary help in a very short span of time
saving lives of many.

Distribution of Rare earth Minerals and their Application

Jan 21, 2015
Rare earth elements or rare earth metals are a group of seventeen elements in the Periodic Table including
Scandium, Yttrium and 15 Lanthanoids with Z ranging continuously from 57 to 71 ( La Lanthanum, Ce-Cerium,
Pr- Praseodymium, Nd-Neodymium, Pm- Prometheum, Sm-Samarium, Eu Europium, Gd Gadolinium, Tb-
Terbium, Dy-Dysprosium, Ho-Homium, Er- Erbium, Tm- Thulium, Yb-Ytterbium and Lu- Lutetium) . Scandium
and yttrium are considered rare earths since they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanoids and
exhibit similar chemical properties.

Rare earth elements are not as "rare" as their name implies. Thulium and lutetium are the two least abundant rare
earth elements - but they each have an average crustal abundance that is nearly 200 times greater than the crustal
abundance of gold . However, these metals are very difficult to mine because it is unusual to find them in
concentrations high enough for economical extraction.

The most abundant rare earth elements are cerium, yttrium, lanthanum and neodymium . They have average crustal
abundances that are similar to commonly used industrial metals such as chromium, nickel, zinc, molybdenum, tin,
tungsten and lead . Again, they are rarely found in extractable concentrations. Some of their application being

Electronics:

Television screens, computers, cell phones, silicon chips, monitor displays, long-life rechargeable batteries, camera
lenses, light emitting diodes (LEDs), compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), baggage scanners, marine propulsion
systems.

Manufacturing:

High strength magnets, metal alloys, stress gauges, ceramic pigments, colorants in glassware, chemical oxidizing
agent, polishing powders, plastics creation, as additives for strengthening other metals, automotive catalytic
converters

Medical Science:

Portable x-ray machines, x-ray tubes, magnetic resonance imagery (MRI) contrast agents, nuclear medicine imaging,
cancer treatment applications, and for genetic screening tests, medical and dental lasers.

Technology:

Lasers, optical glass, fiber optics, masers, radar detection devices, nuclear fuel rods, mercury-vapor lamps, highly
reflective glass, computer memory, nuclear batteries, high temperature superconductors.

Renewable Energy:

Hybrid automobiles, wind turbines, next generation rechargeable batteries, biofuel catalysts.

In Defence :

Rare earth elements play an essential role in our national defense. The military uses night-vision goggles, precision-
guided weapons, communications equipment, GPS equipment, batteries and other defense electronics. These give
the United States military an enormous advantage. Rare earth metals are key ingredients for making the very hard
alloys used in armored vehicles and projectiles that shatter upon impact.

World Production and Distribution Scenario

China currently accounts for an overwhelming 97% of global production, and it has not been shy of using this
dominance as a bargaining chip against other countries. A few sites are under development outside of China, the
most significant of which are the Nolans Project in Central Australia, the remote Hoidas lake project in northern
Canada and the Mt. Weld project in Australia. The Hoidas Lake project has the potential to supply about 10% of the
$1 billion of REE consumption that occurs in North America every year.

Supply and demand normally determine the market price of a commodity. As supplies shrink, prices go up. As
prices go higher, those who control the supply are tempted to sell. Mining companies see high prices as an
opportunity and attempt to develop new sources of supply.

With rare earth elements, the time between a mining company's decision to acquire a property and the start of
production can be several years or longer. There is no fast way to open a new mining property.

If a single country controls almost all of the production and makes a firm decision not to export, then the entire
supply of a commodity can be quickly cut off. That is a dangerous situation when new sources of supply take so
long to develop.

In 2010 China significantly restricted their rare earth exports. That was done to ensure a supply of rare earths for
domestic manufacturing and for environmental reasons. This shift by China triggered panic buying and some rare
earth prices shot up exponentially. In addition, Japan, the United States, and the European Union complained to the
World Trade Organization about China's restrictive rare earth trade policies.

India currently has a little over 2% share of global output of rare earths, but that still leaves it the second largest
producer after China. Kerala, Orissa and Tamil Nadu account for nearly 95% of the countrys production of rare
earths. India, according to the US Geological Survey, has 3.1 million tonnes (mt) of rare earths reserves. India
signed a deal to supply rare earths to Japan in 2011. This deal comes after China banned exports of rare earths to
Japan in protest against the detention of a Chinese fishing boat captain who had strayed into Japanese waters that are
claimed by China.

Initiatives in river development and Ganga rejuvenation

Jan 15, 2015
The ministry:

River development and Ganga rejuvenation were added to the erstwhile Ministry of Water Resources and the
Ministry was re-named as Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation.

Rejuvenation of River Ganga:

Ganga and its tributaries have now been brought under one umbrella.

Rejuvenation of Ganga has been prioritised as restoration of its wholesomeness by ensuring aviral dhara
and nirmal dhara as also its ecological and geological integrity.
The Union Budget 2014-15 has set up an Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission namely Namami Gange
for Ganga Rejuvenation. The Government proposes to free all villages along the banks of the river from
open defecation under Namami Gange project.
The plan formulated for Ganga Rejuvenation provides for Short-term, Medium-term, and a Long-term
action plan, incorporating the projects already sanctioned by National Ganga River Basin Authority
 (NGRBP). Presently, a World Bank assisted National Ganga River Basin Project (NGRBP) and a Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) assisted Project at Varanasi are under implementation.
National Ganga Monitoring Centre (NGMC) is the Nodal Centre for monitoring the critical aspects of
Ganga rejuvenation, such as water and effluent quality at identified suitable locations throughout Ganga,
using IT enabled systems, etc.
Following major initiatives have been taken to rejuvenate Ganga:
National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) has been expanded by including Water Resources
Minister as vice-chairman and also other Ministers concerned with wholesome development of Ganga.
Improved coordination among various ministries through Group of Secretaries (GoS).
The First National Dialogue i.e Ganga Manthan was held in July 2014 with more than 500 spiritual
leaders of all beliefs, academicians & technocrats, NGOs & Environmentalists, and Policy makers &
implementers. To facilitate inflow of ideas, suggestions and involvement of people, a website of NMCG
has been launched.
A Committee constituted to revise existing guidelines on sand mining by environment ministry.
Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun has been requested to prepare a plan for afforestation and
conservation of Flora.
In collaboration with National Medicinal Plants Board a strategy is being finalized for conservation of
medicinal plants in the upper reaches of Ganga.
A three member technical committee is constituted to study and recommend suitable technologies for
pollution abatement in river Ganga.

Inter-Linking of Rivers (ILR):

The ILR is a project of national importance and its purpose is to provide equitable distribution of water in
the country which will specially benefit flood and drought prone areas.
ILR would give additional benefits of 35 million hect of irrigation (25 million hect of irrigation from
surface waters and 10 million hect by increased use of ground waters) raising the ultimate irrigation
potential from 140 million hect to 175 million hect and generation of 34000 MW of power, apart from the
benefits of flood control, navigation, water supply, fisheries, salinity and pollution control etc.
National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has identified 30 links, 16 under Peninsular Component
and 14 under Himalayan Component for preparation of Feasibility Reports.
In 2014, first ILR project of Ken-Betwa has been initiated. The KenBetwa link project would have a dam
on river Ken along with 221 Km Link Canal, providing annual irrigation to around 6 lakh hectare, supply
drinking water to around 13 lakh people and generate 78 MW hydropower in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.
A Special Committee on ILR, under the chairpersonship of Union Minister (WR) has been constituted, to
oversee the work of ILR.

Technology Up gradation:

The management of river water system is being modernised with the use of latest technology.
Hydrology Project-III is being launched with World Bank Assistance for developing Decision Support
System for modernisation of Ganga and Brahmaputra Basins, as well as other uncovered parts of the
country, at a cost of Rs. 3,000 crore.
An ambitious National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM) has been launched
entailing mapping of aquifers in 3-D. Six pilot projects of Aquifer mapping have been carried out using
advanced techniques including heliborne Transient Electromagnetic surveys for faster and accurate
mapping of aquifers. This will help in managing Aquifer recharge, river bank filtration and identification of
critically stressed blocks as well as identification of contaminated blocks.
A World Bank aided project viz. Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) is in operation.
Under the project, advanced materials and simulation techniques and guidelines are being brought/evolved
in the country to ensure dam safety. The implementation of DRIP is reviewed on a quarterly basis by a
technical committee. World Bank also reviews the progress of DRIP by conducting half-yearly review
missions.
 To empower communities through well informed water related database for better research, planning,
development, management in the area of water resources, under Development of Water Resources
Information System (DWRIS)-a Web enabled Water Resources Information System named as IndiaWRIS,
has been undertaken. It will add 800 new hydrological observation sites and expand monitoring of major
reservoirs to 120 reservoirs.

Cleaning of river Yamuna:

Government of India has sanctioned Yamuna Action Plant (YAP)-I and YAP-II schemes for river Yamuna
in Delhi, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and YAP-III in Delhi under financial assistance from Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for taking up works for sewerage/interception and diversion of
drains, Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), low cost sanitation/community toilet complexes, electric/
improved wood crematoria, etc.
Government of India has also sanctioned two projects for pollution abatement of river Yamuna in towns of
Sonepat and Panipat in Haryana.
The timeframe for completion of YAP-III scheme, being funded by JICA for Delhi, is December, 2018 and
for interceptor sewer project is June, 2015.

120 Special Teams start working on sewage treatment plants:

120 such teams were constituted to study various aspects of 118 places along the rivers Ganga, Yamuna
and Ramganga.
These teams were asked to find out the latest position of sewage treatment plants located at these places
and the types of plantation required along the rivers. The teams were also directed to find out the latest
available techniques to modernize these treatment plants to obtain quicker results. Old and nonfunctional
treatment plants will be replaced by new ones.
These teams will also recommend necessary measures to be taken immediately to contain pollution in these
rivers to Central Pollution Control Board.

Jal Manthan:

A three day national conference on issues for optimal use of water resources called Jal Manthan was held
at New Delhi, organized by the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation
to take up wide ranging consultations with the state irrigation ministers, Secretaries for Water Resources
and a range of other stakeholders.
The focus was on refining policies of the Ministry to make them more people friendly and responsive to the
needs of the states.

Leveraging social media:

In its efforts to reach to social media, the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation
has launched its official facebook page and an e-book.

Expert Advisory Group constituted to render Assistance to matters pertaining to Water Sector:

An Expert Advisory Group under the Chairmanship of Shri BN Navalawala, Ex-Secretary, Ministry of Water
Resources, as Chief Adviser has been constituted to render assistance to the Water Resources Ministry in matters
pertaining to water sector.

Agriculture and Air Pollution

Jan 02, 2015
For long, effects of pollution on agriculture were largely ignored which are now becoming visible and clear.

Experiments conducted by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) have shown that

Ozone pollution can potentially reduce crop yields.

Long term use of waste water for irrigation can adversely affect crop yields on account of higher pest
incidence and disturbance in plant metabolism due to heavy metal contents.

Crop Residue:

Disposal of crop residue is a significant problem in agriculture. The most common disposal methods employed are
burning and supply to fuel (brickets) industry as a raw material. But not all residues can be used in fuel industry.
Only the residue that gives high calorific value is used. So the remaining residue is largely burnt. This adds to air
pollution.

In order to curb crop residue burning which causes air pollution, the Government of India has finalized National
Policy for Management of Crop Residues (NPMCR)-2014. The Policy envisages

Adoption of technical measures including diversified uses of crop residue, capacity building & training
along with formulation of suitable law/legislation.
Extending central financial assistance for various interventions proposed by States under the ongoing
Schemes/Programmes/Missions of Department of Agriculture & Cooperation.

Other polluting activities of agriculture:

Excess use of chemical fertilizers cause soil pollution and in turn cause land degradation.
Spraying of insecticides and pesticides make the surrounding air toxic and when the droplets settle on
nearby trees and land, cause further pollution.
Run-off water from the fields mix with nearby water-body causing water pollution.

Measures taken by Environment Ministry to contain air pollution in cities, interalia, include

supply of cleaner fuels as per Auto Fuel Policy,

use of gaseous fuel for public transport in select cities,
Pollution Under Control (PUC) Certificate System for in-use vehicles,
stringent source-specific emission standards and their compliance,
use of beneficiated coal in thermal power plants,
strengthening public transport system,
expansion of metro train system in select cities - Nagpur, Ahmadabad, etc.,
Mission on sustainable agriculture focuses on reducing the polluting effects of agriculture.
Cleaner fuels provided after Bharat IV norms.

Issues in coal sector in India

Dec 12, 2014
Low production of abundant Coal in India:

According to government data, India, worlds fifth largest producer of coal, has an estimated 301 billion tonnes of
coal reserves, enough for another 200 years of India's needs. But India has been unable to harness it leading to its
shortage. Owing to coal shortage, India lost more than 15 billion units of electricity in the last two years.

Widening demand-supply gap:

Coal production was practically stagnant in the last four years, while power generation capacity expanded, thereby
widening the already skewed demand-supply gap. Even in the best of times, India manages to produce only 160
gigawatt of electricity out of its total installed capacity of 250 GW because of coal shortage.

Leading to shortage in power production:

Coal is a fundamental requirement in the power sector. Governments plans for industrial revival will fail unless it
can ensure 24/7 power to industrial units across the country. To get all the thermal power plants running at full
steam to achieve this, the country needs to produce a minimum of one billion tonnes a year which seems like an
ambitious target at this moment.

Failed alternatives:

Coal shortage has forced power companies to look for alternatives. Some bought coal mines abroad while others
relied on gas supply from the KG Basin. Neither option has succeeded. Imports have proved costly while gas supply
from the KG basin has fallen drastically, leaving many gas-fired plants idle.

Fuel Supply Agreements violation:

The government had come up with FSAs (replacing the linkage system) to avoid supply-shock of coal. FSAs are
enforceable agreements. The clients of coal producers (i.e. power generators) can go to court if the former does not
meet its commitment in the agreement. Production of Coal India has remained stagnant for the last years, possibly
leading to non-fulfillment of FSAs on the part of coal producer.

Mutual non-payment issue:

Coal producers allege power companies of non-payment of money which in turn allege power distribution
companies of the same. Forced by populist government measures to sell power at regulated rates, many debt-laden
state power companies shy away from importing coal, given the higher costs. Importing coal can cost twice as much
as buying it from Coal India further pushing these companies into losses and delay in payment upwards.

Government measures to boost coal availability:

Coal India Limited:

In order to ensure adequate availability of coal to power utilities, the government aims to double Coal India's output
to 1 billion tonnes by 2019 through appropriate mechanization and environmental clearances. Power utilities have
also been advised by the government to enhance import of coal to meet the shortfall in domestic availability of coal.

Inter-Ministerial Sub-Group:

In addition to above, with a view to monitor coal supplies to Power Utility Sector, an Inter-Ministerial Sub-Group
comprising representatives of Ministries of Power, Coal and Railways has been constituted. This Sub-Group takes
various operational decisions for meeting any contingent situations relating to Power sector including critical coal
stock position.

Ordinance:

For management and reallocation of cancelled coal blocks, Government has promulgated the Coal Mines (Special
Provisions) Ordinance, 2014. Relevant laws have been amended thereby removing the restriction of end use (mining
for own use) from the eligibility to undertake coal mining, in the national interest.

E-auction:

The auction of coal block is decided to be carried out in e-auction mode. As per a recent Ordinance, the proceeds
from e-auctioning of coal block are required to be transferred to the respective State Government where the coal
block is located.

Allowing private and locally registered Foreign Firms to mine and sell coal:

India is set to allow private and locally registered foreign firms to mine and sell coal when commercial mining is
permitted as part of the opening up of the nationalised industry after four decades, to end a chronic coal shortage that
cripples power plants and curb the country's imports of the fuel. As of now, only power, steel and cement companies
can mine coal for their own consumption (captive mining). Commercial mining in India is dominated by state-
owned Coal India Ltd which accounts for more than 80% of the countrys total production.

Rationalisation of supplies (swaps):

Optimum utilisation of coal and rationalisation of supplies can ease coal shortage. Recently, the government allowed
several PSUs to swap coal. One PSU had been importing coal at ports in Gujarat for its Korba power plant in
Chhattisgarh, whereas the others were procuring it from Coal India's Korba mines. The end result of such swaps is
minimization of overall transportation cost and overall optimization of materialisation of coal at thermal power
plants. One of the benefits would be increased power generation leading to reduction in power shortages.

Coal Regulator:

The Centre is looking to put in place a coal regulator. The regulator will likely be empowered to oversee auctioning
of coal mines and will also keep an eye on the fuel's prices.

Upgrading aeging power plants:

The government is pushing ageing power plants to upgrade, especially those which are more than 25 years old. This
will help utilities produce more power from the same amount of coal.

Enhancing transport lines:

Government is also working with the railway ministry to expedite work on rail lines to transport coal from mines to
power plants.

Expediting environmental clearances:

The government is poised to follow facilitate, mediate, but don't obstruct to expedite environmental and forest
clearances, simultaneously ensuring zero-effect on environment. Pending clearances is the biggest hindrance to
coal production. The government will put in place a simpler, cleaner, speedier and transparent online decision-
making mechanism in the environment ministry. The ministry has asked the Forest Survey of India (FSI) to review
the policy that had led to 30 per cent of coal-bearing areas coming under the no-go zones on environmental grounds.
The no-go zone impacted 153 coal-bearing blocks in six states.

Curbing pollution due to mining:

To make mining less polluting for the environment, government is contemplating a renewed focus on underground
mining. India has 80 billion tonnes of reserves at a depth of 300 metres or more.

Switching over GCV based Grading System:

In line with the best International coal trading practices, the Government, in 2012, had switched over to the Gross
Calorific Value (GCV) classification of non-coking coal, in place of Useful Heat Value (UHV) based grading and
pricing system. This new classification will improve the quality of coal supply and reduce the consumer complaints.

Fuel Supply Agreements:

Government also introduced fuel supply agreements to be signed between coal producers and power plants. FSAs
are enforceable agreements. The clients of coal producers (i.e. power generators) can go to court if the former does
not meet its commitment in the agreement. This step will help reduce coal supply-shocks faced by power generating
companies.

Clamping down on coal pilferage:

The government has proposed to establish a National Coal Dispatch Monitoring Centre and RFID to tag all coal
movement. Moreover, real time surveillance at all major sensitive zones is being planned. A proposal for a multi-
disciplinary security force is also under consideration.

SECONDARY SECTOR CHEMICAL BASED INDUSTRIES

Nov 21, 2014
Such industries use natural chemical minerals, e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petrochemical industry. Salts,
sulphur and potash industries also use natural minerals. Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained
from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre, plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical based industries.

Forest based Raw Material using Industries

The forests provide many major and minor products which are used as raw material. Timber for furniture industry,
wood, bamboo and grass for paper industry, lac for lac industries come from forests.

LUMBERING INDUSTRY

Lumbering is commercial extraction of timber. Growth of this industry depends on number of factors like: nature of
forest, relief of land, soil, transport facilities, local demand, labour and climate condition.

Lumbering in Cold Temperate Coniferous Forests

In cold temperate forests of North America, CIS, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Coniferous softwood forests
predominate.

Lumbering in temperate forest is highly developed and organized. The factor for this are:

The persistent snow-cover helps rivers and streams in transporting logs of timber to the markets and to the
saw and pulp mills.
The saw mills are mostly located on the river banks.
Dominance of pure or homogenous species
There is steady demand for softwood. Conifers are the chief source of cellulose for paper industry and are
also used in synthetic industry.
Favourable environment :- Cold climate and persistent snow cover provides water to rivers and streams
for transporting logs of timber to the markets.
Cheap electric power :- Cheap hydro electric power is available in Canada, Alaska, Western USA,
Sweden, Norway, Finland and CIS.
Easy cutting of trees :- The size of tress is usually small. Wood is soft thus their cutting is easy. Soft wood
is light in weight. Therefore transportation cost is less.
Mechanization :- The saw mills are equipped with modern machines driven by cheap power.
Transport facilities :- In these forests driving is smooth and easy because the forests are wide open. The
caterpillar tractor is normally used to transport logs to rail or road heads.
Efficient management :- Lumbering in Canada, Alaska, Western USA, Sweden, Norway, Finland and CIS
is highly scientific and managed.
 Nearness to Big Industrial regions :- The USA, CIS, Japan, China, West European countries, India,
Australia offers markets for wood products throughout the year.

The principal lumbering regions of the world are Northern Sweden, Finland, and Northern European part of Russia.
In Canada, the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec dominate lumber production. In USA the Rocky
Mountains, Alaska and California are main regions of lumbering industry.

Lumbering in Canada

In Canada, lumbering is a large-scale organized activity because of following reasons

Raw Material: In coniferous forest, trees of same species are concentrated in one particular area so mass
exploitation easier compared to tropical areas. A large extent of forest from Rockies to eastern
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia is an important source of timber supply.
During winter, the Jungle surface is covered with snow-slippery surfaceon which it is easier to move logs
to rivers.
The forests are comparatively less dense than in tropical areas soeasy to access. Areas connected by
railroads
Areas are in close proximity to market of USA and Canadian centers. Quebec and Ontario provinces of
Canada rank first as paper and pulp producer.
British Columbia is most important centre, species found here are Douglas fir, Hemlock, Spruce and Cedar

Lumbering in USA

Raw Material: Areas extending from Alaska to California on Pacific coast are leading source of supply of
timber. In Southern USA Pine is most important species
Energy: Power supply is available from large hydel projects.
Transportation: Transportation is highly developed, both Rail and Road.
Market is easily available, Used in Pulp and Paper industry.

Lumbering in CIS

Coniferous forests stretch almost continuously from Scandinavia to Kamchatka Peninsula between 50 to 70
North latitude.
Major markets are available. These are Leningrad, Moscow
Hydel power from perennial rivers

Lumbering in Europe:

In Central Europe main areas of Coniferous forest are Pyrenees, The Alps, Mountains along middle of
Rhine Valley
In Baltic states lumbering industry is located along the coasts of Sweden, Finland and Norway.

Lumbering in Tropical Areas

In Tropical areas Lumbering is not highly developed due to following reasons.

Variety of Species: In tropical areas some tree-species are extremely valuable, but they are scattered. This
heterogeneous supply of timber therefore cost of gathering is high.
Hostile Environment: Unfavorable environment condition like high temperature and Rainfall, and disease
of malaria hindered the development of this industry.
 Transport: Valuable trees are scattered throughout jungle, therefore there is need of some land transport
before logs reach the rivers. But road construction is difficult due to rain, dense vegetation. Beside this
Tropical logs are too heavy to transport.
Non Replacement of Trees: In comparison to tropical varieties the tropical trees take a long time to
mature. Thus many tropical forests are not replaced with original species. This process smakes them less
valuable.
Soil Erosion: Unscientific exploitation of trees for timber leads to very rapid Soil erosion which in turn
harms native species. Beside this Rainfall is usually very high.
Shifting Cultivation: Lax regulations, slash-n-burn type agriculture due to which jungles are permanently
destroyed.

