An Overview on Short and Long-Term Response Energy Storage Devices for

Power Systems Applications

Srgio Faias1, Patrcia Santos1, Jorge Sousa1, Rui Castro2

1
Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, DEEA/ISEL
Rua Conselheiro Emdio Navarro, 1, 1950-062 Lisboa, Portugal
Phone: +351 218317000, e-mail: sfaias@deea.isel.ipl.pt, psantos@deea.isel.ipl.pt, jsousa@deea.isel.ipl.pt
2
Instituto Superior Tcnico / Technical University of Lisbon, IST/TUL
Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
e-mail: rcastro@ist.utl.pt

Abstract. Energy storage devices provide valuable benefits development, which enables a new range of storage
to improve stability, power quality and reliability of supply. applications. For example, the issues related to the
Storage technologies have developed significantly in order to increasing integration of renewable sources in power
meet the challenges of practical power systems applications. systems have been one of the main drivers of this
development.
Energy storage devices can be classified into short and long-
term response, depending on their application. Technologies
Energy storage devices can be classified into two
with high power density and with the ability to respond to the
requests in short time fractions like flywheels, capacitors or
different categories, depending on their application:
superconducting magnetic coils belong to the so-called short- short-term response energy storage devices and long-term
term response energy storage devices category. Energy storage response energy storage devices.
devices with the capability to absorb and supply electrical
energy for long periods of time like pumping hydro, batteries, Long-term response energy storage devices for power
compressed air and hydrogen fuel cells are considered in the systems applications can usually absorb and supply
long-term response category. electrical energy during minutes or hours and can
specially contribute on the energy management,
This paper concentrates on the latest short and long-term energy
frequency regulation and grid congestion management
storage technology developments, performance analysis, and
cost considerations.
[3], [4].

Short-term response energy storage devices are usually

Keywords
applied to improve power quality, particularly to
maintain the voltage stability in power systems,
Energy storage, power systems balancing, energy
throughout a contribution during transients (few seconds
management, renewable sources integration, voltage
or minutes) [4].
stability

1. Introduction 2. Objectives and Methodology

This paper intends to present a survey on energy storage
Power systems are experiencing significant changes in
devices for power systems, focusing the distinction
operational requirements that result from the sector
between short and long-term response technologies.
restructure and evolution. Largely interconnected
network, distributed and renewable generation lead to
An operation description of the available energy storage
more complex and less secure power system operation.
technologies will be presented followed by some
application cases.
Energy storage appears to be beneficial to utilities since it
can decouple the instantaneous balancing between the
The main contribution of this paper comes from the
demand and the supply. Therefore it allows the increased
technology comparison with special attention given to
asset utilization, facilitates the penetration of renewable
characteristics like power and energy range, efficiency,
sources and improves the flexibility, reliability and
life-time and costs.
efficiency of the grid [1].

However, the use of energy storage devices has not 3. Long-Term Response Energy Storage
expanded significantly because of the state of Devices
technological developments and the price of energy
storage devices which are still costly [2]. The so-called long-term response energy storage devices
have the capability to supply or absorb electrical energy
Nonetheless, there are several high performance storage during hours. Their power systems application is usually
technologies available today, or at an advanced state of

442 RE&PQJ, Vol. 1, No.6, March 2008

related with energy management, frequency regulation or
grid congestion management [3], [4].

The use of long-term energy storage devices is expected

to rise in the next years because the generation
availability fluctuations associated to the increasing
integration of renewable sources in power systems [1].

Sort of different long-term response energy storage Fig. 2: Working scheme of battery device
technologies are already available today. A brief
description of these main devices is presented below. Batteries are the most popular energy storage devices.
However, the term battery comprises a sort of several
A. Pumping hydro technologies applying different operation principals and
materials.
In pumping hydro storage, a body of water at a relatively
high elevation represents a potential or stored energy. Along this paper the distinction between two important
During peak hours the water in the upper reservoir is lead battery concepts, electrochemical and redox flow, is
through a pipe downhill into a hydroelectric generator emphasized.
and stored in the lower reservoir. Along off-peak periods
the water is pumped back up to recharge the upper 1) Electrochemical
reservoir and the power plant acts like a load in power
system [5], [6]. Electrochemical batteries use electrodes both as part of
the electron transfer process and store the products or
The pumping hydro system set-up is presented in Fig. 1. reactants via electrode solid-state reactions [3].