WOOD AND PULP INDUSTRY

Factors Governing the Location of Paper Industry

Availability of Fibrous Raw Material: Major Raw material necessary for paper Industry are Soft woods like
Spruce, Cedar, Hemlock, Deodar, Eucalyptus etc.
Abundant supplies of clean and soft water which must be free from chemical impurities.
Transport facilities
Proximity to markets
Source of Power
Facilities for disposal of waste
Local laws and encouragement from the government

All these conditions are fulfilled in Canada, USA, North West Europe, CIS, and Japan

Canada

It is one of the largest newsprint producers of the world.

Forest area is large enough to supply timber on a constant basis.
Ideal location for mill along riverside minimizes transportation problems.
Canada has mountainous terrain and fast flowing rivers therefore cheap hydroelectric power available.
Paper and pulp mills are highly mechanized and require little manpower. They can be located in remote
regions with an without experiencing labour shortage
USA has highest paper consumption in the world, provides a ready-made market for the paper pulp
industry of Canada.
The Major news prints mils are located at places like Ontario, Quebec and British Colombia

United States of America

Mills here are distributed in four Principal regions

a) North Eastern Forest region:

b) Great Lakes Region:

c) Western region : States like Washington, Oregon, Idaho

d) Southern Districts: In Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Texas.

Paper industry is a capital-intensive industry; therefore, large capital is required for sophisticated
machinery and other works. USA being an Industrialized country have access to financing.
 From Temporal view point British developed this industry in North Engand region. As cheap labour was
available from Africa and South East Asian countries as indentured labour.
Industry is highly mechanized.

Britain

Its timber output is negligible but still a major paper-producer due to pulp-imports from Sweden and
Canada.
Mills located at coastal areas, to process imported material (therefore less transport cost) Example Mill near
Thames estuary, Manchester Ship canal.

Scandinavian Countries

Vast amount of Forest resources

Cheap hydro electrical power,
Mechanized operations to make do for lack of laborers,
Rivers flow towards ports: easy for transport.

South East Asia

Forests found on islands/peninsulas at no point very distance from sea, Hence can be extracted easily.
Hardwood is much in demand by Australia and Japan

INDIA

There is strong tendency among the paper mills to be located near the forest tracts thats why most of paper mills
are located on the tracts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and the Tarai-Bhabar area at the foothills of Himalaya.

Raw Material based: Located in South Gujarat, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, these are dependent
on bamboo, softwood.
Market based: Kolkata: raw material brought from North Eastern States, cheap labour, coal, water
available. Lucknow: Depend on bagasse ( obtained from sugar mills), rags, and wheat bran. Sabai grass
 brought from Terrai region.

(e) Animal based Industries

Leather for leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from animals. Besides, ivory is also obtained
from elephants tusks. The Woollen industry has already been covered under separate article:

Other Ship building, Automobile and Heavy Engineering Industry etc.

SHIP BUILDING INDUSTRY:

Ship building is a branch of heavy engineering industry. It is an assembly industry. It draws boilers, engines,
electrical goods, glass, rubber, nuts and bolts etc. manufactured by other industries. Ship building is a highly
expensive, technical, time consuming, scientific and sophisticated industry. It exists in some economically sound
and technically advanced countries only. The industry has developed on account of:

Growing internationals trade relationships among the countries of the world.

Development of Iron and steel and various other industries connected with fitting and trimming of the
ships.
National Security and race for naval supremacy in the world has boosted the construction of ships of
different sizes and for different purposes for the use of the navy.
Availability of capital
 Advancement in marine architecture and marine technology.
Availability of labour

Location Factors for Ship Building Industry

Physical Factors:

Deep tidal estuaries or presence of deep water for laying the keel of the ship.
A large flat for the construction of shipyard
Nearness to raw materials and sources of power

Economic Factors:

Availability of cheap, skilled and unskilled labour.

Adequate supply of capital
Domestic and Overseas markets
Development of other ancillary industries to help in the assembly process of the building ships

Japanese Shipping Industry

Located at Kure, Nagoya, Tokyo-Yokohama, Hiroshima

1. Japan relies on imported iron. Its steel mills and heavy marine engineering industry are at costal location.
2. Heavy machinery, boilers, engines, cable ropes and electric installations all the raw material and spare-parts
are locally available for shipbuilding.
3. Auxiliary industries already developed because of automobiles.
4. Robots: to compensate for less number of workers
5. Excellent harbours and bays for launching ships.
6. Mild climates to keep water of the rivers and estuaries free from freezing.
7. Great domestic as well as foreign demand for fishing boats and merchant vessels respectively.
8. Japan has big shipyards which are highly modern and technical and fitted with updated machines
9. Japanese has skilled labour force

German Shipbuilding

Availability of tidal estuaries of the Elbe, Weser, Oder and Lubec Bay
Advantage of highly developed iron and steel industries in the country.
Possession of technical and skilled labour.
Patronage of technical institutions of the country.
Large domestic and foreign demands for her vessel.

Shipbuilding in India
 India ranks second in Asia in terms of shipping tonnage but shipping fleet is too small for its dimensions.

Vishakhapatnam ( Hindustan Shipyard Ltd) :

i). It has steel industry and Kolkata well connected with steel industries of Jharkhand and WB therefore
raw material available nearby.
ii). Flat/level coastal land available
iii). Rich hinterland with excellent railroad connectivity for transport of labor and ancillary components.
iv). Indigenous demand from ONGC, for offshore platforms, drilling rigs and steel jackets ; demand from
Indian Navy and Coast guards.
Kochi (Cochin Shipyard Ltd.)
Kolkata (Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Ltd.)
Mumbai ( Mazgaon Dock)

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
 Automobile industry requires large variety of raw materials from other industrial sources viz. steel,
nonferrous metals, window-glass, plastic, rubber, wood, paint, textile, electronic cables, seat cushions etc.
For continue mass production on the assembly line, you need continuous supply of those spare parts, raw
material.
Therefore, best location for automobile industry is established industrial region that has tradition of
manufacturing such components.
i). Automobile Industry in US The major concentration is in Detroit, Lausing, Chicago, Buffalo, Cleveland,
Cincinati, Toledo and Indianapolis.

Factors responsible for location:

1. Marine engine manufacturing has been carried on since long particularly in the Lake Erie centres.
2. Pittsburg, an industrial center nearby, supplies Iron and steel, glass etc.
3. Oil is available in the Ohio-Indiana oil fields
4. Lake centers manufacture a variety of components or fitting items for the assembly of automobiles.
5. The eastern interior coal fields are a source of supply of coal.
6. There exist excellent lake, rail and road transportation facilities in the region.
7. Mass production results in cheap production
8. Vast demand

Detroit: Car Capital of World

Iron-steel obtained from the Pittsburg and Appalachian . As Detroit has long tradition of machine-building,
there are numerous intermediate industries providing raw material for seat-cushions, spray-paint, tyres,
electronic circuit and various car accessories to the trinity of Ford, GM and Chrysler.
Transportation: Detroit situated on the bank of Detroit River, linked to Lake Huron. It is connected to
Windsor, Canada via tunnel across the river. Great lakes provide cheap and easy water transport.
Market: USA itself is a big market of Automobiles. Beside this Detroit cars find market in Canada as
well.to develop.
Detroit at the end of 19th century had a very sophisticated machine industry that made it a fertile place for
the Automobile industry
The unique collection of inventors, dreamers, and designers that made the Detroit area their home. Ransom
E. Olds, Henry Ford, the Dodge brothers, David Dunbar Buick, Walter P. Chrysler, and even the French
explorer who founded Detroit, Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. The Big 3 auto makers, General Motors, Ford
and Chrysler were all formed and headquartered in Detroit by 1924

Automobile Industry in India: Mumbai, Chennai, Jamshedpur, Jabalpur, Kolkata, Gurgaon are the main
automobile manufacturing centres.

Faridabad is known for the production of motorcycles.

Lucknow, Ahmedabad and Kanpur produce scooters.

The industry has made rapid strides in India on account of:

Developing economy and growth in country.

Increase in the standard of living
Increase in purchasing power of people.
Horizontal expansion of towns, cities etc.
Engineering Industry:

Heavy Engineering Industry in India

Location determinants are

1. Power: As these industries require huge amount of Energy.

2. Large capital investment

3. Skilled labor

But main factor is: transport cost for heavy and bulky raw material (steel) thats why Heavy engineering industry
is usually located near steel plants.

Steel plants themselves are located in the Damodar Valley and surrounding region (WB, Odisha, and Jharkhand) for
easy availability of iron ore, limestone, coking coal, energy and cooling water. These industries are also located in
the same region, because of those steel plants. Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Odisha are some of major
Centres.

These industries are a post independence phenomenon in India as India was totally dependent on other industrial
regions for its Machine tool requirement.

Some companies doing business in Heavy engineering:

Heavy engineering Corporation limited

Mazagaon Dock ltd.
Hindustan Machine Tool
Larsen & Turbo
Bharat Heavy Tools Limited (BHEL)
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

INDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIP

(a) Public Sector Industries are owned and managed by governments. In India, there were a number of Public
Sector Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist countries have many state owned industries. Mixed economies have both
Public and Private sector enterprises.

(b) Private Sector Industries are owned by individual investors. These are managed by private organisations. In
capitalist countries, industries are generally owned privately.

(c) Joint Sector Industries are managed by joint stock companies or sometimes the private and public sectors
together establish and manage the industries.

SECONDARY SECTOR LOCATION FACTOR FOR MINERAL BASED INDUSTRIES

Nov 19, 2014
These industries use minerals as a raw material. Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals which contain ferrous
(iron), such as iron and steel industries but some use non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as aluminium, copper and
jewellery industries. Many industries use non-metallic minerals such as cement and pottery industries.

FEW EXAMPLES

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

Iron and steel is the key industry of the modern world.

Iron and steel industry forms the base of all other industries and, therefore, it is called a basic industry.
It is basic because it provides raw material for other industries such as machine tools used for further
production.
It may also be called a heavy industry because it uses large quantities of bulky raw materials and its
products are also heavy.
It is the foundation of machines, machine tools, telecommunication equipment, military hardware etc. It is
also used in the construction of bridges, tunnels, dams, buildings etc. There exists a positive correlation
between steel production and industrial status of per capita. Such countries are the USA, CIS, Germany,
Japan and France.
The large integrated steel industry is traditionally located close to the sources of raw materials iron ore,
coal, manganese and limestone or at places where these could be easily brought, e.g. near ports.
But in mini steel mills access to markets is more important than inputs.
These are less expensive to build and operate and can be located near markets because of the abundance of
scrap metal, which is the main input.

Requirement of the Industry :

Availability of Raw material like iron ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese.
Availability of source of power.
A large supply of water for tempering steel.
Availability of cheap land, labour, capital and technical knowhow.
A market for sale of steel.
Survival factor/ Secondary factor such as establishment cost and Production cost.

Regional Distribution and Production

The industry is one of the most complex and capital-intensive industries and is concentrated in the advanced
countries of North America, Europe and Asia.
 In U.S.A, most of the production comes from the north Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region
(Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point and
Morisville). The industry has also moved towards the southern state of Alabama. Pittsburg area is now
losing ground. It has now become the rust bowl of U.S.A.
In Europe, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia are the leading
producers. The important steel centres are Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot, Birmingham and Sheffield in the
U.K.; Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essen in Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettienne in France; and
Moscow, St. Petersburgh, Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, and Donetsk in Ukraine.
In Asia, the important centres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama in Japan; Shanghai, Tienstin and
Wuhan in China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem,
Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India.

U.S.A.: The industry in USA has responded due to many geographical and economic factors such as:

a) USA has rich resources of

high grade coking coal.

b) It has huge quantities of

high grade Iron ore and other
minerals

c) Water-power, efficient
water and rail transportation
network

d) Large amounts of capital

e) An invigorating climate

f) A stable, progressive,
forward looking government.

g) Availability of technical
and non technical labour.

h) Domestic markets

The USA has a number of iron and steel manufacturing regions. These are:

(i) The Pittsburg, Youngstown Iron and Steel Region:

Once regarded as worlds iron steel capital

Localisation factors are: Pittsburgh coal, Lake superior iron ore region, good transportation Network and
favourable market region

(ii) The Mid Atlantic Seaboard Iron and Steel Region:

Pennsylvania, Sparrow Point and Maryland are important centers

Coal from Pennsylvania, Iron ore from lake Superior and Cornwall areas
Its location near the centre of the great manufacturing region of the Atlantic Seaboard, the region of the
densest population, and of the most intense industrial development in North America, is the most
remarkable.

(iii) The Chicago-Gary Iron and Steel Region.:

 Buffalo, Erie, Detroit are major centers of this region
Favourable factors are Transportation network of lakes region, Lake Superior and Mesabi iron ore deposit
and Appalachian coal
Detroit is the largest steel consuming centre in the USA particularly because of its automobile industry.

(iv) The Birmingham Alabama Iron and Steel Region:

Region extends from Virginia on the west to Alabama on the south

Large deposits of raw materials are found in closer proximity than anywhere else in North America . While
the ore is of low grade and requires shaft mining, much of the rock is lime and the ore is, therefore, self-
fluxing.
This region lacks, large industrial centres in the neighborhood and has, therefore, a considerable amount of
surplus pig iron which goes to the North.

(v) The Western Iron and Steel Centers.

Extends from Colorado to California in the west

Among the steel region in the USA, this is a new region.
Iron ore is obtained from Wyoming and coal from Colorado.
Now uses hydroelectric power from Sharawati and Mahatma Gandhi project

Iron and Steel Industry in Canada

The country has all the requisite conditions for steel manufacturing. The coking coal is mined in the provinces of
Nova-Scotia and British Columbia. Iron ore is present in Ontario, Nova-Scotia Alberta and Vancouver Islands. New
found land and Nevifoundland has plenty of limestone. Capital, labour and market are available in the country.

The industry in Canada is found in three districts:

(i) Ontario Peninsula

(ii) Nova-Scotia and Cape Breton

(iii) Sault-Ste-Marie

Iron and Steel Industry in Germany:

Iron and Steel regions of Germany are:

(i) Rhenish Westphalia

Coal is obtained from Saxony coalfield

iron ore from Bavaria, France, Spain and Sweden
Abundant water is available from Ruhr river
River transports is highly developed
Ready available market: Ship building industry in Hamburg, Dusseldorf is automobile hub

(ii) Hartz Mountain: Steel is manufactured at Saxony and in Upper Silesia. Stassfurt is the leading centre in
the Hartz Mountain. Chemnitz and Zwickan are steel centres in Saxony.

Iron and Steel Industry in CIS:

Prior to disintegration in 1991, USSR was the leading steel-producing country of the world. Now also Russia and
Ukraine are important iron and steel producers of the world. Major centers are:

1. Ural Kuznetsk Region

The major steel centres of this region are Magnitogorsk, Chelyabink, Nizhnitagil, Sverdlovsk, Serov,
Perm, Orsk, etc.
Magnitogorsk is the largest steel-producing centre of Russia.
Kuybyshev dam on Volga River provides hydroelectric power

2. Moscow Region

Only market based Iron steel region in CIS

Important centres of iron and steel in this region are Tula, Lipetsk, Cherepovetsk and Gorky.
Agricultural machinery, because Agriculture developed in Central Volga region.

3. The South District

One of oldest Iron-stell centre of CIS

Some of Favorable factors are: Kirovy Rog iron ore deposit, Donbas coalfield, Nickopol manganese and
Kirch iron ore

Iron and Steel Industry in China:

China has emerged as an important iron and steel manufacturing country in the world. The development has
responded to plenty of coal in north China like Shansi, Shensi, Honan, Shantung and Manchuria. Manchuria has rich
resources of Iron Ore. Ore is also there in lower Yangtze valley, Shansi and Shantung.

The industry has been concentrated in the following regions in China:

(i) South Manchuria:

Steel industry was setup by Japanese colonialists (after Sino-China war, Japan had occupied this region)
The largest steel plant of China at Anshan and other plants at Pensihu and Mukden
Coal is obtained from Fushan region

(ii) Hopeh and Shantung:

It stretches from Paotow to Shantung

Coal is obtained from Shantung and Shensi.

(iii) The Yangtze Valley

Runs along with the Yangtze River, Around Chongqing, Wuhan etc.
Coal from South of Nanchang and Chongqing
Hydro electricity from Yangtze River.
Iron ore deposits on South of Yangtze River.
Yangtze River itself provides cheap inland transport.
Chungking, Wuhan and Shanghai are major iron-steel plants of this region

Iron and Steel Industry in India

 The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial development in India.
Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic
infrastructure.
The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential for iron and steel industry are limestone,
dolomite, manganese and fire clay.
All these raw materials are gross (weight losing), therefore, the best location for the iron and steel plants is
near the source of raw materials.
In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand
and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and
other supplementing raw materials.
The Indian iron and steel industry consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. It also
includes secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.

Major iron and steel plants in India:

Tata Iron and Steel plant ( TISCO, Jamshedpur)

Transportation:Very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line . About 240 km away from Kolkata, which
is the nearest port for the export of steel.
Water obtained from Subarnarekha and Kharkai
Iron ore for the plant from Noamundi and Badam Pahar
Coal is brought from Joda mines in Orissa
Manganese from Joda mines, Keonjhar, Odisha
Abundant supply of Cheap labour from Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha and the tribal belt of Chhota-Nagpur
plateau.
Secondary industries located in the region that use steel to manufacture machine tools, automobiles, agro-
machines, tine-plates, wires etc.

Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO)

Coal obtained from Raniganj, Jharia, and Ramgarh

Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
Water is obtained from the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar.
All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway line

Rourkela Steel Plant

Unique locational advantage, as it

Receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand)
Iron ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar.
Power supply from Hirakud project for the electric furnaces
water is obtained from the Koel and Sankh rivers
Limestone comes from Birmitrapur

Vishveshwarya Steel Plant

Located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemangundi in theBababudan hills.

Limestone and manganese are locally available
At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was used as fuel till 1951.
Located on main railway line of Biru-Shimoga.
Water is available from Bhadravati river
Bhilai Steel Plant

Iron ore from Durg, Chandrapur and Bastar Dalli-Rajhara range 80km away
Coal comes from Korba and Kargali coal fields
Power from the Korba Themal Power Station.
Market: Bulk of steel goes to Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam
Manganese is obtained from Balaghat
Water comes from Tanduladam

Bokaro Steel Plant

Iron ore from Noamundi in Jharkhand and Kiriburu mines from Odisha

Plant has symbiotic relationship with Rourkela plant. It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the
wagons on return take coal to Rourkela
Hydel power is obtained from DVC
Coal obtained from Jharia mines
Dolomite is obtained from Palamau

Durgapur Steel Plant

Iron ore from Singhbhum, Jharkhand, Kendujhargarh, Odisha and Mayurbhanj, Odisha
Plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt
Plant is located onn Main Durgapur- Kolkata line
Power from DVC

CEMENT INDUSTRY

Cement is a basic ingredient for the construction industry.

Cement is made out of limestone, shell, clay mined out of a quarry close to the plant.
The raw material is crushed, and then heated at temperature in excess of 1000 C in rotating kiln to become
clinker.
Clinker is then mixed with gypsum and ground to a fine powder to produce final grade of cement.
The technology is a continuous process and is highly energy intensive.
Cost of cement is 29% energy, 27% raw materials, 32% labour and 12% depreciation.
The weight/to price ratio make transportation cost very high.
The competitive radius of a typical cement plant for most common types of cement extends no more than
300 kilometers.
However, cement can be shipped economically by sea and inland waterway over great distances, extending
greatly the competitive radius of cement plants with access to waterborne shipping lanes.
Thus, the location of a cement plant and the cost to transport the cement it produces through its distribution
terminals bear significantly on the plants competitive position and the prices it may charge.
The minimum efficient size for a cement plant is around 1 million ton a year.

The major segments of the industries are:

Aggregates: quarries and crushing minerals to be mixed with cement to make concrete
Cement production
 Ready Mix: distribution of ready to use concrete

SCENARIO OF INDIAN CEMENT INDUSTRY

The Indian cement industry is the 2nd largest market after China accounting for about 7-8% of the total
global production.
Cement is a cyclical commodity with a high correlation with GDP, growing at around 1.2x of GDP growth
rate.
The housing sector is the biggest demand driver of cement, accounting for about 64% of the total
consumption.
The other major consumers of cement include infrastructure (17%), commercial & institutional (13%) and
industrial segment (6%).
Despite the fact that the Indian cement industry has grown at a commendable rate in the last decade,
registering a compounded growth of about 8%, the per capita consumption still remains substantially poor
when compared with the world average. This underlines the tremendous scope for growth in the Indian
cement industry in the long term.
Cement, being a bulk commodity, is a freight intensive industry and transporting it over long distances can
prove to be uneconomical. This has resulted in cement being largely a regional play with the industry
 divided into five main regions viz. north, south, west, east and the central region. The Southern region of
India has the highest installed capacity.

TOP CEMENT PRODUCING STATES IN INDIA

(I) Andhra Pradesh

(II) Rajasthan

(III) Tamil Nadu

FINANCIAL YEAR 2012

During the financial year 2011-12 (FY12), Indias cement production grew by 6.2% year-on-year. The muted
growth was mainly attributable to slowdown in construction activities, extended monsoon, delay in infrastructural
projects and the overall downturn in the economy. As such, the capacity utilisation levels stood lower at 73.7%.

The industry witnessed high operating costs, particularly those of energy and freight. The price of imported coal
went up sharply. The steep depreciation of the rupee and hike in diesel prices further aggravated the concerns.
However, the industry witnessed some recovery in demand from November 2011 onwards.

The growth of the Indian economy has slowed down in recent times on account of the rising inflation, high interest
rates, high prices of commodities and fuels. The growth prospects of the cement industry are closely linked to the
growth of the overall economy in general and the real estate and construction sectors in particular. The importance
of the housing sector in cement demand can be gauged from the fact that it consumes nearly two-thirds of the
countrys total cement. If the slowdown in real estate persists for an extended period, it would impact the growth in
consumption of cement.

However, the long term drivers for cement demand remain intact. Higher infrastructure spending, robust growth in
rural housing and peaking interest rates are likely to augur well for the cement industry. The government plans to
spend US$ 1 trillion on infrastructure in the 12th five year plan period (2012-17). The same during the 11th plan
period was US$ 514 bn. The focus on infrastructure development is expected to boost cement demand

Location factor for Agro based Industries

Oct 25, 2014
Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the farm into finished products for rural
and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages
(tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, and silk), rubber, etc.

1. Tea

Tea is one of the most important beverage crops of the world. On the basis of processes of production, there are
three main types of tea:

(a) Black

(b) Green

(c) Brick

Black tea is produced in India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia.

Green tea is prepares in China, Japan and Formosa.
 Brick tea is of inferior quality. It is prepared in China.

Conditions of Growth:

(i) Hot and wet climate: The temperature should be from 20 degree C to 30 degree C

(ii) Well distributed rainfall between 200-250 cms.

(iii) High humidity during its growth

(iv) The land should be gently rolling so as to prevent water logging

(v) Alluvial soil or volcanic or friable loams.Thus its cultivation is most suited in the rainy tropical and humid
sub tropical regions.

Regional Distribution:

The monsoon lands of Asia hold the monopoly of tea production in the world. The most important tea producing
countries are India, China, Sri Lanka, Japan, Indonesia and Bangladesh.

India: India is the largest producer of tea in the world. In India tea is grown in two major regions:

North East India produces 75% of tea of India.

In North East India, tea is grown in the Brahmaputra valley and Surma Valley of Assam state.
Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and contributes more than half of total
production of tea in the country.
The hill slopes provide excellent drainage facilities. The climate is ideal for tea culture. The soils are
alluvial in character. Labour is locally available.
The state of West Bengal ranks second in the production of tea in India. The Himalayan ranges of Darjeeling and
Jalpaiguri region supply best quality tea.

Tea production in Darjeeling region:

Factors Effect

Britain had accumulated truckload of wealth from its Asian-African colonies and through
industrial revolution.
By 1830s, monopoly over Chinese tea-trade was lost with the entry of other European
Historical players exercising sphere of influence over China.
Facor The indigo cropping in Bihar was not giving good returns.
Suez Canal opened thus distance gets reduced.
All these factors led to British investment going in the Indian tea-plantation activity.

Morning fog, low temperature resulting into high grade leaf

Climate

Teesta, Rangreej, Mahananda, Balason and many more streams.

Gradual melting of Himalayan snow feeds water to rivers/streams even in dry season.
Water
And South-west monsoon provided sufficient water

Soil has good quantity of phosphorous and potash thus gives special flavor to Darjeeling
Soil Tea.

Grown in hills as water is not stagnated.

Topography

Permanent labor force working for generations and cheap Labor is available from nearby
Labour states.

Local and foreign demand.

Market Proximity to Kolkata port which is good for export.

South India produces 20% tea of India.

Tea in South India is grown in the hill slopes of the Nilgiri and the Anamalai mountains.
The state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala contributes about 20% of Indias tea production.

China: China is the second largest producer of the tea. It contributes 20% of worlds output. The major
concentration of tea cultivation is on the hill slopes between the Yangtze Kiang valley and Sikiang valley, Chekiang,
Szechwan and Hupeh provinces.

Factors Effect

Summer monsoon keeps the temperature good for tea.

Climate
 Hill area provide excellent drainage facilities.
Topography

Grown and used since ancient times therefore people are skilled in growing tea.
Famers grow tea on the nearby hills as secondary crop for additional income, otherwise
Labour primary crop is rice.
Compared to Indian Estates, Chinese tea Farms are smaller, usually less than 1 acre.

Local and foreign demand. Yangtze-Kiang leads to Shanghai port.

Market Although most Europeans prefer Indian black tea because it is stronger than Chinese variety.

2. COFFEE

Coffee is another important beverage crop of the world. Coffee is prepared from the seeds of the fruit obtained from
the plant.

Conditions for the Growth:

Coffee is a tropical plant. It grows best from 0-28 degree N and 0-30 degree South of equator.
Coffee plants need warm climate and a moderate supply of moisture for its growth.
18-26 degree C temperature during the growing period and 14-18 degree C at the time of ripening.
A well distributed rainfall of 100-150 cms
Frost is coffees worst enemy, thus the plants are grown on hill slopes rather than in the valleys.
Coffee grows best in well drained soils which are rich in iron and potash content

There are two varieties of coffee:

(i) Coffee Arabia or Mocha coffee

(ii) Coffee Robusta.

Coffee Arabia is grown in Yemen. Coffee Robusta is a disease resisting one. It is of inferior quality.

Regions of Production:

1. Brazil:

Brazil is the largest producer of coffee in the world with 30% of world production.
Most of the coffee comes from the regions of Sao Paulo and Minas- Garais.

Coffee cultivation in Brazil has been favoured by a variety of geographical and economic factors.

(i) Rainfall 150 cms

(ii) High temperature of 24 degree C

(iii) Cool and dry season at the time of ripening and harvesting

(iv) The gently rolling slopes of the hills or plateaus provide ideal grounds for coffee plantations known as
Fezendas.
(v) The gentle relief has facilitated construction of roads and rail-tracks; as such the plantations are well connected
with the ports of Santos and Rio-de-Janerio.

(vi) The red earth soils locally known as Terra Roxa result in luxuriant growth of coffee plants.

2. Colombia:

It is the second largest producer of coffee in the world.

It produces about 15% of world coffee.
The coffee plantations are located to the west of Bagota, however, major concentration of coffee plantation
are near the Cauca River, a tributary of the Magdalena River.
The temperature range from 15-24 degree C.
The rainfall is to the tune of 175 cms.
The highland slopes provide excellent grounds for coffee plants.
The labour is locally available.

These factors have boosted coffee cultivation in Colombia.

3. India:

India mostly grows superior quality coffee, arabica, which is in great demand in International market.
But India produces only about 4.3 per cent coffee of the world and ranks sixth after Brazil, Vietnam,
Colombia, Indonesia and Mexico.
Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka
alone accounts for more than two-third of total production of coffee in the country.

Coffee Production in Kerala

In Kerala ,Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills region are best suited for both Tea and coffee.

Factors Impact

Red soil is best suited for coffee cultivation.

Soil Hill areas of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Malappuram, Kottayam No stagnant water
 Coffee grown on Northern and Eastern slopes of the
Temprature Moderating effect of Lakshadweep sea= temperature stays ~25 degree C throughout the year.

Kochi port is nearby to export coffee.

Transport

Kochi port to (mostly) Italy and local demand in South India

Market

3. SUGAR INDUSTRY

Sugarcane belongs to the family of grasses. A combination of geographical and economic factors is required for
sugarcane cultivation.

Sugarcane is a tropical plant. It needs hot and humid climatic conditions with temperature between 21-27
degree C throughout the season.
The plant requires the rainfall over 125 cms.
Deep rich well drained but water retentive fertile soils
Cheap labour for harvesting
Use of fertilizers and manure

Regional Distribution:

Sugarcane is grown over a vast region in tropical and sub-tropical countries. The principal producers are Brazil,
India, Cuba, Puerto-Rico, China, Colombia, South Africa etc.

1. Brazil: Main regions are: -

Coastal regions of NE Brazil

Savanna plateau of Minas Gerais
Coastal plain in the North and North East of Rio-de-Janerio.

2. India: India is the largest producer of sugarcane in the world. Main regions are:

Northern region
Southern Plateau Region and coastal plains of A.P. and T.N.

The northern regions of the country produce about 70% of Indias cane. The main producing states are U.P.,
Northern Bihar, West Bengal, Haryana and Punjab
Sugarcane and sugarbeet are the two most important sources from which sugar is extracted. These two crops grow
under contrasting geographical conditions. Sugarcane is a tropical crop whereas sugarbeet grows in temperate
countries

Sugar mills are located near sugar growing areas, because of two factors

Perishability:

Sugarcane contains sucrose

Once we cut the sugarcane, the sucrose content starts to decline. Hence raw material must be quickly
transported and crushed into Machines

Weight-loss

Sugar accounts for only ~10% of the bulky sugarcane and therefore it is prohibitively expensive to
transport sugarcane over long-distance in its original form. Thats why it can be seen that Most of sugar
industries are located closely to sugarcane producing region.

Sugar Industry in India

Limiting factor is proximity to raw material. So sugar mills are located in 30-50 kms radius of sugar-cultivating
areas.

Maharahstra

Western Maharashtras river valleys

Sangli, Solapur, Satara
 Ahmednagar, Pune, Nasik

Uttar Pradesh

Western UP and Terai region

Sitapur, Gorakhpur, Saharanpur
Meerut, Moradabad, Muzaffarnagar

Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad, Nizamabad

Karnataka

Chitradurg, Shimoga
Bijaipur, Belagaum, Bellary

Tamilnadu

Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli

Examples of few sugar producing states like Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh

Sugar Production in Maharashtra

Factors Impact

For sugar, there is need of warmer climate which leads to better yield=> Maharashtra grows
thicker variety of sugarcane.
As the state is near to ocean therefore the difference between minimum and maximum temp is
Climate less. Thus the duration of crop-maturity months is very low which increases sugar yield.
Sugar crushing season is longer

Black lava soil is fertile and retains water therefore good for growth.
Soil

Mills use bagasse as fuel therefore no need of coal for power

Energy

Mumbai Port = helps in export.

transport

Available
Labour

Sugar production in Uttar Pradesh

Factors Impact
Soil Potash-lime in soil helps in growth of plant
 Upper gangetic plains are rich in fertility.

Ganga, Yamuna and their numerous tributaries

Water

Use bagasse instead of coal for energy.

Energy

Dense road-network, flat terrain =easy transport.

transport

Seasonal and migratory labour available=cost of production low.

Labour

Large population=> high demand for gur, khandsari, sugar.

Market

Factor Responsible for development of large sugar industry in North compared to South

1. In South India: No loo, no frost and there is moderating effect of ocean therefore ideal for sugarcane growth.

2. Labor management tussle is less. Thats why industry shifting towards south.

3. Due to tropical condition sucrose content is more

4. But the sugarcane cultivation /industry in South India is not as large as UP-Maharashtra belt, Because:

a. During British-raj, North India used to cultivate indigo as cash crop but then invention of synthetic dyes
compelled farmers to switched to sugarcane.

b. In South India, farmers have better cash-crop alternatives e.g. cotton, tobacco, coconut, groundnut etc. so
you dont see a large sugarbelt unlike UP.

5. Cuba: the sugar bowl

Factors Impact
Hot climate due to the north east trade winds therefore increases sugar yield.
Climate The temperature of 24 centigrade and a well distributed rainfall between 100-175 cms.

Fertile calcareous soil; rich in lime and salt thus Crops are obtained twice a year.
Sugarcane

Large influx of American capital after the Spanish American war helped sugar industry of
Cuba.
Capital WW1 destroyed the farms in Europe, thus Americans had to rely more on Cuban Sugar
which resulted into soaring of prices.

Cuba faces the USA (the greatest sugar market in the world)
Market not very far off from the north west European countries

Labour Cheap labour is available. In past slave labour were used. This island was part of slave
 triangle.

Until 1959, the main export market was USA, but afterwards most of the sugar was
exported to USSR and other communist countries.
Government
After 1959 Socialist Government and farms were organized as cooperative and Sugar
policy
collectives.

Other areas:

Sugar is grown in Louisiana and Hawaii

USA But industry is highly mechanized because of lack of labour

Sugarcane is grown with the help of indentured labour from India.

Mauritius, Fiji

4. Cotton Industry

Cotton industry is the most important, wide spread and a well organized industry in the world. Spinning and
weaving had been done by man since ages. This has been certified by fine muslin, shawls, silk etc. of China, India,
Egypt and West Asia. By the end of 17th century, the industry was common throughout Europe. The change from
handmade cloth to machine made cloth occurred first of all in England. Inventions in the processes of spinning and
weaving revolutionized textile industry throughout the world. Many factors worked for the development of the
industry in the world.

Industrial Revolution in Europe.

Development of chemicals for the use of the industry.
Development of hydro-electricity.
Increase in the standard of living of the people.
Increase in acreage and production of cotton, the raw material
Growth in demand due to increase in world population
Development of means of transport.

Factors responsible for location of industry:

1. Climate: In dry climate, the thread which is used for weaving cloth gets snapped quite often and work is
disturbed. Thus humid climatic regions are best suited for the cotton textile industry. This is one reason why the
cotton textile industry has greatly developed in U.K., New England (USA), Japan, India etc. where the environment
is humid.

But today weve humidifiers that can artificially increase the air-moisture in factory/workshed therefore one can
setup factory anywhere, run it efficiently, irrespective of climate outside.

2. Raw Material: Cotton is the main raw material for the industry. Thus cotton growing areas attract the textile
industry. This happened in USA in the southern states where cotton is grown. Similarly in India, Maharashtra,
Gujarat states became leaders in number of textile mills on account of cotton, being intensively grown in these
states.

3. Labour: Cheap labour is an asset to the industry. Availability of cheap labour in a region gives the advantage of
low manufacturing costs and cheaper products.
4. Source of Power: Previously the factories were fuelled by coal. The proximity to coal was a determining factor.
In the southern states of USA or UK the textile mills were set up near to coal fields. Presently coal has been replaced
by electricity. This is why the absence of coal does not discourage starting new textile mills.

5. Markets: market has a great importance for the industry. For ex. U.K. does not grow cotton. It imports from
Egypt, India etc. but because of great demand and a good market in Europe, the industry in U.K. has made great
progress. Similar is the condition of Japan. Due to urbanization, literacy, industrialization, growth of fashion,
advertisement and increase in standard of living of the people market for textiles has become global.

6. Capital: this industry needs a heavy capital investment for machinery

7. Means of Transportation.

CIS

Initial centers were Moscow-Tula-Ivanovo but decentralization policy under soviet era expanded this
industry to Interior location.
Apart from Moscow-Tula region, Industry has developed near Taashkent, Georgia, Kirovabad.
Availability of water, Finance has led to growth.

USA

One of the fore- runners among the textile manufacturing countries

First Cotton mill was established within Rhode Island.
Cotton Industry of USA had gone through two distinct phases. In the initial phase there was rise of cotton
industry in New England region. This was due to

Development of water power from small, turbulent streams

Proximity to Boston and New York
The humid climate of New England Region
Cheap female worker from surrounding areas
Large financial help from local

Despite all these advantages this region gradually lost its prominence in Cotton Industry and this industry started
shifting towards south.

In second stage there was downfall of New England region and rise of Southern states as textile producer. Major
reason were:

Easy access to abundant raw cotton

Relative advantage of transport facilities
Hydroelectric power along major rivers (e.g. Tennessee)
Adoption of latest technology

Japan

Major centres are at Hanshin, Kyushu, Keihin, Osaka and Nagoya

Availability of finance from both government and private sector, Skilled labour, High production using
latest machines and automation technology has led to growth of industry.

UK
 Centers developed at the end of the 19th century around Nottingham, Ireland and Lancashire.
Availability of cheap labour, Coal and Market has led to growth of this Industry
Now no longer U. K is big playe in Cotton Industry.

China

Textile industry distributed throughout China

Dominant centers are Shanghai, Manchuria, Beijing, Nanchang

Cotton Textile Industry in India

The origin of Cotton Textile Industry in India dates back to 1818 when the first cotton mill was set up at Fortglaster
near Kolkata. But the first mill could not survive. Thus the real beginning of the industry came up in 1851, when the
Bombay Spinning and Weaving Mills was set up at Mumbai.

Indian textile industry is concentrated in four distinct regions:

(i) Black Soil Cotton Zone

(ii) Alluvial Soil Cotton Zone of Satluj, Ganga Plain

(iii) Light Black Soil Zone of Aravalies

(iv) Coastal Alluvial Soil Zone of Tamil Nadu, A.P., Kerala and Karnataka.

Black Soil Cotton Zone: This Zone includes states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The
most important textile centres of Maharashtra are Mumbai, Pune, Nasik, Sholapur, Aurangabad and Nagpur.

The Gujarat state is second important textile manufacturing center in country. Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodra,
Bhavnagar, Kalol and Broach are leading centres.

In Karnataka, Bangalore, Devanagar, Hubli, Mysore, Bellary, Belgaon etc are famous centres.

In Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, Warangal, Vijaywada, Secunderabad, Guntur are important centres.

Alluvial Soil Cotton Zone of Satluj, Ganga Plain: This zone comprises of states of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The most important factors which have worked for the development of cotton
textile manufacturing in these states are:

1. Rich fertile alluvial soils.

2. Dense population, thus cheap labour availability
3. Wide markets due to large population.
4. Means of transport are highly developed
5. Availability of thermal and hydro electricity

The important centres are:

Punjab: Amritsar, Ludhiana

Haryana: Hisar, Rohtak, Bhiwani, Panipat.

U.P.: Saharanpur, Meerut, Agra, Lucknow, Kanpur, Gorakhpur, Varanasi and Aligarh
Bihar: Bhagalpur, Gaya, Patna, Ranchi, Muzzafarpur

West Bengal: Hoogly region

Light Black Soil Zone of Aravalies: This zone includes eastern parts of Rajasthan and western parts of M.P.

Rajasthan: Udaipur, Bhilwara, Ajmer, Kota and Jaipur

M.P.: Gwalior, Ratlam, Indore, Ujjain, Jabalpur and Bhopal

Coastal Alluvial Soil Zone of Tamil Nadu, A.P., Kerala and Karnataka: In this zone mills are located at
Chennai, Salem, Coimbatore, Madurai and Tanjore

ACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES: SECONDARY SECTOR

Oct 25, 2014
SECONDARY ACTIVITIES:

Secondary activities add value to natural resources by transforming raw materials into valuable products. Cotton in
the boll has limited use but after it is transformed into yarn, becomes more valuable and can be used for making
clothes. Iron ore, cannot be used; directly from the mines, but after being converted into steel it gets its value and
can be used for making many valuable machines, tools, etc. The same is true of most of the materials from the farm,
forest, mine and the sea. Secondary activities, therefore, are concerned with manufacturing, processing and
construction (infrastructure) industries.

MANUFACTURING :

Manufacturing involves a full array of production from handicrafts to moulding iron and steel and stamping out
plastic toys to assembling delicate computer components or space vehicles. In each of these processes, the common
characteristics are the application of power, mass production of identical products and specialised labour in factory
settings for the production of standardised commodities.

Characteristics of Modern Large Scale Manufacturing

Modern large scale manufacturing has the following characteristics:

(i) Specialisation of Skills/Methods of Production Under the craft method factories produce only a few
pieces which are made-to-order. So the costs are high. On the other hand, mass production involves
production of large quantities of standardised parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.

(ii) Mechanisation refers to using of gadgets which helps in accomplishing tasks. Automation is the
advanced stage of mechanisation. Automatic factories with feedback and closed loop computer control
systems where machines are developed to think, have sprung up all over the world.

(iii) Technological Innovation Technological innovations through research and development strategy are an
important aspect of modern manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and
combating pollution.

Organisational Structure and Stratification

Modern manufacturing is characterised by:

 (i) A complex machine technology

(ii) Extreme specialisation and division of labour for producing more goods with less effort, and low costs

(iii) Vast capital

(iv) Large Organisations

(v) Executive bureaucracy.

Uneven Geographic Distribution

Major concentrations of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few numbers of places. These cover less than 10
per cent of the worlds land area. These nations have become the centres of economic and political power. However,
in terms of the total area covered, manufacturing sites are much less conspicuous and concentrated on much smaller
areas than that of agriculture due to greater intensity of processes. For example, 2.5 sq. km of the American corn belt
usually includes about four large farms employing about 10-20 workers supporting 50-100 persons. But this same
area could contain several large integrated factories and employ thousands of workers. Industries maximise profits
by reducing costs. Therefore, industries should be located at points where the production costs are minimum.

Some of the factors influencing industrial locations are as under:

Access to Market The existence of a market for manufactured goods is the most important factor in the
location of industries. Remote areas inhabited by a few people offer small markets. The developed regions
of Europe, North America, Japan and Australia provide large global markets as the purchasing power of the
people is very high. The densely populated regions of South and South-east Asia also provide large
markets. Some industries, such as aircraft manufacturing, arms industry etc. have a global market.
Access to Raw Material Raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport. Industries
based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of raw material
such as steel, sugar, and cement industries. Perishability is a vital factor for the industry to be located closer
to the source of the raw material. Agro-processing and dairy products are processed close to the sources of
farm produce or milk supply respectively.
Access to Labour Supply Labour supply is an important factor in the location of industries. Some types of
manufacturing still require skilled labour. Though with the increasing mechanisation, automation and
flexibility of industrial processes dependence of industry upon the labours have reduced but still labour
supply is an important factor.
Access to Sources of Energy Industries which use more power are located close to the source of the
energy supply such as the Aluminium industry.
Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry
raw materials to the factory and to move finished goods to the market are essential for the development of
industries. The cost of transport plays an important role in the location of industrial units. Western Europe
and eastern North America have a highly developed transport system which has always induced the
concentration of industries in these areas. Communication is also an important need for industries for the
exchange and management of information.
Government Policy Governments adopt regional policies to promote balanced economic development
and hence set up industries in particular areas.
Access to Agglomeration Economies/ Links between Industries Many industries benefit from nearness
to a leader-industry and other industries. These benefits are termed as agglomeration economies. Savings
are derived from the linkages which exist between different industries.

These factors operate together to determine industrial location.

Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/raw materials, output/products and
ownership

a) Industries based on Size The amount of capital invested, number of workers employed and volume of
production determine the size of industry. Accordingly, industries may be classified into household or cottage,
small-scale and large-scale.

1) Household Industries or Cottage Manufacturing

It is the smallest manufacturing unit. The craftsmen or artisans use local raw materials and simple hand
tools to produce everyday goods in their homes with the help of their family members or part-time labour.
Finished products may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local (village) markets, or,
for barter.
Capital and transportation do not wield much influence as this type of manufacturing has low commercial
significance and most of the tools are devised locally.
Some common everyday products produced in this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, fabrics,
mats, containers, tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from wood lot and forest, shoes, thongs and other
articles from leather; pottery and bricks from clays and stones. Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver
and bronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out of bamboo, wood obtained locally from the forests.

2) Small Scale Manufacturing

Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from household industries by its production techniques and
place of manufacture (a workshop outside the home/cottage of the producer).
This type of manufacturing uses local raw material, simple power-driven machines and semi-skilled labour.
It provides employment and raises local purchasing power.
Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive small
scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population.

3) Large Scale Manufacturing

Large scale manufacturing involves a large market, various raw materials, enormous energy, specialised
workers, advanced technology, assembly-line mass production and large capital.

b) Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are classified as:

(a) Agro-based

(b) Mineral based

(c) Chemical based

(d) Forest based: and

(e) Animal based

FACTORS RESPOSIBLE FOR LOCATION OF PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY INDUSTRIES

AND DETAIL ABOUT PRIMARY INDUSTRY
Oct 09, 2014
TYPES OF INDUSTRIES:

A nations economy can be divided into various sectors to define the proportion of the population engaged in the
activity sector. This categorization is seen as a continuum of distance from the natural environment. The continuum
starts with the primary sector, which concerns itself with the utilization of raw materials from the earth such as
agriculture and mining. From there, the distance from the raw materials of the earth increases.

Primary Sector :

The primary sector of the economy extracts or harvests products from the earth. The primary sector
includes the production of raw material and basic foods. Activities associated with the primary sector
include agriculture (both subsistence and commercial), mining, forestry, farming, grazing, hunting and
gathering, fishing, and quarrying. The packaging and processing of the raw material associated with this
sector is also considered to be part of this sector.
In developed and developing countries, a decreasing proportion of workers are involved in the primary
sector. About 3% of the U.S. labour force is engaged in primary sector activity today, while more than two-
thirds of the labour force was engaged in the primary sector in the mid-nineteenth century.