There are a number of battery technologies under

consideration for energy storage, where the main are:
Lead acid
Nickel cadmium
Sodium sulphur
Lithium ion
Sodium nickel chloride

2) Redox Flow
Fig. 1: Pumping hydro system set-up
Redox flow batteries are storage devices that convert
Pumping hydro energy storage system consists in two
electrical energy into chemical potential energy by
large water reservoirs, electric machine (motor/generator)
charging two liquid electrolyte solutions and
and reversible pump-turbine group or pump and turbine
subsequently releasing the stored energy on discharge
separated. This system can be started-up in few minutes
[8].
and its autonomy depends on the volume of stored water.
The name redox flow battery is based on the redox
Restrictions to pumping hydro energy storage are related
reaction between the two electrolytes in the system.
with geographical constraints and weather conditions. In
These reactions include all chemical processes in which
periods of much rain, pumping hydro capacity can be
atoms have their oxidation number changed. In a redox
reduced.
flow cell the two electrolytes are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane. This membrane permits ion flow,
In Portugal, at 2006, the pumping-hydro installed
but prevents mixing of the liquids. Electrical contact is
capacity was 615 MW. This capacity had been used,
made through inert conductors in the liquids. As the ions
during the last years, to store at the imported off-peak
flow across the membrane, an electrical current is
power from Spain.
induced in the conductors. [9]
B. Batteries
Over the past few years three types of flow batteries were
developed up to the stage of commercialization and
Batteries store energy in electrochemical form creating
demonstration. These types are vanadium cells
electrically charged ions. When the battery charges, a
(Vanadium Redox Batteries, VRB), Polysulphide
direct current is converted in chemical energy, when
Bromide Batteries (PSB) and zinc bromine (ZnBr). Each
discharges, the chemical energy is converted back into a
type has its own specifications and is developed for a
flow of electrons in direct current form [7]. The
specific application. [9]
connection of the system to the grid, as presented in Fig.
2, implies the use of power electronic converters in order
This technology is suitable for energy storage application
to rectify the alternate current and to invert the direct
in the 5-500 MW range, operating in time fractions from
current.
1 second to 12 hours. [3]

443 RE&PQJ, Vol. 1, No.6, March 2008

The first system based on Polysulphide Bromide Battery up to two caves of salt-yolk with 500,000 m3 and
started to be built in Little Barford in the United 1,100,000 m3, store the air at a maximum pressure of 100
Kingdom, with a combined-cycle power plant with the atm. [11]
aim of load leveling. It was envisaged that came into
operation in 2003, though some delays have led this unit D. Hydrogen fuel cell
does not come into operation and in 2004 the Regenesys
stopped development of fuel cell type PSB. It was A fuel cell is an energy conversion device that is closely
planned to this central a capacity of 120 MWh, with a related to a battery. Both are electrochemical devices for
peak power of 15 MW and more than 15 years of useful the conversion of chemical to electrical energy. In a
life, as well as efficiency between 60 and 65% with battery the chemical energy is stored internally, whereas
response time of less than 100 ms. in a fuel cell the chemical energy (fuel and oxidant) is
supplied externally and can be continuously replenished.
C. Compressed air [12]

In compressed air energy storage, off-peak hours power The overall reaction in a fuel cell is the spontaneous
is taken from the grid and used to pump and compress air reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity in
into a sealed underground cavern to a high pressure. The water. During the operation of a fuel cell, hydrogen is
pressurized air is then kept underground for peak periods ionized into protons and electrons at the anode, the
use. When needed, this high pressure air can drive hydrogen ions are transported through the electrolyte to
turbines as the air in the cavern is released and slowly the cathode by an external circuit (load). At the cathode,
heated. oxygen combines with the hydrogen ions and electrons to
produce water.
More often, the compressed air is mixed with natural gas
and burnt together, in a conventional gas turbine. This The hydrogen fuel cell system can be reversible, allowing
method is actually more efficient as the compressed air electric power consumption for the production of
will lose less energy. hydrogen and that hydrogen can be stored for later use in
the fuel cell. [2], [13]
The set-up of a compressed air system is presented in
Fig. 3. The working scheme of a hydrogen fuel cell system is
presented in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3: Example of a compressed air system set-up

There are components required by a basic CAES Fig. 4: Hydrogen fuel cell system working scheme
installation, such as the motor/generator which employs
clutches to provide alternate engagement to the Today, several fuel cell types are available, and can be
compressor or turbine trains; the air compressor which characterized by the electrolyte used as well as its
may require two or more stages, intercoolers and operational temperature. Hydrogen is the fuel required
aftercoolers to achieve economy of compression, and for all low and medium temperature fuel cells, i.e., the
reduce the moisture content; the recuperator, turbine alkaline fuel cell (AFC), the proton exchange membrane
train, high and low pressure turbines and auxiliary fuel cell (PEMFC) and the phosphoric acid fuel cell
equipment consisting of fuel storage and handling. [10] (PAFC). High-temperature fuel cells, the molten
carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and the solid oxide fuel cell
Three air reservoir types are generally considered: (SOFC), will run on hydrogen, carbon monoxide and
naturally occurring aquifers (such as those used for some hydrocarbons. [14]
natural gas storage), solution-mined salt caverns, and
mechanically formed reservoirs in rock formations. Hydrogen volatility and its atoms reduced dimension put
Mainly implementation constraints are related with the hydrogen storage reservoir as the critical element in
reservoirs achievement [2]. this device. Last research place Metallic Hydrates as one
of most efficient [13], [15].
The world's first CAES plant, the Huntorf plant, located
in North Germany, was commissioned in 1978. This At moment, hydrogen fuel cell systems become one of
system has a total capacity of 290 MW, with storage the most referred storage technologies to set up
capacity of approximately 600 MWh. The compressed air renewable energy integration issue. Price and overall
is used to actuate the turbines used for a nuclear power efficiency are its main constraints.
plant that is next. To be able to use this storage capacity

444 RE&PQJ, Vol. 1, No.6, March 2008

4. Short-Term Response Energy Storage installed a 350 kW / 5 kWh flywheel device at Flores
Devices Island, where the generation consists in 2 wind turbines
(15% of installed capacity), 4 diesel generators and 4
Short-term response energy storage devices should be hydro-generators, totalizing 4.2 MW. Results obtained, in
used to aid power systems during the transient period terms of network stability, encouraged the
after a system disturbance, such as line switching, load implementation of a similar system at Graciosa Island.
changes and fault clearance. Their application prevents [16]
collapse of power systems due to loss of synchronism or
voltage instability, improving its reliability and quality. B. Supercapacitors

Short-term response energy storage devices use is getting Supercapacitors are the latest innovational devices in the
common in power systems with important renewable field of electrical energy storage. In comparison with a
energy penetration like wind and weak interconnections battery or a traditional capacitor, the supercapacitor
or in islands, avoiding temporary faults and contributing allows a much powerful power and energy density [18].
to the provision of important system services such as
momentary reserves and short-circuit capacity. [16] Supercapacitors are electrochemical double layer
capacitors that store energy as electric charge between
The main short-term energy storage devices and their two plates, metal or conductive, separated by a dielectric,
operation are presented below. when a voltage differential is applied across the plates.
As like battery systems, capacitors work in direct current.
A. Flywheels This fact imposes the use of electronic power systems, as
presented in Fig.6. [19]
Flywheels store kinetic energy in a rotating mass. Such
equipments have typically been used as short-term
energy storage devices for propulsion applications such
as powering train engines and road vehicles, and in
centrifuges. In these applications, the flywheel smoothes
the power load during deceleration by dynamic braking
action and then provides a boost during acceleration [5].
Fig. 5 presents the operating scheme of the flywheel
system.
Fig. 6: Working scheme of capacitor device

Supercapacitors find their place in many applications

where energy storage is needed, like uninterruptible
power supplies, or can help in smoothing strong and
short-time power solicitations of weak power networks.
Their main advantages are the long cycle life and the
short charge/discharge time. [2], [19]

C. Magnetic Superconducting
Fig. 5: Flywheel device operating scheme
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
The energy storage module is a kinetic-energy-based systems convert the ac current from a power system into
storage device that contains a flywheel rotor assembly the dc current flowing in the superconducting coil and
and a motor / generator. This module consists of a multi- store the energy in the form of magnetic field. The stored
component design consisting in a flywheel, shaft and energy can be released to the ac system when necessary.
bearing systems, an electric machine, a sealed, self-
contained and maintenance free vacuum system, to The SMES device set-up is presented in Fig. 7.
maintain low pressure for the service life of the unit, as
well as a steel, fully-welded, pressure vessel designed to
maintain low pressure. It is the structural support for the
flywheel rotor assembly and bearing system. No rubber
or metal seals are used at assembly interfaces to avoid
gas permeation, and to reduce cost. [17]