Secondary Sector :

The secondary sector of the economy manufactures finished goods. All of manufacturing, processing, and
construction lies within the secondary sector. Activities associated with the secondary sector include metal
working and smelting, automobile production, textile production, chemical and engineering industries,
aerospace manufacturing, energy utilities, engineering, breweries and bottlers, construction, and
shipbuilding.

Tertiary Sector :

The tertiary sector of the economy is the service industry. This sector provides services to the general
population and to businesses. Activities associated with this sector include retail and wholesale sales,
transportation and distribution, entertainment (movies, television, radio, music, theatre, etc.), restaurants,
clerical services, media, tourism, insurance, banking, healthcare, and law.
In most developed and developing countries, a growing proportion of workers are devoted to the tertiary
sector. In the U.S., more than 80% of the labour force is tertiary workers.

Quaternary Sector :

The quaternary sector of the economy consists of intellectual activities. Activities associated with this
sector include government, culture, libraries, scientific research, and education and information
technology.

Quinary Sector :

Some consider these to be a branch of the quaternary sector called the quinary sector, which includes the
highest levels of decision making in a society of economy. This sector would include the top executives or
officials in such fields as government, science, universities, non-profit, healthcare, culture and the media.

These sectors of industry can be used to determine the level of development of a country. Countries with a high
proportion of primary industries are commonly Less Economically Developed Countrys LEDC (e.g. Mali). These
countries have most of their population working as farmers. In a More Economically Developed Country MEDC,
a large proportion of tertiary industries are found (e.g. UK). Newly lndustrializing Country- NIC have a strong
proportion of secondary industries as they are starting to industrialize and begin manufacturing (e.g. India).
FACTORS OF INDUSTRIAL LOCATION :

Industrial location, or where industry locates, has a few variable factors. In many respects, these can range from
economic to the more natural advantages of the location.

Let us first consider the general points for setting up any industry than we will see the individual factors for specific
economic activity and industry.

1. Transport, and transportation links, on the location is as important factor for industrial location. For
example, good road and rail links can be a real bonus to any location point and will certainly provide a sound
basis for industry.

2. Another factor for industrial location is that of proximity to raw materials. Admittedly, this may well be
more important for primary and secondary industries involved in the extraction and manufacture of industrial
goods. Certainly, in the primary sector this is a most important factor for location

3. For certain industries the climate may be another factor for the location of industry. Farming is one such
case in point. This is more of a natural-orientated industry.

4. The labour, or available workforce, is another such factor.

Other factors may include the land value of the locations. Thus economic factor can also be quite important. It may
be the case that there may be subsidies provided in certain locations, to attract potential industry to the location. For
example, transport subsidies or even potential tax breaks offered to industry for location at a given location. Such
subsides can be a real financial incentive, that may well overshadow a few disadvantages of the actual location.

All these factors may well be considered by business for industrial location, overall dependant on the type of
industry.

Country factors Region factors Local factors

Attractiveness of region (culture,
Government rules, attitudes, political risk Site size and cost.
taxes, climate, etc.)
Air, rail, highway, and
Culture and economy Labor, availability /costs
waterway systems
Market location Labor availability, attitudes Costs and availability of utilities Zoning restrictions
Environmental regulations of state Nearness of services/ supplies
Productivity, and Cost
and town needed
Availability of supplies, technology, Environmental impact and
Government incentives
Communications, energy issues
Proximity to raw materials and
Exchange rates and Currency risks
customers
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR MAJOR ECONOMIC SECTORS:

Primary economic activities.

Their dominant location factor is related to environmental endowments, such as natural resources. For
instance, agriculture is subject to environmental constraints such as soil fertility, precipitation and
temperature while, mining takes place where economically recoverable mineral deposits are found.
Primary activities are thus characterized by the most basic location factors but have a strong reliance on
transportation since their locations rarely are close to centres of demand and they usually concern
 ponderous goods. The capacity to transport raw materials plays a significant role in the possible
development of ores, transportation of timber in forestry etc.
Secondary economic activities: - Their dominant location factor relate to labour, energy costs, land,
markets and proximity to suppliers.
Tertiary economic activities: - Involves activities that are most bound to market proximity, since the
capacity to distribute a product or service is their most important location requirement. As many of these
activities are retail oriented, consumer proximity is essential and is directly related to sale levels. The main
focus is to maximize sales revenue with location an important revenue factor.

PRIMARY ACTIVITIES:

A. AGRICULTURE : Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio-economic

conditions, which gives rise to different types of agricultural systems. Based on methods of farming, different types
of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following are the main agricultural systems.

1) Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of
the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categories Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive
Subsistence Agriculture.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture :

Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics,
especially in Africa, South and Central America and South East Asia
The vegetation is usually cleared by fire and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil.
Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture.
The cultivated patches are very small and cultivation is done with very primitive tools such as sticks and
hoes.
After sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertility and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears
other patch of the forest for cultivation.
The farmer may return to the earlier patch after sometime.
One of the major problems of shifting cultivation is that the cycle of Jhum becomes less and less due to loss
of fertility in different parcels.
It is prevalent in tropical region in different names, e.g. Jhuming in North eastern states of India, Milpa in
Central America and Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of
monsoon Asia. Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture.

(i) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation:

This type of agriculture is characterised by dominance of the rice crop.

Land holdings are very small due to the high density of population.
Farmers work with the help of family labour leading to intensive use of land.
Use of machinery is limited and most of the agricultural operations are done by manual labour.
Farm yard manure is used to maintain the fertility of the soil.
In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity is low

(ii) Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy:

Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil and some of the other geographical factors, it is not practical to
grow paddy in many parts of monsoon Asia.
Wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea and North
Japan.
 In India wheat is grown in western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets are grown in dry parts of
western and southern India.
Most of the characteristics of this type of agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet paddy except
that irrigation is often used.

The Europeans colonised many parts in the world and they introduced some other forms of agriculture such as
plantations which were mainly profit-oriented large scale production systems.

2) Plantation Agriculture:

Plantation agriculture as mentioned above was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the
tropics.
Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas
and pineapples.
The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large capital investment,
managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour,
and a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and markets for the export of the
products.

The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in West Africa. The British set up large tea gardens in India and
Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies. Spanish and
Americans invested heavily in coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines. The Dutch once had monopoly
over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by
Europeans. Today, ownership of the majority of plantations has passed into the hands of the government or the
nationals of the countries concerned.

3) Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation :

Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlatitudes.
Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown.
The size of the farm is very large, therefore entire operations of cultivation from ploughing to harvesting
are mechanised.
This type of agriculture is best developed in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and American Prairies, the
Pampas of Argentina, the Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plains of New
Zealand.

4) Mixed Farming :

This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western Europe,
Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
Mixed farms are moderate in size and usually the crops associated with it are wheat, barley, oats, rye,
maize, fodder and root crops.
Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming.
Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility.
Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and animal husbandry.
Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income along with crops.
Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive use
of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.

5. Dairy Farming :

Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital intensive.
 Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milching machines add to the cost of dairy
farming.
Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
It is highly labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching.
There is no off season during the year as in the case of crop raising.
It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood market for fresh milk
and dairy products. T
he development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation processes have
increased the duration of storage of various dairy products.
There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming. The largest is North Western Europe the second
is Canada and the third belt includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

6. Mediterranean Agriculture :

Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialized commercial agriculture. It is practised in the countries on

either side of the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern
California, central Chile, south western parts of South Africa and south and south western parts of Australia.

This region is an important supplier of citrus fruits.

Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region.

Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in various
countries of this region.

The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. T

This region also produces olives.

The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are
grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.

7. Market Gardening and Horticulture :

Market gardening and horticulture specialize in the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits
and flowers, solely for the urban markets.
Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre where high
income group of consumers is located.
It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions.
This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of North West Europe,
north eastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions.
The Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and horticultural crops especially tulips, which are flown to
all major cities of Europe.
The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, the farming is known as truck farming. The
distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence
the name truck farming.
In addition to market gardening, a modern development in the industrial regions of Western Europe and
North America is factory farming.
Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed on manufactured feedstuff
and carefully supervised against diseases.
This requires heavy capital investment in terms of building, machinery for various operations, veterinary
services and heating and lighting.
 One of the important features of poultry farming and cattle rearing is breed selection and scientific
breeding.
Types of farming can also be categorized according to the farming organisation. Farming organisation is
affected by the way in which farmers own their farms and various policies of the government which help to
run these farms.

8. Co-operative Farming :

A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient
and profitable farming.
Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most
favourable terms and help in processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western European
countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc.

9. Collective Farming :

The basic principal behind this types of farming is based on social ownership of the means of production
and collective labour.
Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon the
inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-
sufficiency.
The farmers pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. However, they are allowed to retain
very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.
Yearly targets are set by the government and the produce is also sold to the state at fixed prices.
Produce in excess of the fixed amount is distributed among the members or sold in the market.
The farmers have to pay taxes on the farm produces, hired machinery etc.
Members are paid according to the nature of the work allotted to them by the farm management.
Exceptional work is rewarded in cash or kind.
This type of farming was introduced in former Soviet Union under the socialist regime which was adopted
by the socialist countries. After its collapse, these have already been modified.

A Farmers decision on Agricultural Activity depend upon:

Physical Factors

(i) Climate- Temperature, rainfall and irrigation

(ii) Soil Fertility

(iii) Relief

(iv) Aspect

Human Factors

(i) Size of land

(ii) Demand for Agricultural Produce and price of the produce

(iii) Availability of inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides

 (iv) Tradition

(v) Government policies

Examples of few agricultural crops such as Wheat and Rice and dairy industry

WHEAT

Cultivation of wheat in any part of the world depends upon the following factors:

A moderate rainfall of about 35-45 cms.

A temperature of at least 10-15 degree C at the time of growing and 19 degree C and a bright sunshine at
the time of ripening and harvest.
A long growing season approx. of 100 days free of frost
A wide variety of soils ranging from heavy clay, alluvial soil etc.
Level and gently rolling topography provides adequate drainage and facilitates use of modern farm
technology

Regional Distribution:

Wheat is grown in a large number of countries of the world. It is grown upto 60 degree N and 40 degree S of
equator. However major concentration of wheat culture is in the latitudes of 30- 45 degree N and 30- 40 degree
S.The most important wheat producing countries are: USA, China, India, Canada, France, Argentina and Australia

(i) USA: Wheat is cultivated in almost all states of USA. The major wheat producing states are North Dakota,
South Dakota, Montana, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, northern parts of Texas,
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Columbia Plateau.

PRAIRIE REGION OF USA

Factor Impact

The prairies are temperate grasslands. Centuries of grass rotting has produced fertile soil
It has high phosphorus content which is good for wheat
Topography is suitable for wheat cultivation because wheat cannot tolerate stagnant
Soil
water
Flat terrain therefore machines can be employed at every production stage

In the early days of colonization, land was abundant in the Canadian prairies
European settlers seized opportunity; bought large farm holdings at throwaway prices
leading to the farms having area of several thousand acres.
Land Holding
Since farm is large thus mechanization possible and therefore there is less need of many
farm-workers.

Canada has less population density therefore hard to find cheap labour, but since farm
Labour holdings are large and on flat terrain therefore most of the work is mechanized.

Railroad connectivity via Canadian Pacific Railway

Transport Many branch lines are constructed to connect even the remotest farm regions with the
mainline thus it is easy to send the produce to market.
 Most of the wheat moves by rail through Rocky Mountains to Vancouver /Prince Rupert
for export

Grain elevator storage facilities along the railway lines: here wheat is cleaned, graded,
processed and stored.
Storage Storage complexes and milling operation at bulk of the location, where Railways
intersect major waterways

Canadian wheat board, a statutory body is sole purchaser and seller of food grains for
export.
The board coordinates movement of wheat to major terminals.
Government Farmers are given schedules to send their wheat to nearby railway station.
Policy
This system minimizes price fluctuations/distribution inefficiencies
And provides quality control for exported wheat.

(ii) Canada: Manitoba, Saskatchwan, Alberta, Ontario and Quebec are major wheat growing provinces.

(iii) India: Although wheat is grown over a large part of the country yet, the Sutlej Ganga Plain is the major
wheat producing area of the country. The important states are Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan, U.P.,
M.P., Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka.

(iv) China: The principal wheat producing regions of the country are Hwang Ho Basin, Yang-ste-kiang Basin
and Manchuria.

(v) Australia: Murray Darling Basin and Mediterranean type of climatic region of South West Australia are
important wheat growing regions

RICE :

Rice is a subtropical plant. A combination of geographical and economic factors is responsible for the cultivation of
rice:

The crop requires high temperature and high humidity with abundance of water. The plants require a
temperature from 10 to 21 degree C during sowing period and over 37 degree C at the time of harvest.
Rice grows under diverse soil conditions. However, loams with a high silt and clay content are the best

Regional Distribution:The most important rice producing countries are China, India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Japan,
Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines and Korea

China: China is the leading producer or rice in the world. Rice is produced in the deltas and valleys of Yangtze-
Kiang, Hwang-Ho and Sikiang rivers.Much of the rice is grown in South of Yangtz.

River: The reason for this is as follows:

CLIMATE = Mild temperature, good rainfall therefore can grow two crops on the same farm in a year
SOIL = Suitable for rice

LABOUR = Abundant availability due to large populationTransport = from Yangtze river and inland
waterways. Also good railway network

Water = High Rainfall and good irrigation facilities due to Yangtze river

Technology = tractors,mechanical rice planters, high yielding seed variety

China vs. India

1. China has more area under irrigation

2. China grows food crops grown on its best lands. India grows cash crops (Cotton, sugarcane, Jute) on its
best lands.

India:
Rice is a staple food for the overwhelming majority of population in India. Though, it is considered to be a
crop of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 varieties which are grown in different agro-climatic
regions.
These are successfully grown from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid areas in eastern
India to dry but irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. and northern Rajasthan.
In southern states and West Bengal the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two or three crops of
rice in an agricultural year.
In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called aus, aman and boro.
But in Himalayas and northwestern parts of the country, it is grown as a kharif crop during southwest
Monsoon season.
India contributes 22 per cent of rice production in the world and ranks second after China.
About one-fourth of the total cropped area in the country is under rice cultivation.
West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu were five leading rice producing
states in the country.
The yield level of rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Kerala.
In the first four of these states almost the entire land under rice cultivation is irrigated. Punjab and Haryana
are not traditional rice growing areas.
Rice cultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana was introduced in 1970s following the Green
Revolution.
Genetically improved varieties of seed, relatively high usage of fertilizers and pesticides and lower levels
of susceptibility of the crop to pests due to dry climatic conditions are responsible for higher yield of rice in
this region.
The yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa.

Myanmar and Thailand: In Myanmar rice is intensively frown in the Irrawaddy valley and the delta. In Thailand
rice is the principal crop of the Menam valley and the delta.
DAIRY INDUSTRY: -
Dairy farming has been most developed in the temperate latitudes of the world. It is because the moderate
cool humid climate is highly suitable for domestication of dairy cows.
The temperature should range between 0 degree C to 20 degree C. The temperate climate permits open
growing facilities to the cows. They do not require covered accommodation.
Milk products and milk can be preserved for a longer period in cool and humid climate conditions.
This type of climate is ideal for the growth of rich, nutritious, luxuriant grasses.
In the temperate zones of the world on account of excellent soil conditions and well developed agricultural
system forage crop are grown for the use of the livestock.
 The temperate latitudes are highly industrialized, modernized, commercialized and urbanized regions
having dense population maintaining a high standard of living, thus providing wide markets to dairy
products.

Dairy Farming in New Zealand

Auckland and Taranaki areas famous.

Factor Impact

Cold moist and humid climate, low rolling plain topography leads to luxuriant,
perennial growth of nutritious grass.
Climate Possible to graze the animals throughout the year which leads to low cost of "fodder"

Dairy farming is carried on for generations therefore skilled labour is available.

Labour

Scientific breeding of animals, vaccination, disease control

Tech. Infrastructure for refrigeration, transport of milk products

Government exercises strict quality control over export of milk and meat products
because of this
Government New Zealands dairy-products commend respect and good prices in international
Policy market.

Geographically, New Zealand is located far away from the market of milk products.
Liquid milk is converted into such as butter, cheese and powdered milk meaning
Transport
1. Longer shelf life, can withstand long sea journey.
2. Higher value per unit product (compare to liquid milk) can withstand transport cost.

EUROPE :

Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, France, Sweden also famous for dairy products. By and large the factors are

1. Ample grassland for grazing

2. Cool humid climate condition permit luxuriant growth of grasses and facilitate grazing on the pastures
3. Traditional skill
4. High density of superior breeds of cows and Scientific breeding
5. Dense population
6. Efficient transportation system.
7. Again same concentration principle: milk turned into cheese, butter, chocolate etc. for sending to other
countries.

Dairy: USA

The dairy farming in North America spreads from Lawrence Valley, upstate New York, Ontario, Michigan,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Pennsylvania and Ohio. Covers an area of 2000 miles

Factors for its development :

The climatic conditions are same everywhere to aid production of forage crops and rearing of livestock.
 The precipitation varies from about 20 inches in the west to 50 inches in the east. This amount helps growth
of grasses in the pastures and forage crops.
Cool summer with 63 to 70 degree F temperature results in more milk and facilitates its handling for a
longer period
Many woodland pastures criss crossed by numerous streams and presence of lakes with fresh water favors
dairying because contended cows after having grasses and water in pleasant woodland surroundings yield
higher quantity of milk.
The topography of the dairy belt has spatial differences. Eastern Appalachian parts are mountainous, rolling
hills, ridges, fairly level plateaus into which streams have cut long and narrow valleys.
A large part of the belt is not suitable for agriculture on account of rough terrain and infertile soil.
Presence of a very wide markets in and around dairy belt and Great Lakes region
Efficient means of transportation.
Refrigeration, pasteurization and an efficient system of collecting and distribution stations have further
boosted dairy farming activity in the dairy belt of the USA.

B. MINING The discovery of minerals in the history of human development is reflected in many stages in
terms of copper age, bronze age and iron age. The use of minerals in ancient times was largely confined to the
making of tools, utensils and weapons.The actual development of mining began with the industrial revolution and its
importance is continuously increasing.

Factors Affecting Mining Activity

The profitability of mining operations thus, depends on two main factors:

Physical factors include the size, grade and the mode of occurrence of the deposits.
Economic factors such as the demand for the mineral, technology available and used, capital to develop
infrastructure and the labour and transport costs.

Methods of Mining

Depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore, mining is of two types: surface and underground
mining. The surface mining also known as open-cast mining is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals
that occur close to the surface. Overhead costs such as safety precautions and equipment is relatively low in this
method. The output is both large and rapid. When the ore lies deep below the surface, underground mining method
(shaft method) has to be used. In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk, from where underground galleries
radiate to reach the minerals. Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages. It
requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system for safety and efficient movement of
people and material. This method is risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and caving in lead to fatal accidents. The
developed economies are retreating from mining, processing and refining stages of production due to high labour
costs, while the developing countries with large labour force and striving for higher standard of living are becoming
more important. Several countries of Africa and few of South America and Asia have over fifty per cent of the
earnings from minerals alone.

C. FISHERY RESOURCES AND FISHING INDUSTRY

Seafood plays a vital role in world food security. Roughly 3 billion people get about 20% of their animal protein
from fishery products. It is also used for preparing poultry feed and fertilizers.

1. Factors favouring Fishing can be categorized into Physical and Economic

PHYSICAL FACTORS
Banks: - These are those portions of shallow seas which have a low slope. They are situated 150-300 km
away from the coast. Ex. Dogger Bank in North Sea, Grand and George banks in N. America.
Calm waters:-The fish lay her eggs in calm waters.
 Dissected coast: - If the coast is dissected, the sea near coast is converted into a large number of short and
small channels provide calm waters. For ex. Yokohama (Japan), Bergen and Trondheim (Norway),
Vancouver (Canada) are foremost fishing centres of the world.
The depth of water: - It has been found that fishing is possible upto 200 metre depth due to adequate
sunlight penetration. Ports of this depth are found in temperate countries.
The absence of sediment: - The less the sediment, the greater is the activity of fishing.
The Mouth of rivers: - Rivers bring with them phosphate, nitrate and some other salts which prove to be
nourishing to fish.
Plankton: - Planktons are the main food of the fish. When the warm and cold ocean currents meet each
other, the number of planktons increases increasing fish density Ocean currents: - Ocean currents wash the
coast and bring with them planktons in large numbers. Such coasts are the main fishing grounds. Warm
Kuroshio Current meeting with Cold Current Oyashio makes Japan a major fishing nation. Similarly
Labrador (cold) and Gulf Stream (Hot) makes Western Europe a huge fishing ground.
Salinity: - The high salinity is harmful as they dissolve the fish eggs.
Climate: -The optimum temperature should be 12-22*C but the fish is found in almost all climates.

ECONOMIC FACTORS includes consumption Markets, high Capital investment, refrigeration for storage and
convenient transportation facilities at harbor.

2. Fish Production in the World

Japan is the leading producer of fish in the world. CIS ranks second. Other countries noted for the fishing are China,
Chile, Peru, USA, S.Korea, India, and Norway

A. North West Pacific Ocean Fishing Area: -

This zone extends from Bering Sea in the north to Philippine Sea in the south.
The warm current of Kuroshio and the cold current of Oyashio meet in the continental shelf of this region
near the coast of Honshu.
It provides the favourable condition for the growth of plankton, which is the food for fish. The main fishing
countries are Japan, China, Russia, Korea, Philippines, and Vietnam

B. North East Pacific Ocean: -

On the Western coast of North America, the fishing area extends from Alaska to California. Here the
fishing countries are USA and Canada.
This area has the following sub fishing areas: Bering Sea Coast, Aleutian Island, Western Coast of North
America.

C. North West Atlantic Ocean: -

From New Foundland to Long Island to Eastern Coast of Central America
The most famous bank of this region is the Nova Scotia, New Foundland, Grand Bank and George Bank.
The warm waters of the Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador Current meet in this region. Therefore
planktons are abundant.
Fish caught in this region are cod, perch, herring and haddock. Lobsters and oysters are also caught.
Chesapeake Bay is famous for oyster catches.
Halifax, St. John, Boston and New York are important ports of this region.

D. North East Atlantic Ocean: -

This area extends from the Arctic Circle in the north to the borders of the Mediterranean Sea on the
Western Coast of Europe. Dogger Bank and great fisher bank is the most important fish bank of this
region.
The warm water of the North Atlantic Drift keeps the coast open throughout the year.
Major fishing countries in this region are Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherland, France, Iceland and the
UK.
3. Fishing in India
50% of fishermen live in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. Cochin, Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata are
major fish market centers.
Fishing is not well organized and developed in India. The reasons for Poor development of fishing in India
are following

1. Absence of Regular Coastline. There are very few natural sites for fishing
2. High Capital Investment required for high productivity and efficiency. Fishermen are poor employing old
and traditional methods of fishing.
3. No refrigeration/Storage facilities: Fish is a perishable commodity and gets spoiled faster in tropical
climates.

Distribution of Fuel Resource in the World

Oct 08, 2014
1. PETROLEUM:

Hydrocarbons- oil and gas- are at present the most important energy fuels. Together they accounts for more than
60% of world wide total primary energy supply. Oil is of extreme importance for transportation, heat production and
the chemical industry.

Petroleum products :

More than 3,000 petro chemical products are used in various applications like Detergents, cosmetics, Fertilizers,
weed Killers, Medicine, Antiseptics Fibres, Synthetic Rubber, Rust Preventatives, Liquid Petroleum Gas Five broad
categories of products are obtained by distillation of crude oil. Principal energy related uses of the products of
petroleum refining:

Product Main Use

Gases Industrial and residential fuel
Gasoline Fuel in spark-ignition engines
Diesel fuel Fuel in compression-ignition engines
Jet fuel (Kerosene) Fuel for jet engines and Gas Turbines
Fuel oils Industrial or residential fue
Development of modem means of transport and industries has generated large demand for oil. After the
Second World War its production witnessed tremendous increase.
In terms of global consumption, crude oil is the most important primary fuel, accounting for 36.5% of
world primary energy consumption (not including biomass)
The regional distribution of conventional crude oil reserves is very uneven. Inside a so called strategic
ellipse is located about 71% of global reserves.

Middle East 62%

North and South America 13%
CIS countries 10%
OPEC has about 73% of global reserves (of which 61% is in the Persian Gulf region), OECD about 8%
leaving about 17% for the rest of the world.
Among worlds estimated endowment of recoverable oil about 24 percent has been produced and an
additional 29 percent has been discovered and booked as reserves.
 The natural gas endowment is estimated at 15.4 quadrillion cubic feet (2.5 trillion barrels of oil equivalent),
of which only about 11 percent has been produced and an additional 31 percent has been discovered and
booked as reserves. The estimates are therefore conservative.
The total known reserves of petroleum are estimated at about 1 trillion tones.
Of this five countries of Southwest Asia have more than 60% of world total reserves.
Russia has 11% of the reserves. The United States has only 5% of worlds reserves. Other
Major countries having considerable reserves are Mexico, Venezuela, Libya, Nigeria and China.

Geological features that favoring formation of oil reserves

Petroleum-rich countries generally have prolific petroleum basins within their borders. Large continental or
continental shelf areas, which are statistically more likely to contain sedimentary basins with the key
ingredients for petroleum. For example, the five largest countries in the world (by area) contain the
following share of total proven world oil reserves (as of 2004): Russian Federation 6.1%, Canada 1.4%,
China 1.4%, United States 2.5% and Brazil 0.9%.
Specific geological features of the Middle East that makes it so richly endowed with petroleum are rocks
ranging in age from Paleozoic to tertiary, with very thick reservoirs and seals above them, in enormous,
low-relief anticlines. In addition, most of its reserves were easily discovered because of the simplicity and
sheer size of the traps.

Regional Distribution of oil:

Middle East

The Middle East comprising Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Kuwait is perhaps the richest oil-area on earth
i.e. 6500 million metric tonnes. The development of its oil has been based on foreign capital i.e. British and
American.
Oil in west Asia was first drilled in 1909 at Masjid-e-Sulaiman. Ghawar, Abqaiq and Dhahran of Saudi
Arabia, Musjid-i-Suleman, Azadegan, Halt-Kirkuk in northern Iraq.
Extensive oil reserves in this region have created rivalry amongst the super powers.

North Africa

It is regarded as part of Middle-east comprising the Libya, Algeria, and Egypt are important oil producing
countries of Africa. In rest of the Africa, Sudan, Nigeria, Angola etc. have some oil reserves.

Caucasian Region
The Caucasian region of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan has been traditional oil producing region. Oil was first
drilled from Mykope in northern Caucasus in 1863. In 1871, oil was found at Baku. Later, another oilfield was
discovered at Grozny. Volga basin lying west of Ural became a leading oil producing area in Russia. Huge reserves
of oil have also been found in the north of Caspian Sea and Sakhalin lslands. Russia has also explored oil in Ob
Basin of Western Siberia and wells at Tainen have started yielding oil.

Europe

In Europe, oil was first found in Romania but now its production is very little. Large reserves of oil have been
found in the North Sea, which are shared by United Kingdom, Norway, Federal Republic of Germany and the
Netherlands.

Asia excluding West Asia and Caucasian

The main oilfields of Indonesia lie in central Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan.
In Republic of Myanmar (Burma) oil is being drilled in Irrawaddy and Chindwin valleys.
Offshore reserves are found in Vietnam and Philippines although China is staking its claim on those
reserves.
Japanese oil fields are located in Hokkaido and Honshu Islands while most of the Chinese oilfields are
found in Chang Jiang valley and Shanxi province.

America

In North America mineral oil was first drilled in Pennsylvania but later the activity extended towards
Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas States. California, Louisiana and Wyoming are also important oil producing
states.
Canadas reserves are considered substantial but yet to be explored.
Mexico was a major oil producing country in the earlier part of the century but its importance declined
later.
Venezuela is the leading producer of oil in South America.
Peru, Colombia, Argentina and Chile are minor producers.

In India

Oil was first found at Makum in north-east Assam but the drilling of oil was started at Digboi in 1867 in
Lakhimpur district. Dibrugarh, Digboi, Makum, Naharkatiya and Surma valley are the important oil
producing areas in the northeast.
The other important oilfield lies in Gujarat around Bay of Cambay.
Important wells in Gujarat are located in Kalol, Ankleshwar, Mehsana, Kosamba and Dholka
The largest oil field is Bombay High on the continental shelf off Maharashtra, 167 km north-west of
Bombay.
Recently, oil and gas reserves have also been found at Barmer region of Thar Desert and onshore Krishna-
Godavari basin.

2. COAL :

Solid, black mineral made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen in varying proportion
In terms of fixed carbon, coals are classified as

i. Anthracite: carbon content more than 95 %. A gas coal which is used for the manufacture of city gas with
coke as by product.
ii. Bituminuous: carbon content 43 to 85 % and this type is mined most, almost 80% of worlds output.
 iii. Lignite: carbon content is 38%.
iv. Peat: carbon content less than 38 %.

The countries with the largest recorded coal reserves are the USA, Russia and China with nearly 60% of global
reserves between them, while Australia and India are also the top ranks.

USA: USA is one of the largest coal producers in the world. The main coal fields are:

Eastern Province: Pennsylvania, The Appalachian,

Interior province:
i. Eastern Interior fields of Illinois, Indiana and Kentuky
ii. Western Interior field of Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma
iii. Northern Interior field of Michigan
iv. Southwestern field of Texas
Gulf Province: Mostly lignite in Texas, Alabama and Arkansas
Rocky Mountain Province: Mostly lignite and low grade bituminous in Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, New
Mexico
Pacific province of Washington, Oregon, California and Alaska

CANADA: Canadian coal is spread over in different parts of the country. The deposits lie in

The Prairie Provinces

British Columbia Fields, and
Nova Scotia Fields.

CIS: The major coal fields are as under:

 Donetz Coal Basin to the north of Black Sea and Sea of Azov.
Moscow Tula Region with a low grade coal mainly lignite coal.
Kuznetsk Basin east of Urals.
Karaganda Fields in Kazakhstan. They lie midway between Kuzbas and Ural fields.
Pechora and Taimyr coal fields situated west of Urals, Tungus and Lena basins in Siberia.

CHINA: - China is believed to have largest anthracite reserves of the world. Coal occurs almost in all Chinese
provinces.

The largest coal deposits of China lie in the Northern Shansi and Shensi.
Inner Mongolia is another significant coal mining area.
The coal mines are deep. Coal seams are folded and faulted. Thus mining is difficult and expensive.
The coal area is situated away from the industrial centers.
The major coal mining centres are Fenho Valley, Ningwu and Tatung.

U.K.: Largely exhausted.

Coal is mined in North Eastern Coastal.

The most famous mining centre is New Castle with good cooking coal.
Other areas include-The Lancashire Coal Area for : Bituminous coal deposits ; The Midland Plain Coal
Area: The bituminous coal of this region is used in the industrial centers of Birmingham, Coventry ; South
Wales Coal Area: -The coal deposits of the Forest of Dean and Bristol are included in this area; and
Scotland Coal Area.

GERMANY:

Ruhr Westphalia is the leading coalfield of Germany in respect of production.

The coal of Ruhr is good for coking and steam purposes. The region is served by the river Rhine, Ruhr and
Lippi.
The important urban centers using Ruhr coal are Essen, Solingen, Wuppertal, Cologne and Dusseldorf.
Saar coal fields: - which are situated near German France border.

AUSTRALIA: - Australian coal reserves are largest in Southern Hemisphere. Nearly 60% of Australian coal is
obtained from New South Wales and 35% from Queensland.

SOUTH AFRICA: - South Africa mines about 80% of coal produced in Africa. The main coal areas are :

Transvaal and Cape of Good Hope provinces. Good quality bituminous coal is mined at Natal.

SOUTH AMERICA: - South America is poor in coal resources. There are four main areas of coal mining: Brazil
(Rio de janerio and Sao Paulo), Chile and Peru.

INDIA: Coal is mined in a number of states of India but West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar are termed as coal states
of India.
 The coal occurs in Raniganj, Western Jharia, Bokaro, Ramgarh, Northern Karanpura (Damodar Valley) and
in the Kanhan Valley of Madhya Pradesh.

Coal is also mined in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

The tertiary coal fields of Makum (Assam); Namchick, Nampherk (Arunachal Pradesh), Garo, Khasi,
Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya) are of lignite deposits

3. NATURAL GAS

Natural gas accounts for about 24% of primary energy consumption, after crude oil and hard coal. Its share
has increased in the last several years.
The global reserves of conventional natural gas are estimated at about 176 Tm3 (trillion m3) at the end of
2004. Generally mineral oil and natural gas occur together.
The regional distribution, like for crude oil, is very uneven. Inside a so called Strategic Ellipse is located
about 69% of global natural gas reserves.
 About 41% of global reserves are in the Middle East, about 32% in the CIS countries and about 8% in
Africa. OPEC has about 50% of global reserves (of which 40% is located in the Persian Gulf region),
OECD about 9%.
The three countries with major gas reserves-Russia, Iran and Qatar-dispose of more than a half of global
gas reserves.
Global production of natural gas rose to an absolute high of about 2.8 trillion m3 in 2004. The regions with
the highest production are the CIS countries and North America, each with about a third of global
production, followed by Europe with an eighth.
Most important consumers are USA, Russia, Germany, Great Britain, Canada, Iran, and Italy.
The regional geographical mismatch between resource location and demand is somewhat smaller than that
for oil.

4. URANIUM

Uranium and thorium are radio-active minerals which have great capacity to generate energy through
nuclear fission. Very few minerals yield energy through fission. Technology is complex and costly. It
requires careful handling of experimentations otherwise it may lead to catastrophe and environmental
deterioration. The accidental leakage at Chernobyl(Ukraine), Three mile island (USA) and Fukushima
(Japan) are such example.
There are two primary sources of uranium:
a) pitch blende which has 50 to 80 per cent uranium content and
b) uraninite, in which uranium content is 65 to 80 per cent.

Distribution and Production of Uranium

Uranium is found all over the world but only a few countries have it in enough quantities to make it
worthwhile mining it. It bares no relation to the location of fossil fuels and is quite widespread.
By 2008, uranium had been produced commercially in 18 countries. The eight leading countries are
Canada, Kazakhstan, Australia, Namibia, the Russian Federation, Niger, Uzbekistan, and the United
States.
 Fig: Uranium Reserve
Together these eight countries provided almost 93% of the worlds uranium.
The uranium deposits in India are found in Gaya and Singhbhum districts of Bihar. Udaipur and Jaipur
districts of Rajasthan, Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Palghat district of Kerala.

Several countries do not provide data regarding the production of uranium due to its strategic importance.

4. THORIUM

Thorium is three times as abundant in the earths crust as uranium. It is widely distributed in nature and is
and easily exploitable resource in many countries. Although existing estimates of thorium reserves plus
additional resources total about 6 mt.
The major sources of thorium are thorianite, allanite, and monazite.
Monazite is a grayish mineral with yellowish luster and is a constituent of granite and pegmatite.
Sri Lanka and Malagasy are the main producers of thorium. Ratnapur district in Sri Lanka is important for
thorianite reserves.
Monazite reserves are found in coastal part of India, Brazil, Australia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.
Its reserves are also available in few states of United States of America.
 Allanite reserves are found in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh.

WOOL INDUSTRY
Oct 07, 2014
Wool holds a significant position among the textile materials. Wool sheep rearing in any part of the world is
attributed to the following geographical factors: -

(i) Cool dry climate: - Regions of cool dry climate are ideal
grounds for raising wool sheep. In such regions agriculture is
restricted due to aridity. In regions where climate is hot, sheep do
not produce good fleece, whereas, on the other hand, in regions
of heavy rainfall, quality of wool gets spoiled, as such in these
wet areas sheep are mainly for mutton rather than wool. Thus
coo l dry climate is highly suitable for wool sheep.

(ii) Rugged topography: - The rugged mountainous terrain

having short and poor pastures is suitable for the use of the
 sheep. Grass on mountain slopes can be easily grazed by the
sheep.

Sheep the major source of raw material, are largely reared in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Continental European
countries, South Africa, India, China, Etc. But nearly 80% of world wool supply comes from three southern
countries i.e. Australia, South Africa and Argentina. It is due to the following reasons: -

(i) Cool and dry climate facilitates sheep rearing.

(ii) Thinly populated grasslands provide grazing facilities.

(iii) Western Europe and other industrial countries of middle

latitudes of the northern hemisphere are the main wool
demanding countries because of cold winters.

(iv) Richness of power resources, skilled labour, capital and

dense population.

Australia leads in wool production. But Australia doesnt lead in finished woolen textiles (e.g. sweaters, mufflers,
coats, socks etc.) because:

1. Australias own local market is small.

2. Woolen textile business requires skilled workers. In Australia,

low-population therefore wages rates higher.

Therefore, Australia leads in wool production but not in textile.

WOOLLEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN USA:

The main areas of manufacturing are:

The New England area: It is a cold area. It is suitable for rearing of sheep. The main centers are Boston, Lawrence
and Providence

Mid Atlantic States: Philadelphia

WOOLLEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN UK

Three main textile areas are (i) Eastern Pennines (ii) Tweed Valley (Scotland) (iii) Lancashire (iv) South West
England

WOOLLEN MANUFACTURING: RISE AND DECLINE IN BRITAIN

During Industrial revolution phase, Yorkshire of Britain was major woolen Manufacturing region because

1. local supply of wool

2. Water from nearby streams for washing and dyeing processes.

3. Coal available to run machines.

But later, large-scale sheep rearing started in the southern continents: Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa and Argentina.
 Pricewise, the British could not stand up in wool production therefore sheep rearing activity declined.
Today sheep are raised mainly for meat industry.
Woolen cloths also face competition from cheaper synthetic fibers.
Thus, Yorkshire Woolen textile industry still continues to operate using imported wool from Southern
hemisphere, to meet the European demand but the former glory is gone. (just like of Manchester in Cotton-
textile biz)

Woolen Industry in India:

The major concentration of this industry is in Punjab, Maharashtra and U.P.

Factor Why?

Wool as raw material is non-perishable, lightweight.

For Apparels : Indian wool has coarse fibers therefore irritates body. If you want to make
decent apparels, youve import to Australian wool anyways. (exception Kashmiri Shawls)
Nature of raw For non-apparels: Even to produce decent Carpets, blankets, youve to mix it with New
material Zealands wool.
Hence location of woolen textile not tied to raw material site.

Winter in North India is brutally cold therefore there is good demand.

Market More than 75% of industries concentrated in Northern States because of market factor.

India: woolen textile regions

Srinagar: Kashmiri Shawl using Kashmiri goats.

Punjab: raw material from Ludhiana, Dhariwal, Amritsar
Near Raw Jamnagar: raw material Kathiawar (and parts of Rajsthan)
Material
Rajasthan: Bikaner, Barmer

Kanpur: In 1870s, Kanpur became major center of woolen textile to meet the
requirements of British India Army.
Near Market
Mumbai, Chennai= they mostly utilize imported wool for making apparels.

WOOL PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION

The total wool production in India is not enough to meet the total requirement of raw wool for woolen industry. The
bulk of Indian wool is of coarse quality and is used mostly in the hand-made carpet industry. Since indigenous
production of fine quality wool required by the organized mills and decentralized hosiery sector is very limited,
India depends almost exclusively on import.

Top 6 carpet grade wool producing States :

States Wool Production(Qty. in million kg.)

SN
1 Rajasthan 12.28
2 Gujarat 2.92
3 Uttar Pradesh 1.54
4 Harayana 1.29
5 Punjab 0.51
6 Madhya Pradesh 0.31
Source : Animal Husbandry Deptt., Ministry of Agri.
Top 6 wool producing States :

States Wool Production(Qty. in million kg.)

SN
1 Rajasthan 12.28
2 Jammu & Kashmir 7.38
3 Karnataka 7.18
4 Andhra Pradesh 4.83
5 Gujarat 2.92
6 Himachal Pradesh 1.64

Distribution of Mineral Resource in the World

Oct 04, 2014
1. IRON ORE DISTRIBUTION

Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted.The ores are
usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. Ores
carrying very high quantities of hematite or magnetite (greater than ~60% iron) are known as "natural ore"
or "direct shipping ore", meaning they can be fed directly into iron-making blast furnaces.
Most reserves of such ore have now been depleted.
Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of the main raw materials to make steel.
98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel. Indeed, it has been argued that iron ore is "more integral to
the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil".
Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe, and the most common refractory element. It is
estimated that the earth has iron to the tune of 5% of its weight.
Iron ore is the foundation of manufacturing of iron and steel and different items used in automobiles,
agricultural machines, tele-communication equipments, armaments, bridges, dams, tunnels, etc.

There are four main types of ores in the world. The quality of iron ore is determined by the iron content

I. Magnetie Iron content upto 72%, It is black mineral formed in igneous or metamorphic rocks. It has
excellent magnetic qualities.

II. Haematite : Iron content upto 68% . They are red ore derived from sedimentary rocks and occur in
crystalline or in powdery form.

III. Limonite : Iron content upto 60% . This is brown ore occurring in thick beds in sedimentary rock
 sequence or in swamps or lakes.

IV. Siderite : Siderite with 40-50% of iron content is of most inferior quality.

Regional Distribution

U.S.A. Major iron ore producing region of U.S.A can be discussed under 3 heads:-

a) Lake Superior Region: In this region Mesabi is by far the most outstanding. It lies in the Minnesota State 100
km from the shore of Lake Superior. There are number of geographical and economic factors favourable for large
scale mining of iron ore in the region:

Ore is close to the surface. It is easy and cheap to exploit by using open pit mining methods. The methods
of mining are advanced and modern.
It is haemitite ore having over 60% ore content.
The Great Lakes provide cheap mode of transport.

b) Alabama Region: Ore is mined in the Red mountains and Birmingham Valley in this region. These fields lie to
the Southern end of the Appalachian Mountains. Haematite and magnetite ore mined here.

c) Others: Northern New Jersey, the states of Utah, Nevada, Montana, California

CANADA: There are 3 main areas of iron ore in Canada which are located in Lake Superior region i.e.
Ontario, Quebec and New foundland /Belie Islas. The main centres being Schefferville and wabush city.
 EUROPE: Sweden, France, Germany, UK, Spain are Iron ore producing countries in Europe

SWEDEN: It is the leading ore producer of Europe. The deposits are of high grade. Iron ore is mined in
Central Sweden at Dannemora and Grangeborg. In south at Kopparberg.
FRANCE: Lorraine fields are important.In France Iron ore mining is also being done in Normandy, the
Pyrenees Mountains and scattered fields of the Central masif.
GERMANY: Ore of Germany is poor in iron content. Iron ore is mined at Volgelburg, Sudetanland, West
Phalia, Saxony and Salzgilter region South east of Hanover.
SPAIN: Spain has large deposits of Iron ore in the North West part of the country near Bilbao on the Bay
of Biscay. Santander and Oviedo are other region from where haematite is mined. Iron ore content is 50%
The Cantabrian region produces most of output of Spain.
UK: Iron ore mining in the UK is carried on in Cleveland, Midland and Scottish fields.
Australia: Important iron ore fields in Western Aus tralia are located at MT. Goldsworthy, Mt.
Whaleback, Mt. Bruce, Mt. Tom Price.
Japan: Japan has small quantity of iron ore in the islands of Honshu and Hokkaido.
Brazil: Districts of Minas Gerais and Itabira
AFRICA: Africa accounts for nearly 10% of the world output of iron ore. Northern countries like Algeria,
Tunisia, Liberia and Mauritania are important iron ore producing region. The West African countries like
Sierra Leone and Guinea have also Iron ore.

ASIA

China: China has large iron ore deposits, of which the Manchurian deposits at Anshan are the most important. Other
ore regions are the Lower Yangtze at Anshan and Tayeh, the Chungking area, and around Taiyuan

The reserves of low-grade ore accounting for 80% of the total reserves.
 The iron ore in Northeast China are mainly in Anshan orefield, it is the largest ore field in reserve and yield
in present China. Large scale ore bodies are scattered in Anshan in Liaoning Province. The characteristics
of iron ore in Anshan orefiled: except for a small quantity of rich ore, nearly 98% of the reserves are low-
grade ores with iron content 20% to 40%, the average iron content about 30%.
The iron ore producing areas in East China are such mines as Aoshan, Nanshan, Gushan, Taochong,
Meishan and Fenghuangshan along Wuhu in Anhui to Nanjing in Jiangsu. Besides, there are also rich iron
ore resource reserves in Jinling Town and other places in Shandong, which become the raw material bases
for Maanshan Iron and Steel Company and other steel enterprises.

INDIA: Iron ore is located in a number of states of India like Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Orissa: Here Iron ore deposits are located at Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Cuttack, Koraput, Sundergarh district
Bihar and Jharkhand: Noamundi and Gua are important areas of ore deposits
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh= Haemitite deposits are found in the Durg and Bastar district.
Maharashtra: Iron ore deposits are in the Chandrapur and Ratnagiri district s.
Goa: Here Iron ore deposits are found in Sahqualim, Satari, Ponda and Bicholim districts
Andhra Pradesh: Warrangal Kurnool district.
Tamil Nadu: Tiruchirapalli and Salem district
Rajasthan: Sikar, Udaipur, Jaipur district

2. COPPER

It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly
exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and
a constituent of various metal alloys.

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years and first metal discovered by man, but more than 96% of all
copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900, and more than half was extracted in only
the last 24 years .
 It does not occur free in nature. It is found mixed with Gold, Silver, Lead and Zinc.

Copper has many characteristics.

It does not suffer much of corrosion. It is ductile and freely mixes with other metals. It is a good conductor
of electricity and heat.
Electric manufacturing industries are the major consumers of copper. Copper is also consumed in
automobiles, light and power lines, telephones and telegraph radio, ammunition etc. Alloys: Numerous
copper alloys exist,

many with important uses.