At moment, in Portugal, there are two systems based on

flywheels, implemented in Flores and Graciosa Islands,
Fig. 7: Set-up of a SMES device
Azores. Over the past two years, EDA (Azores Electricity
Company) worked with PowerCorp to maximize the
The conductor for carrying the dc current operates at
wind penetration into the power system of these two
cryogenic temperatures where it is a superconductor and
islands. Thus, in March 2005, EDA and PowerCorp
thus has virtually no resistive losses as it produces the

445 RE&PQJ, Vol. 1, No.6, March 2008

magnetic field. Consequently, the energy can be stored in Usually, high price and short life-cycle did not allowed a
a persistent mode, until required. The most important massive use of batteries in power systems, however
advantage of SMES is that the time delay during charge redox flow batteries introduced a new dynamic in these
and discharge is quite short. Power is available almost storage solutions and present an important development
instantaneously and very high power output can be potential, specially for the grid integration of variable
provided for a brief period of time. [20], [21] renewable energies like wind.

The performances of SMES offer very desirable benefits Short-term response energy storage devices
to power system applications. The first SMES power characterization is presented in table II.
system application was proposed in 1969, with the
objective of charging the superconducting magnet with TABLE II - Short-term response energy storage devices
the surplus generation of the basic load units during off- characterization [1], [2], [16], [20], [24]
peak time, and discharge to the ac power system during
peak time. In 1981, the first superconducting power-grid Technology
application was achieved. A SMES device for power Characteristics
Super
quality and grid stability was located on the 500 kV Flywheels SMES
capacitors
Pacific Intertie that interconnects California and the Power (MW) < 10 < 10 < 100
Northwest, USA. This application demonstrated the Energy (MWh) <5 <3 < 1000
viability of SMES to improve transmission capacity by Charg-disch. effic 90 % 90 % 95 %
damping inter-area modal oscillations. Since that time Life-time (cycles) 106 106 106
many studies and prototypes have been developed. [22], Price (/kW) 140-350 70-400 200-500
[23]
Flywheels and capacitors, although last developments in
5. Energy Storage Devices Comparison their manufacture materials, are well known technologies
in opposite to superconducting magnetic devices.
Long and short-term response energy storage devices are
used with different purposes, as well their characteristics Supercapacitors are the most compact short-term energy
comparison will be presented separately. storage devices, use the simplest operation apparatus and
are virtually maintenance free.
A summary of the main long-term response energy
storage devices characteristics is presented in table I. Flywheels present a higher range, in terms of energy
storage capacity. They are also cheaper than
TABLE I - Long-term response energy storage devices supercapacitors for high energy capacity. Because mobile
characterization [1], [2], [7], [15] mechanical component and to avoid human and material
hazardous, flywheels operation requires some special
Technology maintenance and safety concerns.
Characteristics
Pumping Compres. Hyd. fuel
Batteries
hydro air cells 6. Conclusions and Perspectives
Power (MW) 100 - 3000 < 100 100 - 3000 < 50
Energy (MWh) < 10000 < 500 50 - 5000 --- Energy storage devices provide valuable benefits to
Charg-disch. effic 80 % 50 - 90 % 75 % 20 - 36 % improve stability, power quality, and reliability of supply
Life-time (cycles) 40 years 103-104 30 years 104 hours in power systems.
Price (/kWh) 35-70 70-4000 10-70 ---
In this regard, this paper presents an overview on energy
Pumping-hydro and compressed air systems are the best storage devices for power systems applications in the
suited for centered large-scale storage, as result of their framework of a broader project that intends to project an
high power and energy capacity and the geographical energy storage system for facilities based on non-
implementation limitations. dispatchable renewable energies.

Batteries and hydrogen fuel cell systems, on the other From the analysis performed, it is concluded that long-
hand, are more modular and do not present so many term energy storage devices like pumping-hydro and
physical restrictions to their implementation, being ideal compressed air systems are the best suited for centered
for distributed storage. large-scale storage, on the other hand, batteries and
hydrogen fuel cell systems space requirements and
Charge-discharge efficiency is one of most important modularity place them as ideal solution for distributed
issues for storage devices used in energy management. energy storage.
Hydrogen fuel cell system presents the lowest global
efficiency, which results from its elements efficiency, Moreover, short-term response energy storage devices
since the hydrogen production till its use in the fuel cell. like supercapacitors are found to be well suited for use in
However, like this is an emergent technology, future power systems during transient periods that result from a
efficiency improvements are expected. system disturbance such as a line switching. Flywheels,
with higher energy storage capacity look like the most

446 RE&PQJ, Vol. 1, No.6, March 2008

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