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

Bronze usually refers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze.
Copper is one of the most important constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the
jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.
The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low -denomination coins, often for the outer
cladding.
The US 5-cent coin called nickel consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel and has a homogeneous
composition.
The 90% copper/10% nickel alloy is remarkable by its resistance to corrosion and is used in various parts
being exposed to seawater.
Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a pleasant golden color and are used in decorations.
Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals.

Regional Distribution

90% of copper reserves are concentrated in the five regions of the world:

1. South Central Africa

2. Chile.
3. Western USA,
4. Kazakhstan and
5. Canada Sudbury district
CHILE: Copper mining is done in Northern Chile. The main area is Chuquicamata. Other important centres are El
Tenienti, Potrerillos and Brader. The ore is of excellent quality.

USA: Copper is mainly produced in Western States of USA. Important states of copper mining are Utah,Nevada
Arizona,Miami,Globe,Montana, New Mexico.

CANADA: Copper is mined in the Sudbury (Ontario), Flin Flon (Manitoba), Noranda (Quebec), Princeton (British
Colombia)

ZAIRE AND ZAMBIA: The richest area for copper ore mining is Katanga in Africa.

KAZAKHSTAN: The exploitation of copper is done near Lake Balkash. The main centers are Kounrad,
Nikolayvesk and Dzizhkazgan.

RUSSIA: There are two important copper areas Ural and Kala Peninsula and Norilsk.

MEXICO: The main centers are Santa Rosalia, Around Chihuahua and Northern part of Mexico.

EUROPE: In Europe copper is exploited in Spain, Germany(Mansfield), Norway, and Sweden ( Falun mine)

INDIA: The main states known for Copper production a re Bihar, Jharkhand, MP, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan.

Jharkhand State : Hazaribagh and Singhbhum

Andhra Pradesh : Agnigundal
M.P.: Malanikhand in Balaghat district
 Rajasthan: Dariba and Khetri

3. GOLD

It is a dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal with a bright yellow color and luster. It is one of the least
reactive chemical elements, solid under standard conditions.
The metal therefore occurs often in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grai ns in rocks, in veins
and in alluvial deposits. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, usually with tellurium.

Distribution

SOUTH AFRICA: South Africa is the largest producer of Gold. The Witwatersrand is the leading gold producing
centre of the world. The main gold producing areas in South Africa are :

Rand Fields:-These fields are located in Southern Transvaal; The Western mines of Kimberlay, Bird Reefs and the
Livingston Reefs; The others are Cape of Good Hope, Natal and Orange Free State.

CANADA: Canada is the second largest producer. Canadian Shield is the most important gold

mining area. Red lake in western Ontario, Quebec, British Columbia and North Western Territory are major gold
producing areas.

RUSSIA: Urals, Trans Bailkal and Lena Basin are important gold producing areas.

USA: California, Arizona, Dakota, Colorado, Idaho, Montana and Alaska are important gold producing areas in
USA.

AUSTRALIA: In Western Australia: Coolgardie, Kalgoorlie and Yampi; In Queensland: Mount Morgan, Charles
Towers and in Victoria Bendigo, Poseidon and Ballarat
INDIA: India is a minor producer of gold. Gold mines of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states have a near
monopoly of gold production. In Karnataka Kolar gold fields and Hutti mines and in Andhra Pradesh Ramgiri in
Anantpuram district and Chigargunta mines in Chitoor district are important areas.

4. SILVER:

A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it possesses the highest electrical conductivity of any element and
the highest thermal conductivity of any metal.
The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and
in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite.
Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining. Silver metal is used
industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in mirrors and in catalysis of chemical reactions.
Silver has wider use than gold. Its compounds are used in photographic film and dilute silver nitrate
solutions and other silver compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides (oligodynamic effect).
While many medical antimicrobial uses of silver have been supplanted by antibiotics, further research into
clinical potential continues.

Regional Distribution

Mexico, USA, Canada and Peru are leading producers.

Mexico: Major production comes from mines in Pachuca in the state of Hidalgo and the state of Chihuahua.

USA: Idaho,Arizona, Utah and Montana

CIS: Kazakhshtan and western Siberia

Myanmar: The Badwin and Namtu area of Myanmar make it the largest producer in Asia

Europe: Germany, Russia and Spain

Japan and India also produces silver.

In India its production comes from Zawar mines in Rajasthan.

5. PLATINUM: Canada is the largest producer (60%) with mining centre s in Ontario and British Columbia.
Russia has the largest reserves of platinum in the world but comes second in production (20%). Other major
producers are South Africa, USA and Australia.

6. MANGANESE: It is used in the production of steel.

The important producers of manganese are Russia, India, South Africa, Ghana, Brazil and USA.
The Nikopol and tokmak in Ukraine and Chaitura district in Georgia supply about 90% of the regions
total production of manganese ore. Other mining region in CIS are Urals, Usa in Kuzbas and Jashno-
Chingan near Amur River
 India is the second largest producer of manganese in the world. Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra,
Goa, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are major manganese deposit state.

Brazil has deposits near Lafayette district in the Minas Gerals.

 South Africa has deposits near Postmasburg in Cape Provinces
Chile has manganese ore mined near Coquimbo.
Ghana also has deposits of high grade manganese.
The major exporters are India, Brazil, South Africa, Gabon and Ghana. The USA is the leading importer.

7. TUNGSTEN: It is used because it retains hardness and toughness even at high temperature. It is almost essential
in modern metallurgy, particularly in making of alloy steels.

China (31%) : Kiangsi and Kwantung provinces

Russia (19%) : Tyrnyauz in the Caucasus; Majchura north of Duschambe and Bogutin; east of Alma Ata
USA :Nevada, Utah and Idaho
Portugal: Borralha and Panasqueira
South Korea, Australia, Portugal, Bolivia and Brazil.

8. CHROMIUM: Chromium is essential for steel manufacture. One of the common use of chromium is in plating
other metals. It is hard, Silvery metal with bluish and metallic luster.

USES:

If mixed with Nickel increases harden ability of Steel

Also used as refractory metarial
Used in making Nichrome
Used in manufacture of paint pigments, chemical industry

Distribution

South Africa is the leading producer in the world.

The reserves are in the Central Ural Mountain area and in the northwest in the Perm area known as
Saranoy district. Chromtay in Urals also have Chromium
Other producers are Albania, Turkey, Rhodesia, Finland, Philippines, India and Brazil. In India its deposits
lies in Bihar, Karnataka, Maharash tra, Odisha and Tamil Nadu.

9. NICKEL: It is used in making stainless steel and for electroplating and also in making armaments.

Canada is the leading producer contributing 20% of world production. Sudbury district in Canada is the
main producer. Other mining region are Lynn lake and Thompson in Manitoba
CIS is the second largest producer. Sverdlovsk and Orsk in the Urals; Kola Peninsula at Pechenga; and at
Norilsk in Siberia
Other are Cuba, Britain, Venezuela and South Africa.
In India it is found in the Cuttack and Mayurbhanj district of Odisha.

10. COBALT:

Zaire (Katanga district) in Central Africa is the worlds largest producer of Cobalt accounting for more than
half of the world production.
Other producers are the USA, Canada (Sudbury), Russia, Morocco, New Caledonia in Australia and
Zambia.

12. BAUXITE:

Bauxite is the ore from which Aluminium is refined.

It is used for manufacturing aircrafts, automobiles, rail wagons, coaches,machinery
Distribution and Production:

There are seven bauxite rich areas: -

1. Western and Central Africa (mostly Guinea),

2. South Africa (Brazil, Venezuela, Suriname),
3. the Caribbean (Jamaica)
4. Oceania and Southern Asia (Australia, India),
5. China,
6. the Mediterranean (Greece, Turkey) and
7. the Urals (Russia).

Australia is the leading producer in the world.

Jamaica and Brazil are other leading producers.
Bauxite is mostly mined in tropical regions but Aluminium is manufactured in developed countries where
cheap electric energy is abundantly available.
In Australia, bauxite is mined from Weipa lying east of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
In USA it is mined from Arkansas.
China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Turkey and India are leading bauxite producing countries in Asia.
In India, Jharkhand, M.P., Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu an d Karnataka are the major bauxite
producing states.
Aluminium Production: USA, Canada, Japan, China and Norway have cheap electricity and they have
many smelters producing Aluminium.

13. LEAD:

When mixed with tin, it forms a rust resisting coating for st eel. Its resistance to corrosion makes it
exceptionally valuable for plumbing fixtures, storage batteries and for cable.
The country producing lead are Australia, USA, Mexico, Canada and Peru.
 In India the Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan is the major producer of lead ore in India.

14. ZINC:

It is found in association with pres of other metals, especially lead. So zinc producing districts coincide
with lead producing areas.
USA, Canada, Australia, Mexico and Japan are the main zinc producing countries in the world.
In Europe, zinc ore is mined on a fairly large scale in Germany, Poland, Italy and Kosovo.
In India its production comes from the Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan and Arcot district of
Tamil Nadu.

15. TIN:

It is used for coating thin sheets of steel as it is corrosion resisting.

It is also used in the canning industry and as an alloy with copper in bronze.
Malaysia is the leading producer in the world accounting for 20% of world total output. Kinta valley alone
accounts for the half of Malaysian output.
Russia is the second largest producer while Indonesia is the third.
In China tin is produced in Yunnan and Gwangzi.
Nigeria and Congo are the main suppliers in Africa.
Bolivia in South America is an important producer of tin ore.

16. MICA:
 It is flexible, tough and resilient.
It is non conductor and hence makes an ideal electrical insulator.
India supplies about 80% of the worlds output. Gaya- Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand, Nellore in Andhra
Pradesh and Rajasthan are the principal areas of production. Jharkhand accounts for 50% of Indias total
production of mica.
China, USA, Japan, France and Germany are the principal buyers of Indias mica.

17. ASBESTOS:

It is used in the manufacture of fireproof safes and vaults.

It is also a good insulator of electricity.
The leading producers of asbestos in the world are Canada, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Italy and France.
In India its deposit lies in Chhota Nagpur, Odisha, M.P., Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

18. GYPSUM:

It is used in the manufacture of various plasters and cement.

USA is the largest producer in the world (32%).
Canada, UK, France and Spain are other leading producers.

19. DIAMONDS:

South Africa is the worlds largest producer.

Other producers are Ghana,Sierra Leone, Liberia, Angola and Tanzania. Russia, Brazil, Venezuela and
India also produces diamonds.

Tropical Cyclone Naming

Aug 09, 2014
Cyclones were usually not named. The tradition started with hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean, where tropical storms
that reach sustained wind speeds of 39 miles per hour were given names. The practice of naming storms started in
order to help in the quick identification of storms in warning messages because names are presumed to be far
easier to remember than numbers and technical terms. Many agree that appending names to storms makes it easier
for the media to report on tropical cyclones, heightens interest in warnings and increases community preparedness.

Experience shows that the use of short, distinctive given names in written as well as spoken communications is
quicker and less subject to error than the older more cumbersome latitude-longitude identification methods. These
advantages are especially important in exchanging detailed storm information between hundreds of widely scattered
stations, coastal bases, and ships at sea.

In the beginning, storms were named arbitrarily. An Atlantic storm that ripped off the mast of a boat named Antje
became known as Antje's hurricane. Then the mid-1900's saw the start of the practice of using feminine names
for storms.

Importance for naming tropical cyclones:

It would help identify each individual tropical cyclone.

It helps the public to become fully aware of its development.
Local and international media become focused to the tropical cyclone.
It does not confuse the public when there is more than one tropical cyclone in the same area.
The name of the tropical cyclone is well remembered by million of people as it is unforgettable event shoes
name will long be remembered.
 Warnings reach a much wider audience very rapidly.

Procedure for Naming of Tropical Cyclone:

There is a strict procedure to determine a list of tropical cyclone names in an ocean basin(s) by the Tropical
Cyclone Regional Body responsible for that basin(s) at its annual/biennial meeting. There are five tropical cyclones
regional bodies, i.e.

a) ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee,

b) WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones,

c) RA I Tropical Cyclone Committee,

d) RA IV Hurricane Committee, and

e) RA V Tropical Cyclone Committee.

The Specialised Meteorological Centre (RSMC) Tropical cyclones is responsible for monitoring and prediction of
tropical cyclones over their respective regions. They are also responsible to name the cyclones.

In general, tropical cyclones are named according to the rules at a regional level. For instance, Hurricane
Committee determines a pre-designated list of Hurricane names

Naming of tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean.

The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones at its twenty-seventh Session held in 2000 in Muscat, Sultanate of
Oman agreed in principal to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. After long
deliberations among the member countries, the naming of the tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean commenced
from September 2004.

The Panel members names are listed alphabetically country wise.

The name will be used sequentially column wise.
The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially to the last row in
column eight. Example, this will be as Onil, Hibaru, Pyar, Baaz Amphan
The names which have been already used from the list are highlighted.

The RSMC tropical cyclones New Delhi gives a tropical cyclone an identification name from the above name list.
The identification system covers both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. These lists are used sequentially, and
they are not rotated every few years as are the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific lists.

If public wants to suggest the name of a cyclone to be included in the list, the proposed name must meet some
fundamental criteria. The name should be short and readily understood when broadcast. Further the names must not
be culturally sensitive and not convey some unintended and potentially inflammatory meaning. A storm causes so
much death and destruction that its name is considered for retirement and hence is not used repeatedly.

SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION

Jul 23, 2014
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) emerged in the 1980s as a synthesis of locally advantageous rice
production practices encountered in Madagascar by Fr Henri de Laulanie, a Jesuit Priest who had been
working there since 1961.
But, it is Dr. Norman Uphoff from Cornell International Institute for Food and Agriculture, Ithaca, USA,
who had brought this method to the notice of outside world in the late 1990s.
Today SRI is being adopted in many states in India and the response from farmers has been overwhelming
seeing the benefits of the method, notwithstanding the constraints.
SRI is a combination of several practices those include changes in nursery management, time of
transplanting, water and weed management. Its different way of cultivating rice crop though the
fundamental practices remain more or less same like in the conventional method;
It just emphasizes altering of certain agronomic practices of the conventional way of rice cultivation. All
these new practices are together known as System of Rice Intensification (SRI).
SRI is not a fixed package of technical specifications, but a system of production with four main
components, viz., soil fertility management, planting method, weed control and water (irrigation)
management.
In India it was first tried out in Tanil Nadu in 2000-01.

NEED OF SRI :

About 60 per cent of the countrys rice area is irrigated, accounting for 75 per cent of production, but also
by guzzling disproportionately large volumes of water. A subnormal monsoon accentuates the problem of
 water scarcity, keeping in view that India supports 16 per cent of the global population with just four per
cent of the worlds freshwater resources.
The SRI is in step with the goal of enhanced food production keeping water availability in mind.
With enhanced industrial and domestic demands, the demand for water is increasing and the agriculture
sector is expected to adapt to a water discipline without letting up on the demand for increased agricultural
produce.
For small and marginal farmers, SRI can be a game changer because of reduced input requirement. The SRI
method involves only reorganising the way in which available resources are managed.

METHODOLOGY AND PROCESS:

Preparing high-quality land: SRI requires careful leveling and raking, with drainage facilitated by 30 cm wide
channels at two-meter intervals across the field.

Preferring compost or farmyard manure to synthetic fertilizers : It is better to use organic nutrients, as they are
better at promoting the abundance and diversity of microorganisms, starting with beneficial bacteria and fungi in the
soil. This will promote proper microbial activity, thereby improving production.

Developing nutrient-rich and un-flooded nurseries: The seedbeds have to be nutrient-rich and established as
close to the main field as possible. This will enable quicker and easier transportation between the nurseries and the
fields, minimizing both transport time and costs so that the seedlings are efficiently transplanted.

Using young seedlings for early transplantation: This has to take place when the seedlings are just 8 to 12 days
old, soon after they have two leaves, and at least before the 15th day after sowing.

Ensuring wider spacing between seedlings: The seedlings should be planted at precise spacing, usually 25 X 25
cm2, about 16 plants per square meter. Rice plant roots and canopies grow better if spaced widely, rather than
densely.

Transplanting the seedlings singly: The seedlings must be transplanted singly with their roots intact, while the
seed sac is still attached. They must not be plunged too deep into the soil, but placed at 1-2 cm on the ground at the
appropriate point on the planting grid.

Frequent inter cultivation with weeder: A manual weeder is to be operated perpendicularly in both directions in
between the hills within 10 to 12 days of transplantation, and at intervals of 10-12 days afterwards. This operation
not only controls the weeds but churns the soil which causes a lot of changes in the soil which favours better growth
of the crop.

Managing water carefully so that the plants root zones moisten, but are not continuously submerged: SRI
requires the root zone to be kept moist, not submerged. Water applications can be intermittent, leaving plant roots
with sufficiency, rather than surfeit of water. Rice grown under SRI has larger root system, profuse and strong tillers
with big panicles and well-filled spikelets with higher grain weight. The rice plants develop about 30 80 tillers and
the yields are reported to be higher. The secret behind this is that rice plants do best when young seedlings are
transplanted carefully at wider spacing; their roots grow larger on soil that is kept well aerated with abundant and
diverse soil microorganisms.

BENEFITS OF SRI :

SRI has shown an ability to raise rice yields to about eight tonnes per hectare (the current national average
is 2.1 tons) without requiring new varieties, and with significantly reduced fertilizers and agrochemicals,
while using only about half the water in business-as-usual irrigated rice. With the use of best practices, SRI
yields of about 15-20 tonnes per hectare have been achieved.
SRI is seen today as climate-smart agriculture. Benefits of SRI include lower costs, improvement in soil
health, and the capacity to withstand biotic (pest and disease) and abiotic (climatic) pressures.
 In the 50 plus countries in which the benefits of SRI have already been demonstrated, there has been a 30-
50 per cent decrease in water use compared to growing the same varieties on similar soil under flooded
conditions.
The spirit of SRI more from less is best expressed by the pithy slogan on a billboard in Tripura:
Beej kam, saar kam, jal kam, aushadh kam, kharcha kam, phalan bishi, aay bishi (lesser inputs in seed,
fertilizer, water, pesticides, costs, with increased output and incomes).

ACROSS STATES :

SRI started early in Tamil Nadu. With scientific and extension support from Tamil Nadu State University,
the area under SRI management has now reached about half of the States rice area.
In Tripura, from just 44 farmers using the methods in 2002, the number has increased to about 3,50,000 on
1,00,000 hectares, nearing half of that States rice area.
Bihar started it with only a few hundred farmers, in 2007; four years later, the area under SRI was reported
to be about 10 per cent of the States rice area, with a target area of 40 per cent set for 2013-14.

CONSTRAINTS AND SOLUTIONS :

SRI is generally considered to be labour-intensive, one of the constraints to its rapid adoption. This
characteristic has prompted possibilities of linking it with the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act. Labour is required for more weeding, on-farm water control, and organic
fertilizer application. Under the Employment Guarantee Act, works can be taken up on private farms of
small and marginal farmers.
SRI methods have also been used in crops like wheat, sugarcane, millets, potato and rapeseed-mustard,
with similar benefits as for rice. These are referred to as the System of Crop Intensification (SCI). Wider
adoption of SRI/SCI techniques will have implications for institutional arrangements such as canal and tube
well irrigation system management, markets for inputs and agricultural commodities.

Critically Endangered Birds in India

Jun 11, 2014
As per the Red Data Book of International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), there are 13 Critically
Endangered species of birds in India. Among animals, 34 species have been identified in India as Critically
Endangered in the class mammals, reptiles, fishes and amphibians.

The IUCN Red List is the worlds most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of
animal, fungi and plant species and their links to livelihoods. Far more than a list of species and their status, the
IUCN Red List is a powerful tool to inform and catalyse action for biodiversity conservation and policy change,
critical to protecting the natural resources we need to survive. It provides information on population size and trends,
geographic range and habitat needs of species.
Critically endangered is the highest risk category assigned by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of
Nature) red list to wild species. There are five quantitative criteria to determine whether a taxon is threatened. A
taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the following criteria:

I. Populations have declined or will decrease, by greater than 80% over the last 10 years or three generations.

II. Have a restricted geographical range.

III. Small population size of less than 250 individuals and continuing decline at 25% in 3 years or one
generation.

IV. Very small or restricted population of fewer than 50 mature individuals.

V. High probability of extinction in the wild.

List of Critically Endangered Bird Species of India :

1. Ardea insignis (White-bellied Heron):

Extremely rare bird found in five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites in Bhutan,
and a few in Myanmar.
This species is rarer than previously believed. Indeed, it appears close to extinction.
Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes.
Threats: Loss and degradation of lowland forests and wetlands through direct exploitation and disturbance
by humans.

2. Eurynorhynchus pygmeus (Spoon-billed Sandpiper):

Requires highly specialized breeding habitat, a constraint that has always kept its population scarce.
India is home to some of the last existing wintering grounds of this species (estimated at only 150-320
breeding pairs worldwide).
Breeds in north-eastern Russia and winters in Southeast Asia.
 Habitat: Coastal areas with sparse vegetation. No breeding records further inland beyond 7 km of
seashore.
Distribution: Found at Chukchi Peninsula and southwards along the isthmus of the Kamchatka peninsula
It migrates down the Pacific coast through Japan, North Korea, South Korea and China, to its main
wintering grounds in South and South-East Asia, where it has been recorded from India (West Bengal,
Orissa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.), Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Sri lanka, Peninsular
Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore.
Threats: Habitat degradation and land reclamation. Human disturbance also leads to high incidence of nest
desertion.

3. Grus leucogeranus (Siberian Crane):

Habitat: Wetland areas.

Distribution: Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan.
Threats: Pesticide pollution, wetland drainage, development of prime habitat into agricultural fields, and to
some extent, hunting.

4. Gyps bengalensis (White-rumped Vulture)/ Gyps indicus (Indian Vulture)/ Gyps tenuirostris
(Slender-billed Vulture)/ Sarcogyps calvus (Red-headed Vulture):

Out of nine species of vultures, the population of three species- White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis),
Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) and Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus) has declined by 99%.
The Red- headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) has also suffered a rapid decline in the recent past. Vultures
keep the environment clean, by scavenging on animal carcasses. The decline in vulture populations has
associated disease risks, including increased risk of spread of rabies and anthrax.
Habitat: Forests, villages etc.
Distribution: Across India.
Threats: A major threat to vultures is the painkiller diclofenac used by veterinarians to treat cattle. When
vultures consume these carcasses, diclofenac enters their system, but they are unable to metabolize it.
Accumulation of diclofenac results in gout-like symptoms such as neck-drooping, ultimately leading to
death.

5. Heteroglaux blewitti (Forest Owlet):

It is an owl that is endemic to the forests of central India. This species belongs to the typical owls family,
Strigidae. After it was described in 1873 and last seen in the wild in 1884, it was considered extinct.
After 113 long years, the owlet was rediscovered in 1997 and reappeared on the list of Indian birds.
Habitat: Dry deciduous forest.
Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in north-west Maharashtra and north-central Maharashtra.
Threats: Logging operations, burning and cutting of trees damage roosting and nesting trees of the Forest
Owlet.

6. Houbaropsis bengalensis (Bengal Florican):

Also called Bengal Bustard, is a very rare bustard species from the Indian subcontinent, with a smaller
separate population in Southeast Asia.
Habitat: Grasslands occasionally interspersed with scrublands.
Distribution: Native to only 3 countries in the world - Cambodia, India and Nepal. In India, it occurs in 3
states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
Threats: Ongoing conversion of the birds grassland habitat for various purposes including agriculture is
mainly responsible for its population decline.

7. Ophrysia superciliosa (Himalayan Quail):

 Presumed to be extinct since no reliable records of sightings of this species exist after 1876.
Habitat: Tall grass and scrub on steep hillsides.
Distribution: Western Himalayas.
Threats: Indiscriminate hunting during the colonial period along with habitat modification.

8. Rhinoptilus bitorquatus (Jerdon's Courser):

It is a nocturnal bird.
Belong to the Pratincole and courser family Glareolidae endemic to India.
The bird was discovered by the surgeon-naturalist Thomas C. Jerdon in 1848 but not seen again until its
rediscovery in 1986.
Habitat: Undisturbed scrub jungle with open areas.
Distribution: Jerdons Courser is endemic to Andhra Pradesh. However, 19th century records do attribute
its presence in the neighbouring areas of the state of Maharashtra.
Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pastures, growing of dry land crops, plantations of
exotic trees, quarrying and the construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal. Illegal trapping of birds is also a
threat.

9. Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Pink-headed Duck) :

A large diving duck that was once found in parts of the Gangetic plains of India, Bangladesh and in the
riverine swamps of Myanmar but feared extinct since the 1950s.
Males have a deep pink head and neck from which the bird derives its name.
Habitat: Overgrown still-water pools, marshes and swamps in lowland forests and tall grasslands.
Distribution: Recorded in India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. Maximum records are from north-east India.
Threats: Wetland degradation and loss of habitat, along with hunting are the main causes of its decline.

10. Vanellus gregarius (Sociable Lapwing):

It is a winter migrant to India. This species has suffered a sudden and rapid population decline due to which
it has been listed as critically endangered.
Habitat: Fallow fields and scrub desert.
Distribution: Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan,
Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Egypt, India, Pakistan and Oman. In
India, distribution is restricted to the north and north-west of the country.
Threats: Conversion of habitat to arable land, illegal hunting and proximity to human settlements.

Wildlife Conservation Projects

Jun 11, 2014

1. Project Tiger

1.1. M-Strips (Monitoring System for Tigers - intensive protection and ecological status)

2. Project Elephant

2.1 Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants ( MIKE ) Programme:

3. Project Snow Leopard

4. Project Cheetah (For reintroduction of Cheetah)

1. Project Tiger :

The Government of India has taken a pioneering initiative for conserving its national animal, the tiger, by
launching the Project Tiger in 1973. From 9 tiger reserves since its formative years, the Project Tiger
coverage has increased to 44 at present, spread out in 17 of our tiger range states. This amounts to around
2.08% of the geographical area of our country.
The tiger reserves are constituted on a core/buffer strategy. The core areas have the legal status of a
national park or a sanctuary, whereas the buffer or peripheral areas are a mix of forest and non-forest
land, managed as a multiple use area.
The Project Tiger aims to foster an exclusive tiger agenda in the core areas of tiger reserves, with an
inclusive people oriented agenda in the buffer.
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body of the Ministry, with an
overarching supervisory / coordination role, performing functions as provided in the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972.
The main objective of Project Tiger is to ensure a viable population of tiger in India for scientific,
economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values and to preserve for all time, areas of biological
importance as a natural heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people. Main objectives
under the scheme include wildlife management, protection measures and site specific eco-development to
reduce the dependency of local communities on tiger reserve resources.
Project Tiger has put the tiger on an assured course of recovery from the brink of extinction, and has
resurrected the floral and faunal genetic diversity in some of our unique and endangered wilderness
ecosystem. The population of tigers in the country has increased significantly to about 4000 from less than
2000 at the time of launch of the project.
100% central assistance is provided to 38 tiger reserves.
With effective from 2007, National tiger conservation authority (NTCA) was constituted for tiger
conservation.
"In principal" approval has been accorded by the NTCA for creation of four new tiger reserves: Biligiri
Ranganatha swamy temple sanctuary (K.N), Pilibhit (U.P), Ratapani (M.P) and Mukundara hills
(Rajasthan).
During tiger census of 2008, a new methodology using extrapolating site specific densities of tigers, their
co-predators and prey derived from camera trap and sign survey using GIS was introduced.
Encompassing an area of 3,568 sq km spread over five districts of Andhra Pradesh, Nagarjunasagar-
Srisailam Tiger Reserve(NSTR) is Indias largest Tiger Reserve.
Approach:

1. Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and disturbance from the core and rationalisation of such
activities in the buffer.
2. Limitation of the habitat management to repair damage done by man.
3. Researching facts about habitat and wild animals and carefully monitoring changes in flora and fauna.
1.1 M-Strips: (monitoring system for tigers - intensive protection and ecological status)

Aims:

1. Assist in effective patrolling and protection.

2. Evaluate status and trends of carnivores and ungulates at regular intervals.
3. Monitor habitat change.
4. Evaluate human pressures.
5. Generate reports to provide quantitative information for management effectiveness.
6. assessment and decision making.

2) Project Elephant :
 Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was launched in February 1992 to provide financial
and technical support to major elephant bearing States in the country for protection of elephants, their
habitats and corridors.
It also seeks to address the issues of human-elephant conflict and welfare of domesticated elephants. The
Project is being implemented in 13 States / UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh , Arunachal Pradesh , Assam ,
Jharkhand , Karnataka , Kerala , Meghalaya , Nagaland ,Orissa ,Tamil Nadu , Uttaranchal ,Uttar Pradesh
and West Bengal.
There are only 17 states in which elephants exist in the wild state. Project Elephant has declared 24
elephant reserves in 12 states to protect elephant populations in the wild and develop their habitat. It was
launched in the year 1991-92 as a sequel to a series of efforts to conserve this magnificent species covering
primarily twelve states of India.
Objective of Project Elephant:

1. To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors.

2. To address issues of man-animal conflict.
3. Welfare of domesticated elephants.

2.1 Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants ( MIKE ) Programme:

Mandated by COP resolution of CITES , MIKE program started in South Asia in the year 2003 with following
purpose

To provide information needed for elephant range States to make appropriate management and enforcement
decisions, and to build institutional capacity within the range States for the long-term management of their elephant
populations.

The main objectives of the MIKE are:

a) To measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants;

b) To determine changes in these trends over time; and

c) To determine the factors causing or associated with such changes, and to try and assess in particular to what
extent observed trends are a result of any decision taken by the Conference of the Parties to CITES.

MIKE Sites in India :

1. Chirang Ripu (Assam )

2. Dhang Patki ( Assam )
3. Eastern Dooars ( WB )
4. Deomali ( Arun Pradesh )
5. Garo Hills ( Meghalaya )
6. Mayurbhanj ( Orissa )
7. Mysore ( Karnataka )
8. Nilgiri ( T N )
9. Shivalik ( Uttarakhand )
10. Wayanad ( Kerala)

3. Project Snow Leopard:

1. Project Snow Leopard is a manifestation of the Government of Indias resolve to conserve biodiversity with
community participation. To give it the same status of importance in the high altitude as that of Tiger in the
terrestrial landscape the ministry has launched the Project Snow Leopard in the country in 2009. It is an
Indian initiative for strengthening wildlife conservation in the Himalayan high altitudes. It aims to promote
 a knowledge-based and adaptive conservation framework that fully involves the local communities, who
share the snow leopards range, in conservation efforts.
2. GOAL: To safeguard and conserve Indias unique natural heritage of high altitude wildlife populations and
their habitats by promoting conservation through participatory policies and actions.
3. Snow Leopard is globally endangered species as well as the most important flagship species of the
mountain region. They are at the apex of ecological pyramid suffer the most on account of relatively
smaller population size and also because of man-animal conflict. This situation further gets aggravated by
the hostile landscape forming its habitat. Referring to its globally endangered species status as well as the
most important flagship species of the mountain region.
4. The estimated world population of Snow Leopards in the world is 3,500-7,000, out of which about 500 cats
are spreading across the States of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh in India.
5. Just as what Tiger means to most of the forested and grassland ecosystems of the Indian subcontinent it
is the Snow Leopard for the high altitude ecosystems of the Himalaya and Central Asian mountains. The
Snow Leopard is at the apex of the food pyramid in the Himalaya, helping in the maintenance of the
balance of nature. It can, therefore, be regarded as an Umbrella Species
6. The project is operational in five Himalayan States viz. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.The project stresses on a landscape approach to conservation
wherein smaller core zones with relatively conservation values will be identified and conserved with
support and the larger landscape will be managed in such a way that it allows necessary development
benefits to the local communities.

4. Project Cheetah: Just as the tiger is the flagship species of the forest, the cheetah is the flagship species of the
grasslands, scrublands and open forests. Therefore, with the reintroduction of the cheetah, these dryland ecosystems
of India will have a chance to return to their natural state. Being a top carnivore, the cheetah is a major evolutionary
force that shapes ecosystem functions and enhances species diversity.

A cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a big cat like the leopard, and is a member of the family Felidae. As a
sprinter capable of reaching speeds of 30 m/s, it is the fastest land animal and specialises in running down
its prey.
The cheetah is part of our heritage - It is the only large mammal that has been declared extinct in India in
recent history.

Geographic Range/Current Habitat region:

The cheetah is found only in the arid regions of eastern Iran in Asia, and in Africa, it is found in isolated populations
in grasslands, scrublands and open forests across the continent, especially in the countries of Botswana, Namibia and
South Africa.

Why reintroduction of Cheetah:

1. Just as the tiger is the flagship species of the forest, the cheetah is the flagship species of the grasslands,
scrublands and open forests. Therefore, with the reintroduction of the cheetah, these dryland ecosystems of
India will have a chance to return to their natural state.
2. Being a top carnivore, the cheetah is a major evolutionary force that shapes ecosystem functions and
enhances species diversity.

In 2012, Supreme Court stayed the implementation of the Cheetah Reintroduction Programme by which the
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) had proposed to import the African large-sized feline to India.

A year after the Supreme Court stalled its ambitious cheetah re-introduction project; the government moved
the court yet again in 2014 with an assertive petition to let them go ahead with the plan in the interest of wildlife
conservation.

The petition opposed courts observation, pointing out cheetah was not a foreign species.
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
May 27, 2014
The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was established by the
Government of India under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act
passed by the Parliament in December, 1985. The act came into being in 1986. The Authority replaced the
Processed Food Export Promotion Council (PFEPC).

ASSIGNED FUNCTIONS :

Development of industries relating to the scheduled products for export by way of providing financial
assistance or otherwise for undertaking surveys and feasibility studies, participation in enquiry capital
through joint ventures and other reliefs and subsidy schemes;
Registration of persons as exporters of the scheduled products on payment of such fees as may be
prescribed;
Fixing of standards and specifications for the scheduled products for the purpose of exports;
Carrying out inspection of meat and meat products in slaughter houses, processing plants, storage premises,
conveyances or other places where such products are kept or handled for the purpose of ensuring the
quality of such products;
Improving of packaging of the Scheduled products;
Improving of marketing of the Scheduled products outside India;
Promotion of export oriented production and development of the Scheduled products;
Collection of statistics from the owners of factories or establishments engaged in the production,
processing, packaging, marketing or export of the scheduled products or from such other persons as may
be prescribed on any matter relating to the scheduled products and publication of the statistics so collected
or of any portions thereof or extracts there from;
Training in various aspects of the industries connected with the scheduled products; Such other matters as
may be prescribed.

PRODUCTS MONITORED :

APEDA is mandated with the responsibility of export promotion and development of the following scheduled
products:

Fruits, Vegetables and their Products.

Meat and Meat Products.
Poultry and Poultry Products.
Dairy Products.
Confectionery, Biscuits and Bakery Products.
Honey, Jaggery and Sugar Products.
Cocoa and its products, chocolates of all kinds.
Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverages.
Cereal and Cereal Products.
Groundnuts, Peanuts and Walnuts.
Pickles, Papads and Chutneys.
Guar Gum.
Floriculture and Floriculture Products
Herbal and Medicinal Plants

In addition to this, APEDA has been entrusted with the responsibility to monitor import of sugar.
Social forestry & National Agroforestry Policy 2014
May 22, 2014
1. What is Social Forestry

2. Strategy adopted

3. Benefits of Social Forestry

4. Shortcoming of Social Forestry

5. Types of Social Forestry

6. National Agroforestry Policy 2014

1. What is it? Social forestry is management and development of forest with afforestation on barren lands to
achieve environmental benefit and rural development. The term was first used by National Commission on
Agriculture, Government of India, in 1976. It was then that India embarked upon a social forestry project with the
aim of taking the pressure off the forests and making use of all unused and fallow land. Government forest areas that
are close to human settlement and have been degraded over the years due to human activities needed to be
afforested. Trees were to be planted in and around agricultural fields. Plantation of trees along railway lines and
roadsides, and river and canal banks were carried out. They were planted in village common land, Government
wasteland and Panchayat land.

2. Strategy adopted :

Encouraging forest plantation in common lands, wastelands, along roads, railways, around water bodies &
any other lands which can be diverted for replantation.
Initial government encouraged free distribution of USUFRUCT species.
Government also extended incentives so that the planted sapling would be cared and maintained.
Programme was launched as mass mobilisation programme with the intention of involving the common
population.

3. Benefits :

Suppose to diversify non-farm options/ non crop income options for poor farmers & landless labourers.
It was also designed to ensure better land use where waste land encroached into forestry plantation.
The programme was supposed to be one of the initiatives under afforestation scheme with the objective of
increasing farming area of India to meet the total target of 33% forest area.
This programme became part of wasteland development programme to encourage forestry land use on
slope and upstream.
With the introduction of this scheme the government formally recognised the local communities rights to
forest resources, and is now encouraging rural participation in the management of natural resources.
Through the social forestry scheme, the government has involved community participation, as part of a
drive towards afforestation, and rehabilitating the degraded forest and common lands.

4. Shortcomings :

Although social forestry as a concept was revolutionary but in India it was not too much success. Primarily
because of wrong implementation under the incentive given to farmers & villagers to encourage Social
forestry. Many farmers opted for diverting agricultural land to forestry; this compromises Agricultural
prospect & food security.
 Although Programme suggested USUFRUCT species but because of lack of ecological understanding &
lack of specific directive most of the plantation opted for is eucalyptus which is not ecologically suitable in
Indian setting.

Eucalyptus.

Fast growing species & doesnt have natural enemy

Not a fodder species
Can't be used as firewood & burns faster
Adverse ecological impact
Spread at the cost of other species

5. Types of Social Forestry :

A) Farm forestry : At present, in almost all the countries where social forestry programmes have been taken
up both commercialy and non commercialy farm forestry is being promoted in one form or the other. Individual
farmers are being encouraged to plant trees on their own farmland to meet the domestic needs of the family. In many
areas this tradition of growing trees on the farmland already exists. Non-commercial farm forestry is the main thrust
of most of the social forestry projects in the country today. It is not always necessary that the farmer grows trees for
fuel wood, but very often they are interested in growing trees without any economic motive. They may want it to
provide shade for the agricultural crops; as wind shelters; soil conservation or to use wasteland.

B) Urban Forestry : It is raising and management of trees on private or publically owned lands in and around
urban centres for the purpose of improving urban environment. Urban forestry includes the management of
individual as well as groups of trees. Urban forestry is also not restricted to trees that have been planted. Many urban
trees may have established naturally, although in an environment in which competition for land is high, they are
unlikely to survive long unless actively cultivated and managed. Urban forestry also includes the management of
forests at the urban fringe.
C) Rural Forestry :

I. Community forestry : It is the raising of trees on community land and not on private land as in farm
forestry. All these programmes aim to provide for the entire community and not for any individual. The government
has the responsibility of providing seedlings, fertilizers but the community has to take responsibility of protecting
the trees. Some communities manage the plantations sensibly and in a sustainable manner so that the village
continues to benefit. Some others take advantage and sell the timber for a short-term individual profit. Common land
being everyones land is very easy to exploit. Over the last 20 years, large-scale planting of Eucalyptus, as a fast
growing exotic, has occurred in India, making it a part of the drive to reforest the subcontinent, and create an
adequate supply of timber for rural communities under the augur of social forestry.

II. Agro forestry : Agro forestry is defined as a land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on
farmlands and rural landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and ecosystem sustainability. It is a
dynamic, ecologically based natural resource management system that through integration of woody perennials on
farms and in the agricultural landscape diversifies and sustains production and builds social institutions. It combines
forestry with:

1) Production of multiple outputs with protection of the resource base;

2) Places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs;

3) Particularly suitable for low-input conditions and fragile environments;

4) It involves the interplay of socio-cultural values more than in most other land-use systems;

5) It is structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture.

Agroforestry systems include both traditional and modern land-use systems where trees are managed together with
crops and or/ animal production systems in agricultural settings. Agroforestry is practiced in both irrigated and
rain fed conditions where it produces food, fuel, fodder, timber, fertilizer and fibre, contributes to food,
nutritional and ecological security, sustains livelihoods, alleviates poverty and promotes productive and
resilient cropping and farming environments. Agroforestry also has the potential to enhance ecosystem
services through carbon storage, prevention of deforestation, biodiversity conservation, and soil and water
conservation. In addition, when strategically applied on a large scale, with appropriate mix of species, agroforestry
enables agricultural land to withstand extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, and climate change.

BENEFITS OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM :

a) Environmental benefits :

Reduction of pressure on natural forests.

More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site
Better protection of ecological systems
Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion through impeding effect of tree roots and
stems on these processes.
Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soil surface temperature and reduction of evaporation of
soil moisture through a combination of mulching and shading.
Increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter fall.
Improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter from decomposed litter.
It is also recognized that Agroforestry is perhaps the only alternative to meeting the target of
increasing forest or tree cover to 33 per cent from the present level of less than 25 per cent, as envisaged
in the National Forest Policy (1988).
Agroforestry is known to have the potential to mitigate the climate change effects through microclimate
moderation and natural resources conservation in the short run and through carbon sequestration in the long
 run. Agroforestry species are known to sequester as much carbon in below ground biomass as the primary
forests, and far greater than the crop and grass systems.

b) Economic benefits :

Increment in outputs of food, fuel wood , fodder, fertiliser and timber.

Reduction in incidence of total crop failure, which is common to single cropping or monoculture systems.
Increase in levels of farm income due to improved and sustained productivity.
Agroforestry has significant potential to provide employment to rural and urban population through
production, industrial application and value addition ventures. Current estimates show that about 65
% of the countrys timber requirement is met from the trees grown on farms. Agroforestry also
generates significant employment opportunities.

C) Social benefits :

Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food outputs.
Stabilization and improvement of communities through elimination of the need to shift sites of farm
activities.

6. NATIONAL AGROFORESTRY POLICY 2014 :

The maiden policy comes following the World Congress on Agroforestry held in New Delhi from February 10-14th.
It aims to include agroforestry in the mainstream of agricultural policies and strategies, by promoting it in integrated
farming systems. The policy was recommended by National Advisory Council headed by Congress chief Sonia
Gandhi and announced in interim budget 2014.

The policy has linkages with several ongoing mega campaigns, like the 'Green India Mission' under which the state
plans to plant 100 crore trees to improve forest cover.

The major policy goals are :

Setting up a National Agroforestry Mission or an Agroforestry Board to implement the National

Policy by bringing coordination, convergence and synergy among various elements of agroforestry
scattered in various existing, missions, programmes, schemes and agencies pertaining to agriculture,
environment, forestry, and rural development sectors of the Government.
Improving the productivity, employment, income and livelihood opportunities of rural households,
especially of the smallholder farmers through agroforestry.
Meeting the ever increasing demand of timber, food, fuel, fodder, fertilizer, fibre, and other
agroforestry products; conserving the natural resources and forest; protecting the environment &
providing environmental security; and increasing the forest / tree cover. There is a need to increase the
availability of these from outside the natural forests.

A. Basic Objectives :

Encourage and expand tree plantation in complementarily and integrated manner with crops and
livestock to improve productivity, employment, income and livelihoods of rural households,
especially the small holder farmers.
Protect and stabilize ecosystems, and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimize the risk
during extreme climatic events.
Meet the raw material requirements of wood based industries and reduce import of wood and wood
products to save foreign exchange.
 Supplement the availability of agroforestry products (AFPs), such as the fuel-wood, fodder, non-
timber forest produce and small timber for the rural and tribal populations, thereby reducing the
pressure on existing forests.
Complement achieving the target of increasing forest/tree cover to promote ecological stability, especially
in the vulnerable regions.
Develop capacity and strengthen research in agroforestry and create a massive people's movement
for achieving these objectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests.

B. Strategy :

Establishment of Institutional Setup at National level to promote agroforestry.

Simple regulatory mechanism.
Development of a sound database & information system.
Investing in research, extension and capacity building and related services.
Improving famers access to quality planting material.
Providing institutional credit and insurance cover for agroforestry.
Facilitating increased participation of industries dealing with agroforestry produce.
Strengthening farmers access to markets for tree products.
Incentives to farmers for adopting agroforestry.
Promoting sustainable agroforestry for renewable biomass based energy.

El Nino, La Nino and ENSO Modoki

Apr 29, 2014
El Nino is an oceanic phenomena observed in the Southern Pacific ocean which emerges after a gap of 3 to 7 years
and is associated with abnormally high rainfall in the otherwise dry condition along the coast of Peru. This
phenomena results in floods in Peru while Pacific coast of Australia and Indonesia have abnormally dry conditions
that forces collapse of Agriculture with instances of Forest fire. During El Nio there are on average fewer
hurricanes over the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. In the central Pacific Ocean El
Nio brings more typhoons, both north and south of the equator. Their more easterly genesis makes that fewer of
these tropical cyclones reach Australia. In the northern Pacific Ocean the area with typhoons also shifts east. There
are no effects on the number of cyclones over the Indian Ocean. The phenomenon is not well understood but it is
related to Ocean current and trade winds. In this, Sea Surface Temperature (SST) increases above normal by .5
degree.

In normal years the trade winds are fairly consistent and strong. The equatorial current of Pacific are well
developed which leads to development of warm Western Pacific Pool resulting in a zone of low pressure off
Australian and Indonesian Coast with rising limb of air causing rain.

Fig. Warm Western Pacific Pool and trade winds

At the same time, Peruvian coast has cold current (Humboldt current) and upwelling which brings cold current
along the coast of Peru resulting in High Pressure with descending air current. This is favorable to Peruvian
economy as Upwelling brought up nutrients at surface which flourishes fishing population. This low Pressure at
Australian Coast and High Pressure at Peruvian coast form a vertical cell called as Walker cell. (This cell is
exception to otherwise general pattern of Air circulation e.g. Trade winds, westerlies and Polar circulation and tri-
cellular meridional circulation. Here East-West Zonal Pattern is found).

During El-Nino years, for reasons not yet known the trade winds of Pacific weakens, resulting in weak equatorial
current. The Warm Pacific Pool waters flows back strengthening the Counter Equatorial current. This reverses water
flows southward towards Peruvian coast and this current is known as El Nino current. (It is a warm surface current
appears at the coast of Peru during December flowing from equator towards Pole) which can stop the upwelling
Process.

This results in reversing the pressure cells (Now Peruvian coast have low pressure and Australian-Indonesian coast
having relative High Pressure)and with this Walker Cell too is reversed i.e. rising limb of air at Peruvian coast and
descending limb of air along Australian coast which reverses the climatic condition along these coast which results
into Peruvian coast having High rainfall and West Pacific coast having dry condition).

The atmospheric component of El Nino/La Nina is called Southern Oscillation. This component is an oscillation
in surface air pressure between the tropical western and the eastern Pacific Ocean waters. In context to Monsoon the
two cumulatively is called as ENSO. The strength of it (Southern Oscillation) is measured by the Southern
Oscillation Index (SOI). It is computed by taking air pressure Ocean difference between Tahiti in Eastern
Pacific Ocean and Darwin in Western Pacific. An El Nino year will have negative value of SOI that means
eastern pacific has below normal pressure over Tahiti and above normal pressure over Darwin.

La Nina:

This is another climatic extreme and is opposite of El-Nino. It is also called as El Viejo, The Little Girl, anti-El
Nino, or simply a cold event or a cold episode In this Trade winds are abnormally very strong , this makes Warm
Western Pacific Pool strong, Very strong Peruvian current and an intensified Walker Cell. Consequently there is
strong upwelling at the coast of Peru and it support very good fishing but due to oversupply glutting happens. (As
heavy supply of fishes drags down the prices which is adverse for Peruvian economy). On opposite of it western
Pacific countries have abnormally high rainfall which causes flood.
In the US, winter temperatures are warmer than normal in the south-east and cooler than normal in the north-west
during a La Nina year. Temperatures are warmer than normal in the Southeast and cooler than normal in the
Northwest.

Snow and rain is experienced on the west-coast and unusually cold weather in Alaska. During this period there are
higher than normal number of hurricanes in the Atlantic.

Effects of El Nio on India :

ENSO known to have a significant impact on the strength of South-West Monsoon over India with the Monsoon
being weak (causing droughts in India) during the El Nio years whereas La Nia years had particularly good
Monsoon strength over India but ENSO does not have a one to one correspondence i.e. not all El Nio years have
produced drought in India. During El Nio years probability is high that there will be less rainfall in India but this
need not be necessary.

El Nio Modoki & La Nio Modoki (ENSO Modoki) :

These are associated with Central Pacific, rather than the Eastern Pacific as the typical El Nio/ La Nio event does.
Teleconnection in these are different from teleconnection pattern of conventional El Nio. During El Nino Modoki
the sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly in eastern Pacific is not affected, but a warm anomaly arises in the
central Pacific flanked by cold anomalies on both sides of the basin .Together with its counterpart La Nina
Modoki, when colder central Pacific is flanked by warmer eastern and western Pacific, the new phenomenon is
now called as the ENSO Modoki that assumes both warm and cold phases of its behavior. The associated decadal
changes in the sea level are shown to affect not only the islands of central Pacific but remote regions off California
and southwestern Indian Ocean

Fig. El Nino Modoki and La Nina Modoki the two phases of ENSO Modoki.

Due to El Nino Modoki Central Pacific has higher storm frequency and a greater potential for making landfall
along the Gulf coast and the coast of Central America. Also, due to this (El Nino Modoki ) Arabian sea has more
number of cyclone during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons as opposed to general phenomena whereas
Bay of Bengal has higher number of cyclone during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon.

The reason why El Nino Modoki brings only fewer numbers of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal is because one of the
two descending limbs of the Walker Cell is over the western Pacific and Bay of Bengal. The descending limb causes
dry conditions not conducive for cyclone formation. The ascending limb of the Walker Cell, on the other hand,
brings rain. Also, an El Nino Modoki creates stronger divergence over the western Pacific and Bay of Bengal
compared to El Nino. Divergence (opposite of convergence) means surface winds move away from each other and
result in low relative vorticity (rotational flow of winds). These conditions are not conducive for cyclones. This
explains why Bay of Bengal region (close to western Pacific) has fewer cyclones during an El Nino Modoki. On the
other hand, there is large convergence over the Arabian Sea during an El Nino Modoki explaining the large number
of cyclones in that region.
Shale Gas
Apr 29, 2014
1. What is Shale Gas?

2. Shale gas Genesis

3. Shale Gas Extraction

4. Shale Gas V/s Conventional Gas

5. Issues

6. India and Shale Gas

A. Potential problem in India

B. Shale and Oil exploration Policy

Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks
(made up of clay, quartz and calcite minerals) that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas. Gas-prone shale
may be associated with other resources, such as tight gas and coalbed methane (CBM), in areas where shale is inter-
bedded with coal. To liberate the gas, wells, are drilled down vertically and then horizontally through the shale. The
rock is then hydraulically fracture stimulated creating a network of small cracks that enable gas to flow from the
rock.

Fig: Geographical Distribution

Shale Gas Genesis

Shale gas is generated by any combination of

Primary thermogenic (tending to produce heat) degradation of organic matter

Secondary thermogenic cracking of oil
Biogenic degradation of organic matter.

Shale Gas Extraction

Two major drilling techniques are used to produce shale gas.

1. Horizontal drilling is used to provide greater access to the gas trapped deep in the producing formation.
First, a vertical well is drilled to the targeted rock formation. At the desired depth, the drill bit is turned to
bore a well that stretches through the reservoir horizontally, exposing the well to more of the producing
shale.
2. Hydraulic Fracturing : It is a technique in which fluid is pumped into a well at high pressure to fracture the
rock, creating a network of interconnected cracks that open spaces for the movement of gas to the well
bore. When used in conjunction with horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing enables gas producers to
extract shale gas at reasonable cost. Without these techniques, natural gas does not flow to the well rapidly,
and commercial quantities cannot be produced from shale.

Shale Gas vs. Conventional Gas

Conventional gas reservoirs are created when natural gas migrates toward the Earth's surface from an organic-rich
source formation into highly permeable reservoir rock, where it is trapped by an overlying layer of impermeable
rock. It is like a big balloon of gas trapped underground the way to extract it is to drill a well, puncture the balloon
and collect the gas. In contrast, shale gas resources form within the organic-rich shale source rock. The low
permeability of the shale formation greatly inhibits the gas from migrating to more permeable reservoir rocks and
they are spread like millions of bubbles stretching over large tracts of land. Without horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing, shale gas production would not be economically feasible because the natural gas would not flow from the
formation at high enough rates and this will not economies cost of drilling. .

Issues :
 Economy: Because shales ordinarily have insufficient permeability to allow significant fluid flow to a well
bore, most shales are not commercial sources of natural gas.
Induced Seismicity: Concerns have been raised in some countries about seismicity induced by hydraulic
fracturing itself, or by the injection of wastewaters into deep disposal wells.
Water Contamination: Hydraulic fracturing requires large quantity of water and chemicals to be inserted
deep underground where there flow is not entirely predictable and it may pollute groundwater
Water Demand: Also, a challenge of water scarcity as huge quantity of water is used for fracking.
Green house gas emission: Another issue related to the leaking of greenhouse gases during extraction, and
the pollution caused by the improper processing of natural gas.
In 2010, US Environment Protection Agency EPA concluded that shale gas emits larger amounts of
methane, a potent greenhouse gas, than does conventional gas, but still far less than coal.

India and Shale Gas :

The primary Indian basins of interest in terms of shale gas potential are :

i. Cambay Basin
ii. Krishna Godavari Basin
iii. Cauvery Basin
iv. Upper Assam Basin.
v. Damodar Valley Basin
vi. Indo-Gangetic basins,

Potential Problem in India:

Shales are mostly found about 2,000 meters deep on shore, in areas of human habitation, unlike oil drilling
that takes place offshore. Specially designed water bore wells may be needed in such areas to tackle
escaping methane gas. Use of high-power compressors and other equipment could also unsettle local
population, while shale drilling could affect ground water reserves.
Water-stressed country like ours, rapidly approaching water scarcity conditions, the results of shale might
not be as dynamic as it had proved for the U.S.
One of the key determinants of the viability of this technology is the availability of large quantities of clean
water.

Shale Gas and Oil Exploration Policy :

IN 2013, Cabinet cleared Policy on shale gas and Oil exploration

GoIs policy initially permits state-run Oil and Natural Gas Corp (ONGC) and Oil India Ltd (OIL) to
explore shale resources from on land blocks that were allotted to them on a nomination basis before the
advent of the New Exploration Licensing Policy in 1999 - under which exploration blocks are offered on a
bidding basis.
In the second phase, the government will offer shale oil and gas blocks to other companies through another
Cabinet approval that is likely in next few weeks.
This policy will allow national oil companies (NOCs) to carry out exploration and exploitation of
unconventional hydrocarbon resources particularly shale gas and oil in their already awarded on land
Petroleum Exploration License/Petroleum Mining Lease (PEL/PML) acreages under the nomination
regime,
NOCs shall apply for grant of shale gas and oil rights in their interested PEL/PML acreages and will be
required to undertake a mandatory minimum work programme.
They will be permitted three assessment phases of a maximum period of three years each. Royalty, cess and
taxes will be payable at par with conventional oil/gas being produced from the respective areas.
Sacred Groves
Feb 14, 2014
Sacred groves comprise of patches of forests or natural vegetation from a few trees to forests of several acres
that are usually dedicated to local folk deities or tree spirits (Vanadevatais). These spaces are protected by local
communities because of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals that run through several generations.

Ecological Significance

Conservation of Biodiversity The sacred groves are important repositories of floral and faunal diversity
that have been conserved by local communities in a sustainable manner. They are often the last refuge of
endemic species in the geographical region.

Recharge of aquifers The groves are often associated with ponds, streams or springs, which help meet
the water requirements of the local people. The vegetative cover also helps in the recharging the aquifers.

Soil conservation - The vegetation cover of the sacred groves improves the soil stability of the area and
also prevents soil erosion.

The degree of sanctity of the sacred forests varies from one grove to another. In some forests even the dry foliage
and fallen fruits are not touched. People believe that any kind of disturbance will offend the local deity, causing
diseases, natural calamities or failure of crops. For example, the Garo and the Khasi tribes of northeastern India
completely prohibit any human interference in the sacred groves. In other groves, deadwood or dried leaves may be
picked up, but the alive tree or its branches are never cut. For example, the Gonds of central India prohibit the
cutting of a tree but allow fallen parts to be used.

Sacred groves are scattered all over the country, and are referred to by different names in different parts of India.
Sacred groves occur in a variety of places from scrub forests in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan maintained by the
Bishnois, to rain forests in the Western Ghats of Kerala. Himachal Pradesh in the north and Kerala in the south are
specifically known for their large numbers of sacred groves. The Kodavas of Karnataka alone maintained over 1000
sacred groves in their region.

Degradation of the Sacred Groves

Belief and taboos are the constructive tools for conserving the sacred groves, and erosion of belief and taboos has
led to deterioration of groves. Various anthropogenic pressures due to developmental activities, urbanization,
exploitation of resources and increase in human population have threatened many sacred groves of the country.
Invasion by exotic weeds such as Eupatorium odoratum, Lantana camara and Prosopis juliflora is a serious threat to
some groves.

Soil Profile
Jan 10, 2014
Soil is the topmost layer of the earth's surface. It consists of a mixture of minute particles of disintegrated rocks,
minerals, organic matter and bacteria. Soil is formed when forces of nature such as temperature, rain, wind, waves,
animals and plants act on rocks and break them into tiny pieces over a long period of time.

Soil formation begins with the breakdown of rock into regolith. Continued weathering and soil horizon development
process leads to the development of a soil profile, the vertical display of soil horizons.

The top layer of the profile is the O horizon which is composed of organic matter. Decomposition of organic matter
enriches the soil with nutrients (nitrogen, potassium, etc.), aids soil structure (acts to bind particles), and enhances
soil moisture retention.
Next layer is the A horizon in which organic material mixes with inorganic products of weathering. The A horizon
typically is dark coloured horizon due to the presence organic matter.

Eluviations, the removal of inorganic and organic substances from a horizon by leaching occurs in the A horizon due
to the downward movement of soil water

The E horizon generally is a light-colored horizon with eluviation being the dominant process. Leaching or the
removal of clay particles, organic matter, and/or oxides of iron and aluminum is also active in E horizon.

The E horizon has a high concentration of quartz under coniferous forests, giving the horizon an ash-gray
appearance.

The B horizon is a zone of illuviation where downward moving, especially fine material, is accumulated. The
accumulation of fine material leads to the creation of a dense layer in the soil

The C horizon represents the soil parent material, either created in situ or transported into its present location.
Beneath the C horizon lays bedrock.

Eluviation is significant in humid climates where ample precipitation leads to the downward movement of minerals
in the soil.

Illuviation are found closer to the surface in semiarid and arid climates where precipitation is scarce because due to
capillary action cations like calcium and sodium dissolved in soil moves upward.

What are peri-urban areas?

Nov 21, 2013
A peri-urban area refers to a transition or interaction zone, where urban and rural activities are mixed, and landscape
features are subject to rapid modifications, inducing by human activities.

The Peri-urban settlements and the core cities have very strong interactions, inter-dependence and inter-
relationships. The Peri-urban areas supply all the essential daily requirements such as milk, vegetables, flowers etc.
to the cities. However, cities use them as dumping grounds for solid wastes.

There are certain difficulties in managing the urban and rural interface.

The issues related to peri-urban areas are:

The issues are (a) land use change, from agricultural to residential or industrial, (b) changes in the use of natural
resources such as water and forestry, (c) new forms of pollution and waste management, (d) creation of
infrastructure, and (e) managing a new cultural ethos.

Typically, the villages adjoining a city become extensions of the city, but without the norms, however insufficient,
being laid down in the city for civic lifestyles and infrastructure. An appropriate planning process is needed for
inclusive development of peri-urban areas.

The lack of planned land use policies, basic services delivery, waste management and adequate water and sanitation
services gives rise to a number of environmental and health risks.

Diseases like diarrhoea, gastroenteritis, malaria and jaundice are stated as the most commonly occurring diseases
year-round, especially during summers, and cases of influenza and throat and chest infections were mostly reported
during winters. In addition, a large number of skin and other allergies are also very commonly reported in peri-urban
areas. Health experts state that a significant number of diseases were caused by the use of unsafe, polluted or
contaminated water sources in cooking, drinking or bathing etc.
Over 40% of peri-urban households are not connected to tap water supply, and use pumps to draw water from
shallow groundwater sources which also seem to be heavily contaminated with pathogens and pollutants. An
alarming concern is that wastewater and sewage from industrial and residential areas flows into such water bodies
near informal settlements. Similarly, the inadequate and poor sewerage system, common in such areas, gives rise to
cholera, typhoid and other health implications.

Due to the unavailability of kitchens in homes, residents of such areas cook food in the open, rendering food items
and utensils vulnerable to environmental contamination and contact with disease causing pathogens.

This cooking practice leads to acute respiratory infections, particularly in women and children. Additionally, some
residents keep livestock indoors, which increases risk of spoilage and contamination of stored food, and increases
health risks to residents.

Environmental issues related to unplanned urbanisation include soil erosion, destruction of vegetation, siltation and
depletion of water bodies and pollution of resources such as soil, air and water.

Pressure Belts of the World

Oct 29, 2013
Air is a mixture of several gases. Gas molecules are in constant state of collision and move freely. Pressure of air at
a given place is defined as a force exerted against surface by continuous collision of gas molecules. Air pressure is
thus defined as total weight of a mass of column of air above per unit area at sea level. The amount of pressure
exerted by air at a particular point is determined by temperature and density which is measured as a force per unit
area.

The unequal heating of the earth and its atmosphere by the sun, because of revolution of the earth on its tilted axis
causes difference in pressure. This leads to the formation of pressure belts around the earth.

a) Equatorial low pressure belt:

At the Equator heated air rises leaving a low-pressure area at the surface. This low pressure area is known as
equatorial low pressure. The pressure belt is thermally induced because the ground surface gets heated during the
day. This area extends between 50N and 50S latitudes. The zone shifts along with the northward or southward
movement of sun during summer solstice and winter solstice respectively.

b) Sub-tropical High pressure belt:

The warm air risen up at the equator due to heating reaches the troposphere and bend towards the pole due to
rotation of the Earth. Due to coriolis force the air descends at 30-35 latitude thus creates the belt of sub-tropical
high pressure. The pressure belt is dynamically induced as it owes its origin to the rotation of the earth and sinking
and settling of winds. This zone is characterized by anticyclonic conditions which cause atmospheric stability and
aridity. Thus, most of the hot deserts of the world are present in this region extending between 25-35 degrees in both
the hemisphere.

c) Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt:

This belt is located between 60-65 degrees latitudes in both the hemisphere. This pressure belt is also dynamically
induced. As shown in the figure the surface air spreads outward from this zone due to rotation of the earth thus
produces low pressure. The belt is more developed and regular in the southern hemisphere than the northern due to
over dominance of water in the former.

d) Polar High Pressure Belt:

High pressure persists at the pole on both the hemisphere due to low temperature. Thus the Polar High Pressure Belt
is thermally induced as well as dynamically induced as the rotation of earth also plays a minor role.

Cyclone
Oct 23, 2013
A cyclone is a storm that occurs due to a difference in temperature and pressure of air, over the warm waters of the
Oceans. Surface atmospheric pressure in the center of tropical cyclones tends to be extremely low. Most storms have
an average pressure of 950 millibars.

The main characteristics of tropical cyclones are:-

Have winds that exceed 34 knots (39 mi/hr)

Blow clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and
Counter-clockwise about their centers in the Northern Hemisphere.

The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:

I. Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27 C;

II. Presence of the Coriollis force;

III. Small variations in the vertical wind speed;

IV. A pre-existing weak low - pressure area or low - level cyclonic circulation;

V. Upper divergence above the sea level system.

Tropical cyclones are the most deadly and destructive type of severe weather event on our planet. It is accompanied
by strong winds; Torrential rain; High tidal waves and storm surge which can cause severe flooding in coastal areas,
particularly when this surge coincides with the normal high-tide.

Wind speed in tropical cyclones is usually directly related to atmospheric pressure. The lower the pressure the faster
the winds blow. Wind speed also varies within the storm. High winds inflict damage by blowing down objects,
creating choppy waves and high seas, and by inundating coastal areas with seawater. Rainfall within tropical
cyclones can often exceed 60 centimeters (24 inches) in a 24-hour period which lead to floods.

The energy that intensifies the storm comes from the condensation process in the towering cumulonimbus clouds,
surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is further
strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates.

The states most exposed to cyclone-related hazards are West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along
the Bay of Bengal. Along the Arabian Sea on the West Coast, the Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts are more
vulnerable compared to the southern part. The frequency of tropical cyclones is the greatest in the Bay of Bengal
and Arabian Sea as compared to other cyclone-prone areas in the world.

Cyclone warning and forecasting system in India

Cyclone warning and forecasting system in India consists of six-cyclone warning centers located at Kolkata,
Bhubaneswar, Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Mumbai and Ahmedabad. These centers have their distinct area wise
responsibilities covering both the east and west coasts of India and the oceanic areas of the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea, including Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

After, the proper analysis of data, the information related to cyclone, area affected and intensity are dissipated in All
India Radio (AIR), Doordarshan and other news channels in different languages to increase awareness among the
masses. Cyclone warnings are also given to control room and Crisis Management Group who are finally responsible
for taking actions to mitigate the natural hazard. Forecasts and warnings are simultaneously communicated to the
States and the Districts, Ports, airports and other user agencies so that fishing activities or other port related activities
can be stopped in time and people can be transferred to a safer place in time.

Cyclones are tracked with the help of INSAT, powerful cyclone detection radars and conventional meteorological
observations including weather reports from ships. At present cyclone detection radars are installed at (i) Kolkata,
(ii) Paradeep, (iii) Visakhapatnam, (iv) Machilipatnam, (v) Chennai, (vi) Karaikal on the east coast; and (vii) Goa,
(viii) Cochin, (ix) Mumbai and (x) Bhuj along the west coast. Present cyclone surveillance system in India is such
that no cyclone in the region will go undetected at any time of its life cycle.

The important components of cyclone warnings are the forecast of future path and intensity of an eye tone and the
associated hazardous weather. For the preparation of future position (path) of tropical cyclones and for estimation of
storm surges, modern, and computer based techniques are used in addition to conventional methods. Intensity
forecasts are made by using satellite techniques.

Earth Rotation and Revolution

Oct 17, 2013
Earth is a small blue planet. Earth is just the right distance from the Sun for its temperature to let water exist as a
liquid, a solid, and a gas. The presence of water as a liquid on Earths surface throughout its long history also
enabled life to evolve. Another characteristic of Earth is that it is dynamic. Its interior and surface continually
change as a result of its internal heat.

The axis of the Earth is tilted at an angle of 23 degrees from the vertical. That is, the earths axis forms an angle of
23 degree with the perpendicular to the plane of the earths orbit. This means that the earths axis makes an angle
of 66 o with the orbital plane. Therefore, the earth is always inclined towards one side while revolving around the
sun. The tilting of the Earths axis is also called the inclination of earths axis. The spherical shape of the earth
results in only half of the Earth facing the sun getting the sunlight while, the other half is in darkness.

The earth moves in space in two distinct ways:

(i) Rotation

The taking approximately earth rotates on its axis 24 hours to complete one rotation. This has important
environmental consequences.

Rotation creates a diurnal cycle of light and darkness, temperature, and humidity changes.
Rotation requires the creation of standardized time zones. There are 24, one for each hour of the earth's
rotation.
Rotation causes the tides the twice daily rise and fall of sea level. Tides are complicated because they are
the result of both the gravity of the moon and the gravity of the sun. Sometimes the sun and the moon are
lined up with the earth, but most of the time they are not. Tides are highest when the earth, sun and moon
are in a straight line.
The Coriolis Force. Rotation causes a deflection of ocean and air currents. The earth rotates much faster
than the winds or currents move. This causes a large deflection in the direction that winds move and
ultimately results in rotation around low pressure cells and high pressure cells. It also causes large rotating
pools of water in the oceans called gyres. The Coriolis force only operates on large features.
At the Equator the eastward velocity is 1700 Km/hr; at the poles it is 0
A difference of 1 hour between two meridians which are 15 0apart.

(ii) Revolution:

The Earth revolves around the Sun once every 365.242199 mean solar days. The Earth orbits the Sun at a speed of
108,000 km/h. Earths perihelion(147,098,074 km) occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4
(152,097,701 km) .

The position of the earth changes around the sun as follows:

On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of
Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun
are slanting. The North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience
continuous daylight for about six months. Since a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the
sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on
21st June. At this time winter season occurs in the Southern Hemisphere.

On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the South Pole tilts towards it. As the
suns rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23 S), a larger portion of the Southern Hemisphere gets light.
Therefore, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights.

On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of the poles is
tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.